EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 1Jervaughn F. ReidHelm School BetseyCalderon89
EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 1
Jervaughn F. Reid
Helm School of Government, Liberty University
Evidence-Based Policing
Dr. Melvin Richards
May 19, 2021
Author Note
Jervaughn F. Reid
I do not have any conflict of interest to disclose.
Any communication about this article should be articulated to
Jervaughn F. Reid
Email: [email protected]
EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 2
Abstract
There have been proposals to incorporate scientific evidence into police work. This paper will look
at evidence-based security, crime prevention, and problem-oriented policing in prosperous
countries. It is believed that some aspects have hindered the advancement of such a plan. Police
officers are not aware of evidence of crime-control techniques and tend not to use traditional or law
enforcement reactions. There is a limited knowledge base on which practitioners can develop
responses to crime problems, and researchers differ about what is helpful. While attempts to
incorporate research into the police system are welcome, caution will be taken against over-trust in
what can be achieved and provide advice to all who work to strengthen the evidence-based
process.
Keywords: Evidence-Based Policing, Criminal Justice and Problematic Police Forces.
EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 3
Evidence-Based Policing
The use of data to support and guide policymaking has been among the recommended
approaches for the effective attainment of evidence-based policing (Greig-Midlane, 2019;
Farrington et al., 2019). Therefore, there should be a practical approach and techniques of
collecting and interpreting data/evidence at the disposal of the policymakers. Evidence is used to
decide if an offense has been perpetrated, suggest who may have committed it, and attempt to find
a point beyond reasonable suspicion in a court of law (Tewksbury, 2009). Mazzei & Roy (2017)
assert that policing will be more effective and provide long-lasting solutions with evidence.
Traditional practices that lack adequate systematic confirmation are subject to suspicion, according
to evidence-based policing. Evidence-based policing service starts with empirical assessments of
both proven and new methods and procedures. Several police innovations have emerged to include
evidence-based policy, such as the National Intelligence Model (NIM). This paper, however,
focuses on problematic police forces (POP). This is because POP has a more extended history than
NIM. Equally, more research has been carried out on problematic police forces than National
Intelligence Models partly because problematic police forces have a higher foreign profile than
National Intelligence Model in which the National Intelligence Model will eventually overlook.
Lastly, POPs are more committed to public treatment than National Intelligence Models. The
problem-oriented approach to policing and teamwork ostensibly includes identifying, executing,
and creating information to resolve real-world neighbor ...
10.11770002716203262548 ARTICLETHE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACASantosConleyha
The authors review research on the effectiveness of different police practices in reducing crime, disorder, and fear. They develop a typology that categorizes practices based on their diversity of approaches and level of focus. The standard model of policing scores low on both dimensions as it relies primarily on reactive law enforcement applied uniformly. Innovations like community policing, hot-spots policing, and problem-oriented policing expand the toolbox and focus of practices. The authors find little evidence that the standard model is effective, but the strongest evidence of reducing crime and disorder comes from focused practices like hot-spots policing. Problem-oriented policing also shows promise in reducing crime, disorder, and fear when tailored to specific problems.
10.11770002716203262548 ARTICLETHE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACABenitoSumpter862
The authors review research on the effectiveness of different police practices in reducing crime, disorder, and fear. They develop a typology that categorizes practices based on their diversity of approaches and level of focus. The standard model of policing scores low on both dimensions as it relies primarily on reactive law enforcement applied uniformly. Innovations like community policing, hot-spots policing, and problem-oriented policing expand the toolbox and focus of practices. The authors find little evidence that the standard model is effective, but emerging evidence does support more focused and tailored approaches that combine enforcement with other strategies. The strongest evidence of reducing crime and disorder comes from geographically focused practices like hot-spots policing.
2.1 The Commencement of Criminal Justice ResearchThe first.docxvickeryr87
2.1 The Commencement of Criminal Justice Research
The first efforts to produce and fund wide-scale research on criminal justice came in 1968
with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act (OCCSSA). This act
established the Law Enforcement Assistance Agency (LEAA), and within it the National
Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (NILECJ). LEAA, the lead agency,
provided grants to law enforcement agencies to improve public safety (most often to
purchase new equipment and personnel) while NILECJ was the research center of the LEAA.
As the criminal justice research arm of the federal government, the NILECJ (since renamed
the National Institute of Justice [NIJ]) was created to “advance scientific research,
development, and evaluation to enhance the administration of justice and public safety”
(Wellford, Chemers, & Schuck, 2010, p.14). It accomplishes this mandate by awarding
federal grants and contracts to universities, public agencies, and private institutions engaged
in research and demonstration projects that expand our knowledge of “what works” in
preventing and controlling crime, and by disseminating those findings to researchers and
practitioners. It may be surprising to learn that prior to the establishment of the NILECJ in
1968, there was no national agency encouraging, conducting, or disseminating criminal
justice research. Research was conducted by a few small, independent agencies (such as
California Institute for the Study of Crime and Delinquency, National Council on Crime and
Delinquency, and the Vera Institute), but there was no unified research agenda nor concerted
effort to organize or circulate the findings (Wellford et al., 2010).
This changed when Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of
1968 to provide federal monies to research criminal justice issues and to “provide more
accurate information on the causes of crime and the effectiveness of various means of
preventing crime” (Wellsford et al., 2010, p. 27). As a result of this funding, we expanded
our knowledge about crime control strategies and learned a great deal about policing
practices, and a few things about prison alternatives, drug treatment programs, and other
programs thought to prevent crime. Some of the well-known studies that you may be familiar
with that were funded as a result of this act include: the Kansas City Preventative Patrol
Experiment, the Newark and Flint Foot Patrol Experiments, as well as many other studies on
police response time, neighborhood watch programs, team policing strategies, crime
prevention through environmental design, fingerprinting, investigations, habitual criminals,
and plea bargaining (LEAA, 1978).
Only a few of the funded studies were methodologically rigorous by today’s standards. Still,
this was the first time that federal grant money was made available on a wide-scale for
criminal justice research, and the legislation was vitally important for the avenues of inquiry
it.
Running head LESS THAN LETHAL FORCE IS THERE A BETTER WAY .docxwlynn1
Running head: LESS THAN LETHAL FORCE: IS THERE A BETTER WAY? 1
LESS THAN LETHAL FORCE USED BY POLICE 7
Less than Lethal Force: Is There a Better Way?
Alex Sierra
AMU
June 2nd, 2019
Abstract
Today, debates continue to ensue regarding the adoption of less lethal policies across all police departments in the U.S. Some of the less harmful devices suggested include pepper sprays, chemical sprays, impact projectiles, and electroshock weapons. Even so, several tools are still in the pipeline, and their development would stretch the array of less lethal weapons that police and other law enforcement agencies could use to address numerous situations. Lack of knowledge in the general public regarding the effectiveness of using less lethal modalities is the foundational motivation for this study. Experimental research design with interviews as the primary data collection tool will facilitate the completion of the research.
Keywords: Less lethal devices, lethal devices, law enforcement
Less than Lethal Force Used by Police
Introduction
Police officers handle challenging situations that demand the use of different types of weapons. Regardless of the nature of the situation, police officers have the responsibility to ensure that the issue at hand does not compromise the safety of the law offenders and the general public. Police need to use the most appropriate device depending on the behavior of the law offenders. Most importantly, the concerned officer must use the method that matches the action of the offender. The law only allows the officers to use lethal weapons when law offenders have the potential to endanger their life. In recent years, the high rates of deaths caused by police officers have evoked debates aimed at exploring the possibility of using less lethal weapons.
The fact that these devices are less lethal in comparison to firearms does not imply that they cannot cause physical and emotional harm. Therefore, their use must adhere to all precautionary regulations. The debates over the use of less lethal weapons in various law enforcement agencies and police departments continue to emanate. Most people lack knowledge on the effectiveness of using less lethal weapons as compared to using lethal weapons in maintaining law and order. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a study aimed at comparing the impact of using less lethal weapons and lethal weapons in ensuring adherence to the law. The findings established from the research could be instrumental in persuading police departments that are yet to adopt less lethal force policies to do so. In this light, the study will involve collecting data about the police activities in departments that have already adopted less lethal policies, including Boston, New York, Seattle, and Loss Angeles police departments. The findings will add to a large body of knowledge exploring the effectiveness of weapons by police officers along with fostering unification of policie.
168 Public Administration Review • March April 2017PubliAnastaciaShadelb
This document summarizes research on investigatory police stops and how they contribute to racial disparities and a crisis of legitimacy in American policing. It finds that investigatory stops, where officers stop people to check for criminal activity without evidence of a violation, are a major source of racial disparities. Data shows that African Americans are disproportionately subject to these stops and the intrusive questioning and searches that often accompany them. While meant to fight crime, these widespread investigatory stops undermine trust in the police, especially among African Americans. The authors argue policy and practice reforms are needed, like requiring documentation of all stops, to address this institutional problem beyond a focus on individual officer behavior alone.
168 public administration review • march april 2017 publiUMAR48665
This document discusses racial disparities in policing, specifically investigatory police stops. It argues that racial disparities stem not just from individual racist officers, but from institutional policies and practices, such as widespread use of investigatory stops. Investigatory stops are used to check out suspicious people or vehicles to see if they are engaged in criminal activity, but most people stopped are innocent. These stops undermine trust in police, especially among African Americans who are disproportionately subjected to them. Reforming this practice is key to restoring trust in law enforcement.
EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 1Jervaughn F. ReidHelm School BetseyCalderon89
EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 1
Jervaughn F. Reid
Helm School of Government, Liberty University
Evidence-Based Policing
Dr. Melvin Richards
May 19, 2021
Author Note
Jervaughn F. Reid
I do not have any conflict of interest to disclose.
Any communication about this article should be articulated to
Jervaughn F. Reid
Email: [email protected]
EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 2
Abstract
There have been proposals to incorporate scientific evidence into police work. This paper will look
at evidence-based security, crime prevention, and problem-oriented policing in prosperous
countries. It is believed that some aspects have hindered the advancement of such a plan. Police
officers are not aware of evidence of crime-control techniques and tend not to use traditional or law
enforcement reactions. There is a limited knowledge base on which practitioners can develop
responses to crime problems, and researchers differ about what is helpful. While attempts to
incorporate research into the police system are welcome, caution will be taken against over-trust in
what can be achieved and provide advice to all who work to strengthen the evidence-based
process.
Keywords: Evidence-Based Policing, Criminal Justice and Problematic Police Forces.
EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING 3
Evidence-Based Policing
The use of data to support and guide policymaking has been among the recommended
approaches for the effective attainment of evidence-based policing (Greig-Midlane, 2019;
Farrington et al., 2019). Therefore, there should be a practical approach and techniques of
collecting and interpreting data/evidence at the disposal of the policymakers. Evidence is used to
decide if an offense has been perpetrated, suggest who may have committed it, and attempt to find
a point beyond reasonable suspicion in a court of law (Tewksbury, 2009). Mazzei & Roy (2017)
assert that policing will be more effective and provide long-lasting solutions with evidence.
Traditional practices that lack adequate systematic confirmation are subject to suspicion, according
to evidence-based policing. Evidence-based policing service starts with empirical assessments of
both proven and new methods and procedures. Several police innovations have emerged to include
evidence-based policy, such as the National Intelligence Model (NIM). This paper, however,
focuses on problematic police forces (POP). This is because POP has a more extended history than
NIM. Equally, more research has been carried out on problematic police forces than National
Intelligence Models partly because problematic police forces have a higher foreign profile than
National Intelligence Model in which the National Intelligence Model will eventually overlook.
Lastly, POPs are more committed to public treatment than National Intelligence Models. The
problem-oriented approach to policing and teamwork ostensibly includes identifying, executing,
and creating information to resolve real-world neighbor ...
10.11770002716203262548 ARTICLETHE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACASantosConleyha
The authors review research on the effectiveness of different police practices in reducing crime, disorder, and fear. They develop a typology that categorizes practices based on their diversity of approaches and level of focus. The standard model of policing scores low on both dimensions as it relies primarily on reactive law enforcement applied uniformly. Innovations like community policing, hot-spots policing, and problem-oriented policing expand the toolbox and focus of practices. The authors find little evidence that the standard model is effective, but the strongest evidence of reducing crime and disorder comes from focused practices like hot-spots policing. Problem-oriented policing also shows promise in reducing crime, disorder, and fear when tailored to specific problems.
10.11770002716203262548 ARTICLETHE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACABenitoSumpter862
The authors review research on the effectiveness of different police practices in reducing crime, disorder, and fear. They develop a typology that categorizes practices based on their diversity of approaches and level of focus. The standard model of policing scores low on both dimensions as it relies primarily on reactive law enforcement applied uniformly. Innovations like community policing, hot-spots policing, and problem-oriented policing expand the toolbox and focus of practices. The authors find little evidence that the standard model is effective, but emerging evidence does support more focused and tailored approaches that combine enforcement with other strategies. The strongest evidence of reducing crime and disorder comes from geographically focused practices like hot-spots policing.
2.1 The Commencement of Criminal Justice ResearchThe first.docxvickeryr87
2.1 The Commencement of Criminal Justice Research
The first efforts to produce and fund wide-scale research on criminal justice came in 1968
with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act (OCCSSA). This act
established the Law Enforcement Assistance Agency (LEAA), and within it the National
Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (NILECJ). LEAA, the lead agency,
provided grants to law enforcement agencies to improve public safety (most often to
purchase new equipment and personnel) while NILECJ was the research center of the LEAA.
As the criminal justice research arm of the federal government, the NILECJ (since renamed
the National Institute of Justice [NIJ]) was created to “advance scientific research,
development, and evaluation to enhance the administration of justice and public safety”
(Wellford, Chemers, & Schuck, 2010, p.14). It accomplishes this mandate by awarding
federal grants and contracts to universities, public agencies, and private institutions engaged
in research and demonstration projects that expand our knowledge of “what works” in
preventing and controlling crime, and by disseminating those findings to researchers and
practitioners. It may be surprising to learn that prior to the establishment of the NILECJ in
1968, there was no national agency encouraging, conducting, or disseminating criminal
justice research. Research was conducted by a few small, independent agencies (such as
California Institute for the Study of Crime and Delinquency, National Council on Crime and
Delinquency, and the Vera Institute), but there was no unified research agenda nor concerted
effort to organize or circulate the findings (Wellford et al., 2010).
This changed when Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of
1968 to provide federal monies to research criminal justice issues and to “provide more
accurate information on the causes of crime and the effectiveness of various means of
preventing crime” (Wellsford et al., 2010, p. 27). As a result of this funding, we expanded
our knowledge about crime control strategies and learned a great deal about policing
practices, and a few things about prison alternatives, drug treatment programs, and other
programs thought to prevent crime. Some of the well-known studies that you may be familiar
with that were funded as a result of this act include: the Kansas City Preventative Patrol
Experiment, the Newark and Flint Foot Patrol Experiments, as well as many other studies on
police response time, neighborhood watch programs, team policing strategies, crime
prevention through environmental design, fingerprinting, investigations, habitual criminals,
and plea bargaining (LEAA, 1978).
Only a few of the funded studies were methodologically rigorous by today’s standards. Still,
this was the first time that federal grant money was made available on a wide-scale for
criminal justice research, and the legislation was vitally important for the avenues of inquiry
it.
Running head LESS THAN LETHAL FORCE IS THERE A BETTER WAY .docxwlynn1
Running head: LESS THAN LETHAL FORCE: IS THERE A BETTER WAY? 1
LESS THAN LETHAL FORCE USED BY POLICE 7
Less than Lethal Force: Is There a Better Way?
Alex Sierra
AMU
June 2nd, 2019
Abstract
Today, debates continue to ensue regarding the adoption of less lethal policies across all police departments in the U.S. Some of the less harmful devices suggested include pepper sprays, chemical sprays, impact projectiles, and electroshock weapons. Even so, several tools are still in the pipeline, and their development would stretch the array of less lethal weapons that police and other law enforcement agencies could use to address numerous situations. Lack of knowledge in the general public regarding the effectiveness of using less lethal modalities is the foundational motivation for this study. Experimental research design with interviews as the primary data collection tool will facilitate the completion of the research.
Keywords: Less lethal devices, lethal devices, law enforcement
Less than Lethal Force Used by Police
Introduction
Police officers handle challenging situations that demand the use of different types of weapons. Regardless of the nature of the situation, police officers have the responsibility to ensure that the issue at hand does not compromise the safety of the law offenders and the general public. Police need to use the most appropriate device depending on the behavior of the law offenders. Most importantly, the concerned officer must use the method that matches the action of the offender. The law only allows the officers to use lethal weapons when law offenders have the potential to endanger their life. In recent years, the high rates of deaths caused by police officers have evoked debates aimed at exploring the possibility of using less lethal weapons.
The fact that these devices are less lethal in comparison to firearms does not imply that they cannot cause physical and emotional harm. Therefore, their use must adhere to all precautionary regulations. The debates over the use of less lethal weapons in various law enforcement agencies and police departments continue to emanate. Most people lack knowledge on the effectiveness of using less lethal weapons as compared to using lethal weapons in maintaining law and order. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a study aimed at comparing the impact of using less lethal weapons and lethal weapons in ensuring adherence to the law. The findings established from the research could be instrumental in persuading police departments that are yet to adopt less lethal force policies to do so. In this light, the study will involve collecting data about the police activities in departments that have already adopted less lethal policies, including Boston, New York, Seattle, and Loss Angeles police departments. The findings will add to a large body of knowledge exploring the effectiveness of weapons by police officers along with fostering unification of policie.
168 Public Administration Review • March April 2017PubliAnastaciaShadelb
This document summarizes research on investigatory police stops and how they contribute to racial disparities and a crisis of legitimacy in American policing. It finds that investigatory stops, where officers stop people to check for criminal activity without evidence of a violation, are a major source of racial disparities. Data shows that African Americans are disproportionately subject to these stops and the intrusive questioning and searches that often accompany them. While meant to fight crime, these widespread investigatory stops undermine trust in the police, especially among African Americans. The authors argue policy and practice reforms are needed, like requiring documentation of all stops, to address this institutional problem beyond a focus on individual officer behavior alone.
168 public administration review • march april 2017 publiUMAR48665
This document discusses racial disparities in policing, specifically investigatory police stops. It argues that racial disparities stem not just from individual racist officers, but from institutional policies and practices, such as widespread use of investigatory stops. Investigatory stops are used to check out suspicious people or vehicles to see if they are engaged in criminal activity, but most people stopped are innocent. These stops undermine trust in police, especially among African Americans who are disproportionately subjected to them. Reforming this practice is key to restoring trust in law enforcement.
Running Head ANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIESANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES 6.docxhealdkathaleen
Running Head: ANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
ANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES 6
Annotated Bibliographies
Shanee’ N. Ellington
Liberty University
Tewksbury, R., Dabney, D. A., & Copes, H. (2010). The Prominence of Qualitative Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice Scholarship. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 21(4), 391-411. doi:10.1080/10511253.2010.516557
This article forms the basis of the discussion by explaining the correlation between quantitative research and criminology whereby the relationship favor’s the criminology concept and process since it is inquisitive by nature. The main variables that are used to support the hypothesis are the number of dissertations presented with a different style of research applied to them. The qualitative research forms the largest contribution to the research process by collecting a variety of related information across the research topic. The two main modes of measurement being tested are the qualitative and quantitative methods which are usually the two major measurement scales used in research. The notion is supported by this mode of research because different disciplines normally apply different approaches to quantitative inquiry.
Gergen, K. J. (2014). Pursuing excellence in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Psychology, 1(1), 49-60. doi:10.1037/qup0000002.
The author of this article looks into the various orientations that influence the qualitative inquiries’ success rate by reviewing the history of the criteria that was mainly used in measuring the success rate of a certain qualitative inquiry approach. He then discusses how the traditional criteria have been widely used to evaluate the modern qualitative approaches which he looks at from different types of qualitative approach methods. From the analysis of the various contemporary orientations which lead to the development of various types of inquiries, he is able to consider five proposed mode of qualitative inquiries which include ethnography, narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory and also case study. This provision sets the basis for the discussion of the various types of inquiries which is then compared to the analysis of their effective use and impact within the criminal justice systems for example in the article below from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) which looks into the most common types of approaches to qualitative inquiries.
Kleck, G., Tark, J., & Bellows, J. J. (2006). What methods are most frequently used in research in criminology and criminal justice? Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(2), 147-152. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.01.007
The authors of this article attempted to look at the most commonly used approaches to a quantitative inquiry by establishing research into how frequent the modes used in qualitative methods of research in criminal justice-related journals are applied in research. Survey research, which forms one of the elements of phenomenological approaches to a quantitative ...
This document summarizes a paper about equity and the advancement of women in Australian police services, specifically Queensland and New South Wales police, following public inquiries and organizational restructuring. It finds that while equal employment opportunity legislation had some impact, the greater drivers of change were systematic efforts to reform police culture and practices through recommendations from public inquiries into misconduct. These inquiries emphasized accountability, diversity, and higher education for officers, improving women's prospects. However, resistance from rank-and-file male officers and police unions remained a hindrance to full equity and acceptance of women police.
\\jciprod01\productn\H\HLP\10-1\HLP101.txt unknown Seq: 1 9-FEB-16 10:16
The Uses and Abuses of Police Discretion:
Toward Harm Reduction Policing
Katherine Beckett*
INTRODUCTION
Although discretion is an unavoidable and ubiquitous feature of police
work, it is also the subject of significant controversy and debate. In this
essay, I first provide a brief overview of the history and evolution of police
discretion from the 1960s to today and explain how its exercise has been
impacted in recent decades by the war on drugs and the adoption of “broken
windows policing.” These policy initiatives encouraged a more muscular po-
lice response to low-level offending and had important consequences, in-
cluding the flooding of U.S. prisons and jails and the disproportionate
incarceration of people of color. Although many of those targeted in the
campaigns against drugs and disorder do not pose a significant threat to pub-
lic safety, many do contend with multiple challenges such as homelessness,
addiction, and mental illness, and, as a result, cycle repeatedly into and out
of jail. Incarceration, including short-term jail spells, often has deleterious
and destabilizing effects, which increase the likelihood that arrest and incar-
ceration will continue to occur with some regularity.
In the second half of this essay, I argue that since police discretion
cannot be eradicated, and the destructive nature of mass incarceration is in-
creasingly well-understood, municipalities would be well-advised to imple-
ment alternatives to the war on drugs and broken windows policing. Ideally,
these alternative approaches would encourage the police to respond to “dis-
orderly” behaviors that do not pose a significant public safety problem in
ways that reduce the harm that results from low-level crimes and from crimi-
nal justice involvement itself. To illustrate what such a policy framework
might look like, I describe Seattle’s Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion
(LEAD) Program, which relies on police discretion to channel people sus-
pected of minor forms of criminal wrongdoing out of the criminal justice
system and toward services with the aim of reducing human suffering at
both the individual and community levels. I conclude that programs like
LEAD that use harm reduction principles to guide the exercise of police
discretion enable municipalities to respond to low-level crimes in a way that
alleviates rather than exacerbates individual and community suffering asso-
ciated with those behaviors.
* Katherine Beckett is a Professor in the Law, Societies and Justice Program and Professor
and Clarence and Elissa M. (“Lee”) Schrag Endowed Faculty Fellow in the Department of
Sociology at the University of Washington.
\\jciprod01\productn\H\HLP\10-1\HLP101.txt unknown Seq: 2 9-FEB-16 10:16
78 Harvard Law & Policy Review [Vol. 10
I. POLICE DISCRETION: AN OVERVIEW
The inevitability of police discretion was “discovered” by social scien-
tists in the 1960s. Prior to th ...
Case-control studies compare subjects who have a condition (cases) to similar subjects who do not (controls) to identify factors that may contribute to a disease or risk factor. They are useful when experiments are impossible or unethical, and are a relatively inexpensive way to study rare diseases. Advantages include studying rare factors and providing quick, cheap results, but they are prone to bias and recall errors. A case-control study example identified smoking as linked to lung cancer by interviewing patients.
This document summarizes a research study that observed police officer behaviors during interactions with citizens to identify behaviors associated with successful conflict resolution. The study found that:
1) Female officers were observed to use more supportive behaviors like information exchange and expressions of concern for citizens, while male officers preferred controlling behaviors, threats, and physical acts.
2) Male officers tended to elicit more defensive and abusive statements from citizens compared to female officers.
3) Sequential analysis revealed that supportive officer behaviors were more likely to lead to positive interactions, while controlling and coercive behaviors increased the likelihood of resistance or escalation from citizens.
CJ 301CHAPTER 1NOTESIt is important for everyone to become f.docxmonicafrancis71118
CJ 301
CHAPTER 1
NOTES
It is important for everyone to become familiar with the language of research as we begin this statistics course, so follow along and try to absorb the information below. This module is intended to accompany Chapter 1 of the Adventures in Criminal Justice Research text (4th edition):
This textbook introduces you to the logic of theory, research, and practice in criminal justice and gives you some practical experience through the use of the SPSS for Windows computer program.
WHAT DO WE MEAN WHEN WE SAY STATISTICS?
The word statistics can have a variety of meanings.
1. It can refer to fragments of data or information.
2. To some it may mean the theories and procedures that are used for understanding data.
3. Statistics may also be defined as collections of facts expressed as numbers.
-For example, in 1990, 341,387 full-time law enforcement officers were working in the U.S.; this is a statistic. So is the fact that 7,830 bank robberies occurred in the same year (Crime in the U.S. 1990) and that four million offenders were under some form of correctional supervision (Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 1992). The list of statistical facts about the criminal justice system may be regarded as statistics. Your age, your shoe size, your height, your sex, your ethnicity are all statistics. Indeed, any fact that can be expressed as a number, whether it is important or not, is a statistic.
4. For this class, we are going to use the following working definition of the term statistics. Statistics is a set of problem-solving procedures that are used to analyze and interpret aggregate data.
WHAT ARE SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF STATISTICS?
Criminal justice practitioners deal with a wide variety of problems that statistics can help solve.
1. Statistics can be used to describe crime in a city, or the composition of a police department or the overcrowding problem in a county jail, or the case processing rate of a criminal court.
2. Other problems that arise in criminal justice go beyond simple description and into areas such as prediction and evaluation.
- For example, if a police department were to add 60 officers to its force, what would be the predicted impact on crime rates, staff morale, or gasoline consumption? How many new probation officer positions would be required in the next five years to keep up with the current growth in caseloads? If sentences to prison continue at their present rate, for how many new prison beds must the state plan? Is probation more effective than prison? Which community-based corrections programs work better than others? How successful is community-oriented policing or judicial training or the public defender’s office? Answering these types of question involves various statistical techniques that we will learn about during this semester.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF STATISTICS?
1. Descriptive Statistics – These are statistics whose function it is to describe what data looks l.
7
Research and Policy Development Paper
Research and Policy Development
This paper will be describe the importance of research as it relates to policy development within the field of criminal justice. Many different issues will be addressed pertaining to this subject. The purposes and types of policies within the field of criminal justice will be identified. The relationship between research and policy development will be described. Examples of how research can assist policy makers by informing their policy decisions will be provided as well. Two examples of policies that were developed within the past ten years that resulted from research within the field of criminal justice will be identified.
Research within Criminal Justice
Research methods are procedures for obtaining information on individual and/or aggregate phenomena for the purpose of creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon. Research is also used for testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population. Also research can be used for testing the effectiveness of an existing social policy or program. Much criminal justice research in the United States, as in other countries, is social science research. Creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon and testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population are critical to the dialectic of scholarly knowledge in criminology and criminal justice. Researchers take on many interests when it comes to criminal justice. Researchers such as the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) sponsor studies on police performance, prosecution, sentencing, and corrections; we study the nature of crime and criminal behavior; we examine such topics as juvenile offending, the drug-crime link, environmental crime, family violence, and gangs. Our science and technology unit develops techniques for criminal investigations and for other areas of law enforcement, such as the use of DNA evidence. (Travis 1995) The National Criminal Justice Association's (NCJA) policy statements address major interests and concerns of the organization's membership on contemporary crime and criminal justice issues, such as fear and violence in communities, prison overcrowding, juvenile justice and the prevention of juvenile crime and delinquency, federal funding strategies, racial disparity, reentry, information sharing, mentally ill, and evidence-based programs and practices. (NCJA 2017)
Purpose and Policies within Criminal Justice
The purpose of the researchers researching the policies is to we communicate the findings of these studies, with the emphasis on getting them into the hands of practitioners and policymakers in the cities, counties, and states of the United States -- to police chiefs and prosecutors, prison wardens and court administrators and, increasingly, to community organizations and people who provide social and health services. More than ever, we a.
7Research and Policy Development Paper.docxfredharris32
7
Research and Policy Development Paper
Research and Policy Development
This paper will be describe the importance of research as it relates to policy development within the field of criminal justice. Many different issues will be addressed pertaining to this subject. The purposes and types of policies within the field of criminal justice will be identified. The relationship between research and policy development will be described. Examples of how research can assist policy makers by informing their policy decisions will be provided as well. Two examples of policies that were developed within the past ten years that resulted from research within the field of criminal justice will be identified.
Research within Criminal Justice
Research methods are procedures for obtaining information on individual and/or aggregate phenomena for the purpose of creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon. Research is also used for testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population. Also research can be used for testing the effectiveness of an existing social policy or program. Much criminal justice research in the United States, as in other countries, is social science research. Creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon and testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population are critical to the dialectic of scholarly knowledge in criminology and criminal justice. Researchers take on many interests when it comes to criminal justice. Researchers such as the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) sponsor studies on police performance, prosecution, sentencing, and corrections; we study the nature of crime and criminal behavior; we examine such topics as juvenile offending, the drug-crime link, environmental crime, family violence, and gangs. Our science and technology unit develops techniques for criminal investigations and for other areas of law enforcement, such as the use of DNA evidence. (Travis 1995) The National Criminal Justice Association's (NCJA) policy statements address major interests and concerns of the organization's membership on contemporary crime and criminal justice issues, such as fear and violence in communities, prison overcrowding, juvenile justice and the prevention of juvenile crime and delinquency, federal funding strategies, racial disparity, reentry, information sharing, mentally ill, and evidence-based programs and practices. (NCJA 2017)
Purpose and Policies within Criminal Justice
The purpose of the researchers researching the policies is to we communicate the findings of these studies, with the emphasis on getting them into the hands of practitioners and policymakers in the cities, counties, and states of the United States -- to police chiefs and prosecutors, prison wardens and court administrators and, increasingly, to community organizations and people who provide social and health services. More than ever, we a.
Sherri Rose wrote a fascinating article about statistician’s role in big data. One thing I really liked was this line: “This may require implementing commonly used methods, developing a new method, or integrating techniques from other fields to answer our problem.” I really like the idea that integrating and applying standard methods in new and creative ways can be viewed as a statistical contribution.
Official crime statistics are useful but have deficiencies. They likely underestimate total crime since not all crimes are reported to police or pursued, and police have discretion over which crimes to prioritize. Alternative data from victim surveys and self-report studies provide a more complete picture of crime. These findings challenge the assumption that crime is confined to young, working-class males and suggest that law enforcement is selective. While no single data source on crime is perfect, together they provide important insights into both the nature and extent of crime.
1. Thomas Sellers conducted a multi-generation study of breast cancer families using archived records from 1952. However, he had to stop contacting relatives in 1996 when strict privacy laws like HIPAA were passed, preventing disclosure of health information without consent.
2. Navigating privacy laws that vary by state and institution is challenging for researchers. They must work closely with review boards and legal experts to properly obtain and handle personal health data and tissue samples within the legal framework.
3. Streamlining consent processes and data sharing across institutions could help researchers make more discoveries, but balancing privacy protections and research progress remains difficult as rules continue evolving.
1. Evidence-based policy and practice aims to objectively assess the quality of social research evidence to inform decisions. However, some argue that claiming evidence can be isolated from political influences and that it should be privileged in policymaking are "brave claims".
2. All observation is theory-laden, so the quest for objective truths is questionable. Quality assessment depends on judgments and values, not just methods.
3. Evidence-based practice aims to minimize gaps between research evidence and practice/policy to improve outcomes. However, drawing on research findings in practice is still limited. Assessing alternative practices requires consideration of clients' values and informed consent.
This document provides an overview of evidence-based strategies for preventing opioid overdose that are working in the United States. It begins with an introduction describing the purpose and creation of the document. It then outlines four guiding principles for effective overdose prevention strategies: 1) Know your epidemic and response; 2) Make collaboration your strategy; 3) Nothing about us without us; and 4) Meet people where they are. The document concludes by describing nine evidence-based strategies for preventing overdose, with the first being targeted naloxone distribution. Targeted naloxone distribution programs equip individuals at high risk of witnessing an overdose, such as people who use drugs and first responders, with naloxone kits to
Can health equity survive epidemiology? Standards of proof and social determi...Jim Bloyd, DrPH, MPH
Objective. This article examines how epidemiological evidence is and should be used in the context of increasing concern for health equity and for social determinants of health.
Method. A research literature on use of scientific evidence of “environmental risks” is outlined, and key issues compared with those that arise with respect to social determinants of health.
Results. The issue sets are very similar. Both involve the choice of a standard of proof, and the corollary need to make value judgments about how to address uncertainty in the context of “the inevitability of being wrong,” at least some of the time, and to consider evidence from multiple kinds of research design. The nature of such value judgments and the need for methodological pluralism are incompletely understood.
Conclusion. Responsible policy analysis and interpretation of scientific evidence require explicit consideration of the ethical issues involved in choosing a standard of proof. Because of the stakes involved, such choices often become contested political terrain. Comparative research on how those choices are made will be valuable.
The document summarizes an article by Charles Klahm and Rob Tillyer that reviewed 23 studies on police use of force published between 1995-2008. It found significant issues with the available research. Variables like suspect and officer characteristics and encounter details were examined, but results often conflicted. Comparisons between departments lacked consideration of their differences in demographics and policies. More rigorous research is needed that uses standardized definitions and accounts for department variations to improve understanding and inform policy reforms.
Politicians and scientists often have differing views of each other. Politicians may see scientists as unrealistic and out of touch, while scientists see politicians as self-interested and short-sighted. There are also concerns about the reliability of some scientific research due to issues like falsified data, undisclosed conflicts of interest, and selective reporting of results. While science is important for policymaking, it cannot be the only consideration, as other factors like economics and social impacts must also be weighed. Increased transparency and oversight could help address these challenges and improve trust in scientific evidence.
MAKING SENSE OFSTATISTICSWhat statistics tell you an.docxsmile790243
This document provides an overview of key concepts for understanding statistics and outlines common pitfalls to avoid when interpreting statistics. It discusses how the questions asked and methods used to collect and analyze data impact the results. Specifically, it notes that statistics are shaped by human choices and judgment, and understanding what and how something was counted is crucial for properly interpreting a statistic. The document also describes common misuses of statistics like citing outliers as the norm, misusing averages, and not providing necessary context for large or small numbers. Overall, it aims to equip readers with questions to ask to critically evaluate statistics and arguments based on numbers.
Step 1: The document summarizes the steps of an epidemic investigation, beginning with confirming the existence of an outbreak, verifying the diagnosis, and gathering case information.
Step 2: Key steps include developing a case definition, finding additional cases, collecting information on individual cases, and analyzing patterns among cases to generate hypotheses. Hypotheses are then tested using analytical studies.
Step 3: The investigation also draws conclusions, reports findings to authorities, recommends control measures, communicates results to educate the public, and follows up to ensure recommendations are implemented. The overall goal is to control the current epidemic and prevent future outbreaks.
This document discusses police pursuits and the risks they pose. It notes that while police pursuits were once thought to result in accidents 25% of the time, more recent studies show the rates are actually around 1% fatalities and 29% accidents. The document examines police pursuit policies and training, finding a lack of standardization and specific pursuit training. It also explores personality traits that may make officers more likely to engage in risky pursuits. The conclusion advocates for policy revisions, increased training, and new technologies to help reduce injuries from police pursuits.
Week 10 Term Paper SubmissionIf you are using the Blackboard Mobil.docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 10 Term Paper Submission
If you are using the Blackboard Mobile Learn IOS App, please click "View in Browser."
Click the link above to submit your assignment.
Students, please view the "Submit a Clickable Rubric Assignment" in the Student Center.
Instructors, training on how to grade is within the Instructor Center.
Term Paper Project: Designing a Secure Network
Due Week 10 and worth 190 points
This term paper involves putting together the various concepts learned throughout this course. You are tasked with designing the most secure network possible, keeping in mind your goal of supporting three (3) IT services: email, file transfer (centralized), and VPN. Your first step is to design a single network capable of supporting there three (3) different services. Once you have fully designed your network, you will need to provide three (3) workflow diagrams explaining how your designed network handles the three (3) different transactions. The first is an internal user sending an email using his / her corporate email address to a user on the Yahoo domain with an arbitrary address of
[email protected]
The second workflow diagram should show a user initiating an FTP session from inside your network to the arbitrary site of ftp.netneering.com. The third workflow is an externally located employee initiating a VPN session to corporate in order to access files on the Windows desktop computer, DT-Corp534-HellenS, at work.
Write a ten to fifteen (10-15) page paper in which you complete the following three (3) Parts. Note: Please use the following page breakdown to complete your assignment:
Overall network diagram: One (1) page
Datapath diagrams: Three (3) pages (one for each diagram)
Write-up: six to ten (6-10) pages
Part 1
Using Microsoft Visio or its open source alternative, create a diagram showing the overall network you’ve designed from the user or endpoint device to the Internet cloud, and everything in between, in which you:
Follow the access, core, distribution layer model.
Include at a minimum:
Authentication server (i.e. Microsoft Active Directory)
Routers
Switches (and / or hubs)
Local users
Remote users
Workstations
Files share (i.e. CIFS)
Mail server
Web servers (both internal and external)
Firewalls
Internet cloud
Web proxy
Email proxy
FTP server (for internal-to-external transport)
Explain each network device’s function and your specific configuration of each networking device.
Design and label the bandwidth availability or capacity for each wired connection.
Part 2
Using Microsoft Visio or its open source alternative, create a Datapath Diagram for the following scenario:
Local user sends email to a Yahoo recipient. Local (corporate) user having email address
[email protected]
sends an email to
[email protected]
Document and label the diagram showing protocols and path of the data flow as data traverses through your network from source to destination.
Include path lines with arrows showing directions and layer 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, .
Week 11 Question SetRoper v. SimmonsREAD THE ENTIRE CA.docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 11 Question Set:
Roper v. Simmons
:
READ THE ENTIRE CASE otherwise the sections I picked may not make complete sense to you!!!
Brief these sections of Justice Kennedy’s majority opinion:
III A
III B
Miller v. Alabama:
READ THE ENTIRE CASE otherwise the sections I picked may not make complete sense to you!!!
Brief these sections of Justice Kagan’s majority opinion:
II
IV
.
More Related Content
Similar to Ideas inAmericanPolicingBy Lawrence W. ShermanEvid.docx
Running Head ANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIESANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES 6.docxhealdkathaleen
Running Head: ANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
ANNOTED BIBLIOGRAPHIES 6
Annotated Bibliographies
Shanee’ N. Ellington
Liberty University
Tewksbury, R., Dabney, D. A., & Copes, H. (2010). The Prominence of Qualitative Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice Scholarship. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 21(4), 391-411. doi:10.1080/10511253.2010.516557
This article forms the basis of the discussion by explaining the correlation between quantitative research and criminology whereby the relationship favor’s the criminology concept and process since it is inquisitive by nature. The main variables that are used to support the hypothesis are the number of dissertations presented with a different style of research applied to them. The qualitative research forms the largest contribution to the research process by collecting a variety of related information across the research topic. The two main modes of measurement being tested are the qualitative and quantitative methods which are usually the two major measurement scales used in research. The notion is supported by this mode of research because different disciplines normally apply different approaches to quantitative inquiry.
Gergen, K. J. (2014). Pursuing excellence in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative Psychology, 1(1), 49-60. doi:10.1037/qup0000002.
The author of this article looks into the various orientations that influence the qualitative inquiries’ success rate by reviewing the history of the criteria that was mainly used in measuring the success rate of a certain qualitative inquiry approach. He then discusses how the traditional criteria have been widely used to evaluate the modern qualitative approaches which he looks at from different types of qualitative approach methods. From the analysis of the various contemporary orientations which lead to the development of various types of inquiries, he is able to consider five proposed mode of qualitative inquiries which include ethnography, narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory and also case study. This provision sets the basis for the discussion of the various types of inquiries which is then compared to the analysis of their effective use and impact within the criminal justice systems for example in the article below from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) which looks into the most common types of approaches to qualitative inquiries.
Kleck, G., Tark, J., & Bellows, J. J. (2006). What methods are most frequently used in research in criminology and criminal justice? Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(2), 147-152. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.01.007
The authors of this article attempted to look at the most commonly used approaches to a quantitative inquiry by establishing research into how frequent the modes used in qualitative methods of research in criminal justice-related journals are applied in research. Survey research, which forms one of the elements of phenomenological approaches to a quantitative ...
This document summarizes a paper about equity and the advancement of women in Australian police services, specifically Queensland and New South Wales police, following public inquiries and organizational restructuring. It finds that while equal employment opportunity legislation had some impact, the greater drivers of change were systematic efforts to reform police culture and practices through recommendations from public inquiries into misconduct. These inquiries emphasized accountability, diversity, and higher education for officers, improving women's prospects. However, resistance from rank-and-file male officers and police unions remained a hindrance to full equity and acceptance of women police.
\\jciprod01\productn\H\HLP\10-1\HLP101.txt unknown Seq: 1 9-FEB-16 10:16
The Uses and Abuses of Police Discretion:
Toward Harm Reduction Policing
Katherine Beckett*
INTRODUCTION
Although discretion is an unavoidable and ubiquitous feature of police
work, it is also the subject of significant controversy and debate. In this
essay, I first provide a brief overview of the history and evolution of police
discretion from the 1960s to today and explain how its exercise has been
impacted in recent decades by the war on drugs and the adoption of “broken
windows policing.” These policy initiatives encouraged a more muscular po-
lice response to low-level offending and had important consequences, in-
cluding the flooding of U.S. prisons and jails and the disproportionate
incarceration of people of color. Although many of those targeted in the
campaigns against drugs and disorder do not pose a significant threat to pub-
lic safety, many do contend with multiple challenges such as homelessness,
addiction, and mental illness, and, as a result, cycle repeatedly into and out
of jail. Incarceration, including short-term jail spells, often has deleterious
and destabilizing effects, which increase the likelihood that arrest and incar-
ceration will continue to occur with some regularity.
In the second half of this essay, I argue that since police discretion
cannot be eradicated, and the destructive nature of mass incarceration is in-
creasingly well-understood, municipalities would be well-advised to imple-
ment alternatives to the war on drugs and broken windows policing. Ideally,
these alternative approaches would encourage the police to respond to “dis-
orderly” behaviors that do not pose a significant public safety problem in
ways that reduce the harm that results from low-level crimes and from crimi-
nal justice involvement itself. To illustrate what such a policy framework
might look like, I describe Seattle’s Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion
(LEAD) Program, which relies on police discretion to channel people sus-
pected of minor forms of criminal wrongdoing out of the criminal justice
system and toward services with the aim of reducing human suffering at
both the individual and community levels. I conclude that programs like
LEAD that use harm reduction principles to guide the exercise of police
discretion enable municipalities to respond to low-level crimes in a way that
alleviates rather than exacerbates individual and community suffering asso-
ciated with those behaviors.
* Katherine Beckett is a Professor in the Law, Societies and Justice Program and Professor
and Clarence and Elissa M. (“Lee”) Schrag Endowed Faculty Fellow in the Department of
Sociology at the University of Washington.
\\jciprod01\productn\H\HLP\10-1\HLP101.txt unknown Seq: 2 9-FEB-16 10:16
78 Harvard Law & Policy Review [Vol. 10
I. POLICE DISCRETION: AN OVERVIEW
The inevitability of police discretion was “discovered” by social scien-
tists in the 1960s. Prior to th ...
Case-control studies compare subjects who have a condition (cases) to similar subjects who do not (controls) to identify factors that may contribute to a disease or risk factor. They are useful when experiments are impossible or unethical, and are a relatively inexpensive way to study rare diseases. Advantages include studying rare factors and providing quick, cheap results, but they are prone to bias and recall errors. A case-control study example identified smoking as linked to lung cancer by interviewing patients.
This document summarizes a research study that observed police officer behaviors during interactions with citizens to identify behaviors associated with successful conflict resolution. The study found that:
1) Female officers were observed to use more supportive behaviors like information exchange and expressions of concern for citizens, while male officers preferred controlling behaviors, threats, and physical acts.
2) Male officers tended to elicit more defensive and abusive statements from citizens compared to female officers.
3) Sequential analysis revealed that supportive officer behaviors were more likely to lead to positive interactions, while controlling and coercive behaviors increased the likelihood of resistance or escalation from citizens.
CJ 301CHAPTER 1NOTESIt is important for everyone to become f.docxmonicafrancis71118
CJ 301
CHAPTER 1
NOTES
It is important for everyone to become familiar with the language of research as we begin this statistics course, so follow along and try to absorb the information below. This module is intended to accompany Chapter 1 of the Adventures in Criminal Justice Research text (4th edition):
This textbook introduces you to the logic of theory, research, and practice in criminal justice and gives you some practical experience through the use of the SPSS for Windows computer program.
WHAT DO WE MEAN WHEN WE SAY STATISTICS?
The word statistics can have a variety of meanings.
1. It can refer to fragments of data or information.
2. To some it may mean the theories and procedures that are used for understanding data.
3. Statistics may also be defined as collections of facts expressed as numbers.
-For example, in 1990, 341,387 full-time law enforcement officers were working in the U.S.; this is a statistic. So is the fact that 7,830 bank robberies occurred in the same year (Crime in the U.S. 1990) and that four million offenders were under some form of correctional supervision (Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 1992). The list of statistical facts about the criminal justice system may be regarded as statistics. Your age, your shoe size, your height, your sex, your ethnicity are all statistics. Indeed, any fact that can be expressed as a number, whether it is important or not, is a statistic.
4. For this class, we are going to use the following working definition of the term statistics. Statistics is a set of problem-solving procedures that are used to analyze and interpret aggregate data.
WHAT ARE SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF STATISTICS?
Criminal justice practitioners deal with a wide variety of problems that statistics can help solve.
1. Statistics can be used to describe crime in a city, or the composition of a police department or the overcrowding problem in a county jail, or the case processing rate of a criminal court.
2. Other problems that arise in criminal justice go beyond simple description and into areas such as prediction and evaluation.
- For example, if a police department were to add 60 officers to its force, what would be the predicted impact on crime rates, staff morale, or gasoline consumption? How many new probation officer positions would be required in the next five years to keep up with the current growth in caseloads? If sentences to prison continue at their present rate, for how many new prison beds must the state plan? Is probation more effective than prison? Which community-based corrections programs work better than others? How successful is community-oriented policing or judicial training or the public defender’s office? Answering these types of question involves various statistical techniques that we will learn about during this semester.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF STATISTICS?
1. Descriptive Statistics – These are statistics whose function it is to describe what data looks l.
7
Research and Policy Development Paper
Research and Policy Development
This paper will be describe the importance of research as it relates to policy development within the field of criminal justice. Many different issues will be addressed pertaining to this subject. The purposes and types of policies within the field of criminal justice will be identified. The relationship between research and policy development will be described. Examples of how research can assist policy makers by informing their policy decisions will be provided as well. Two examples of policies that were developed within the past ten years that resulted from research within the field of criminal justice will be identified.
Research within Criminal Justice
Research methods are procedures for obtaining information on individual and/or aggregate phenomena for the purpose of creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon. Research is also used for testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population. Also research can be used for testing the effectiveness of an existing social policy or program. Much criminal justice research in the United States, as in other countries, is social science research. Creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon and testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population are critical to the dialectic of scholarly knowledge in criminology and criminal justice. Researchers take on many interests when it comes to criminal justice. Researchers such as the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) sponsor studies on police performance, prosecution, sentencing, and corrections; we study the nature of crime and criminal behavior; we examine such topics as juvenile offending, the drug-crime link, environmental crime, family violence, and gangs. Our science and technology unit develops techniques for criminal investigations and for other areas of law enforcement, such as the use of DNA evidence. (Travis 1995) The National Criminal Justice Association's (NCJA) policy statements address major interests and concerns of the organization's membership on contemporary crime and criminal justice issues, such as fear and violence in communities, prison overcrowding, juvenile justice and the prevention of juvenile crime and delinquency, federal funding strategies, racial disparity, reentry, information sharing, mentally ill, and evidence-based programs and practices. (NCJA 2017)
Purpose and Policies within Criminal Justice
The purpose of the researchers researching the policies is to we communicate the findings of these studies, with the emphasis on getting them into the hands of practitioners and policymakers in the cities, counties, and states of the United States -- to police chiefs and prosecutors, prison wardens and court administrators and, increasingly, to community organizations and people who provide social and health services. More than ever, we a.
7Research and Policy Development Paper.docxfredharris32
7
Research and Policy Development Paper
Research and Policy Development
This paper will be describe the importance of research as it relates to policy development within the field of criminal justice. Many different issues will be addressed pertaining to this subject. The purposes and types of policies within the field of criminal justice will be identified. The relationship between research and policy development will be described. Examples of how research can assist policy makers by informing their policy decisions will be provided as well. Two examples of policies that were developed within the past ten years that resulted from research within the field of criminal justice will be identified.
Research within Criminal Justice
Research methods are procedures for obtaining information on individual and/or aggregate phenomena for the purpose of creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon. Research is also used for testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population. Also research can be used for testing the effectiveness of an existing social policy or program. Much criminal justice research in the United States, as in other countries, is social science research. Creating a general explanation or theory to explain a phenomenon and testing the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of the population are critical to the dialectic of scholarly knowledge in criminology and criminal justice. Researchers take on many interests when it comes to criminal justice. Researchers such as the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) sponsor studies on police performance, prosecution, sentencing, and corrections; we study the nature of crime and criminal behavior; we examine such topics as juvenile offending, the drug-crime link, environmental crime, family violence, and gangs. Our science and technology unit develops techniques for criminal investigations and for other areas of law enforcement, such as the use of DNA evidence. (Travis 1995) The National Criminal Justice Association's (NCJA) policy statements address major interests and concerns of the organization's membership on contemporary crime and criminal justice issues, such as fear and violence in communities, prison overcrowding, juvenile justice and the prevention of juvenile crime and delinquency, federal funding strategies, racial disparity, reentry, information sharing, mentally ill, and evidence-based programs and practices. (NCJA 2017)
Purpose and Policies within Criminal Justice
The purpose of the researchers researching the policies is to we communicate the findings of these studies, with the emphasis on getting them into the hands of practitioners and policymakers in the cities, counties, and states of the United States -- to police chiefs and prosecutors, prison wardens and court administrators and, increasingly, to community organizations and people who provide social and health services. More than ever, we a.
Sherri Rose wrote a fascinating article about statistician’s role in big data. One thing I really liked was this line: “This may require implementing commonly used methods, developing a new method, or integrating techniques from other fields to answer our problem.” I really like the idea that integrating and applying standard methods in new and creative ways can be viewed as a statistical contribution.
Official crime statistics are useful but have deficiencies. They likely underestimate total crime since not all crimes are reported to police or pursued, and police have discretion over which crimes to prioritize. Alternative data from victim surveys and self-report studies provide a more complete picture of crime. These findings challenge the assumption that crime is confined to young, working-class males and suggest that law enforcement is selective. While no single data source on crime is perfect, together they provide important insights into both the nature and extent of crime.
1. Thomas Sellers conducted a multi-generation study of breast cancer families using archived records from 1952. However, he had to stop contacting relatives in 1996 when strict privacy laws like HIPAA were passed, preventing disclosure of health information without consent.
2. Navigating privacy laws that vary by state and institution is challenging for researchers. They must work closely with review boards and legal experts to properly obtain and handle personal health data and tissue samples within the legal framework.
3. Streamlining consent processes and data sharing across institutions could help researchers make more discoveries, but balancing privacy protections and research progress remains difficult as rules continue evolving.
1. Evidence-based policy and practice aims to objectively assess the quality of social research evidence to inform decisions. However, some argue that claiming evidence can be isolated from political influences and that it should be privileged in policymaking are "brave claims".
2. All observation is theory-laden, so the quest for objective truths is questionable. Quality assessment depends on judgments and values, not just methods.
3. Evidence-based practice aims to minimize gaps between research evidence and practice/policy to improve outcomes. However, drawing on research findings in practice is still limited. Assessing alternative practices requires consideration of clients' values and informed consent.
This document provides an overview of evidence-based strategies for preventing opioid overdose that are working in the United States. It begins with an introduction describing the purpose and creation of the document. It then outlines four guiding principles for effective overdose prevention strategies: 1) Know your epidemic and response; 2) Make collaboration your strategy; 3) Nothing about us without us; and 4) Meet people where they are. The document concludes by describing nine evidence-based strategies for preventing overdose, with the first being targeted naloxone distribution. Targeted naloxone distribution programs equip individuals at high risk of witnessing an overdose, such as people who use drugs and first responders, with naloxone kits to
Can health equity survive epidemiology? Standards of proof and social determi...Jim Bloyd, DrPH, MPH
Objective. This article examines how epidemiological evidence is and should be used in the context of increasing concern for health equity and for social determinants of health.
Method. A research literature on use of scientific evidence of “environmental risks” is outlined, and key issues compared with those that arise with respect to social determinants of health.
Results. The issue sets are very similar. Both involve the choice of a standard of proof, and the corollary need to make value judgments about how to address uncertainty in the context of “the inevitability of being wrong,” at least some of the time, and to consider evidence from multiple kinds of research design. The nature of such value judgments and the need for methodological pluralism are incompletely understood.
Conclusion. Responsible policy analysis and interpretation of scientific evidence require explicit consideration of the ethical issues involved in choosing a standard of proof. Because of the stakes involved, such choices often become contested political terrain. Comparative research on how those choices are made will be valuable.
The document summarizes an article by Charles Klahm and Rob Tillyer that reviewed 23 studies on police use of force published between 1995-2008. It found significant issues with the available research. Variables like suspect and officer characteristics and encounter details were examined, but results often conflicted. Comparisons between departments lacked consideration of their differences in demographics and policies. More rigorous research is needed that uses standardized definitions and accounts for department variations to improve understanding and inform policy reforms.
Politicians and scientists often have differing views of each other. Politicians may see scientists as unrealistic and out of touch, while scientists see politicians as self-interested and short-sighted. There are also concerns about the reliability of some scientific research due to issues like falsified data, undisclosed conflicts of interest, and selective reporting of results. While science is important for policymaking, it cannot be the only consideration, as other factors like economics and social impacts must also be weighed. Increased transparency and oversight could help address these challenges and improve trust in scientific evidence.
MAKING SENSE OFSTATISTICSWhat statistics tell you an.docxsmile790243
This document provides an overview of key concepts for understanding statistics and outlines common pitfalls to avoid when interpreting statistics. It discusses how the questions asked and methods used to collect and analyze data impact the results. Specifically, it notes that statistics are shaped by human choices and judgment, and understanding what and how something was counted is crucial for properly interpreting a statistic. The document also describes common misuses of statistics like citing outliers as the norm, misusing averages, and not providing necessary context for large or small numbers. Overall, it aims to equip readers with questions to ask to critically evaluate statistics and arguments based on numbers.
Step 1: The document summarizes the steps of an epidemic investigation, beginning with confirming the existence of an outbreak, verifying the diagnosis, and gathering case information.
Step 2: Key steps include developing a case definition, finding additional cases, collecting information on individual cases, and analyzing patterns among cases to generate hypotheses. Hypotheses are then tested using analytical studies.
Step 3: The investigation also draws conclusions, reports findings to authorities, recommends control measures, communicates results to educate the public, and follows up to ensure recommendations are implemented. The overall goal is to control the current epidemic and prevent future outbreaks.
This document discusses police pursuits and the risks they pose. It notes that while police pursuits were once thought to result in accidents 25% of the time, more recent studies show the rates are actually around 1% fatalities and 29% accidents. The document examines police pursuit policies and training, finding a lack of standardization and specific pursuit training. It also explores personality traits that may make officers more likely to engage in risky pursuits. The conclusion advocates for policy revisions, increased training, and new technologies to help reduce injuries from police pursuits.
Similar to Ideas inAmericanPolicingBy Lawrence W. ShermanEvid.docx (20)
Week 10 Term Paper SubmissionIf you are using the Blackboard Mobil.docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 10 Term Paper Submission
If you are using the Blackboard Mobile Learn IOS App, please click "View in Browser."
Click the link above to submit your assignment.
Students, please view the "Submit a Clickable Rubric Assignment" in the Student Center.
Instructors, training on how to grade is within the Instructor Center.
Term Paper Project: Designing a Secure Network
Due Week 10 and worth 190 points
This term paper involves putting together the various concepts learned throughout this course. You are tasked with designing the most secure network possible, keeping in mind your goal of supporting three (3) IT services: email, file transfer (centralized), and VPN. Your first step is to design a single network capable of supporting there three (3) different services. Once you have fully designed your network, you will need to provide three (3) workflow diagrams explaining how your designed network handles the three (3) different transactions. The first is an internal user sending an email using his / her corporate email address to a user on the Yahoo domain with an arbitrary address of
[email protected]
The second workflow diagram should show a user initiating an FTP session from inside your network to the arbitrary site of ftp.netneering.com. The third workflow is an externally located employee initiating a VPN session to corporate in order to access files on the Windows desktop computer, DT-Corp534-HellenS, at work.
Write a ten to fifteen (10-15) page paper in which you complete the following three (3) Parts. Note: Please use the following page breakdown to complete your assignment:
Overall network diagram: One (1) page
Datapath diagrams: Three (3) pages (one for each diagram)
Write-up: six to ten (6-10) pages
Part 1
Using Microsoft Visio or its open source alternative, create a diagram showing the overall network you’ve designed from the user or endpoint device to the Internet cloud, and everything in between, in which you:
Follow the access, core, distribution layer model.
Include at a minimum:
Authentication server (i.e. Microsoft Active Directory)
Routers
Switches (and / or hubs)
Local users
Remote users
Workstations
Files share (i.e. CIFS)
Mail server
Web servers (both internal and external)
Firewalls
Internet cloud
Web proxy
Email proxy
FTP server (for internal-to-external transport)
Explain each network device’s function and your specific configuration of each networking device.
Design and label the bandwidth availability or capacity for each wired connection.
Part 2
Using Microsoft Visio or its open source alternative, create a Datapath Diagram for the following scenario:
Local user sends email to a Yahoo recipient. Local (corporate) user having email address
[email protected]
sends an email to
[email protected]
Document and label the diagram showing protocols and path of the data flow as data traverses through your network from source to destination.
Include path lines with arrows showing directions and layer 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, .
Week 11 Question SetRoper v. SimmonsREAD THE ENTIRE CA.docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 11 Question Set:
Roper v. Simmons
:
READ THE ENTIRE CASE otherwise the sections I picked may not make complete sense to you!!!
Brief these sections of Justice Kennedy’s majority opinion:
III A
III B
Miller v. Alabama:
READ THE ENTIRE CASE otherwise the sections I picked may not make complete sense to you!!!
Brief these sections of Justice Kagan’s majority opinion:
II
IV
.
Week 11 (On the day you have class during this week) Population .docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 11 (On the day you have class during this week): Population
Select topic # 1 or topic # 2 below and write one page in which you briefly provide your answer: Topic # 1: Do you think rapid global population growth is cause for alarm? If not, why not? If so, what aspects of global population growth are specifically worrisome? What should be done about them? Answers will vary by student and may include references to Malthus and theory (pp. 502
–
504), demographic transition theory (pp. 505
–
507), population and social inequality (pp. 507
–
508), class inequality and overpopulation (p. 509), and urbanization (pp. 510
–
519).
Topic # 2: Do you think of the city mainly as a place of innovation and tolerance or mainly as a site of crime, prejudice, and anomie? Where does your image of the city come from? Your own experience? The mass media? Your sociological reading?
Answers will vary by student and may include references to text information on urbanization (pp. 510
–
519).
1 page 500 words
.
Week 10 Assignment 3 - Submit Here
Students
, please view the "Submit a Clickable Rubric Assignment" in the Student Center.
Instructors
, training on how to grade is within the Instructor Center.
Assignment 3: Cultural Activity Report
Due Week 10 and worth 100 points
As a way of experiencing the Humanities beyond your classroom, computer, and textbook, you are asked to do a certain type of “cultural activity” that fits well with our course and then report on your experience. Your instructor will require you to propose an activity and get instructor approval before you do it and report on it (students should look for any instructions in that respect). Every effort should be made to ensure that this is a hands-on experience (not a virtual one), that this activity fits the HUM111 class well, and that the activity is of sufficient quality for this university course. The two key types of activities are a museum visit or a performance. NOTE: This must not be a report on the same activity (and certainly not the same report) as done for another class, like HUM112. For instance, one might go to the same museum as done for HUM112, but this HUM111 report will focus on entirely different works and displays.
Visit a museum or gallery exhibition or attend a theater or musical performance before the end of Week 10. The activity (museum or performance) should have content that fits our course well. Have fun doing this.
Write a two to three (2-3) page report (500-750 words) that describes your experience.
Clearly identify the event location, date attended, the attendees, and your initial reaction upon arriving at the event.
Provide specific information and a description of at least two (2)
pieces
(e.g. art, exhibits, music, etc.).
Provide a summary of the event and describe your overall reaction after attending the event.
Use at least the class text as a reference (additional sources are fine, not necessary unless required by your content). Your report should include connections you make between things observed in your activity and things learned in the course and text.
Note
: Submit your cultural activity choice to the instructor for approval before the end of Week 5 (earlier is even better). Look for guidance from the instructor for how or where to make your proposal. You may also seek advice from your instructor (provide your town/state or zip code) for a good activity in your general area.
Visiting a Museum
It makes sense to approach a museum the way a seasoned traveler approaches visiting a city for the first time. Find out what there is available to see. In the museum, find out what sort of exhibitions are currently housed in the museum and start with the exhibits that interest you.
If there is a travelling exhibition, it’s always a good idea to see it while you have the chance. Then, if you have time, you can look at other things in the museum.
Every effort should be made ahead of time to identify a museum that has items and works one can e.
Week 1 - Discussion 2
The Industrial Revolution
Background: In the last quarter of the 19th Century, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing; however, with the business boom came a number of concerns, including corporate influence in politics and waves of immigration, as well as a middle class in apparent decline. These developments seemed to threaten to alter the character of American society as new technologies introduced new social problems, as well as offering new opportunities. The rise of captains of industry (or robber barons), with their sway of politicians, created a widespread feeling among common Americans that they had had lost control of their government.
Required Source:
The American Industrial Revolution
from the Films on Demand database in the Ashford University Library.
Instructions: Based on your textbook and the assigned video, analyze how the revolutionary nature of this period impacted either Native Americans, immigrants, or farmers, using the following questions as the basis of your analysis:
What were the most revolutionary social and economic developments of the last quarter of the nineteenth century?
How did the group of Americans you chose to examine respond to those changes, and how effective were their responses?
What role did government play in these developments?
Your initial post should be at least 250 words in length. Support your claims with examples from the required material(s) and properly cite any references. You may use additional scholarly sources to support your points if you choose. Your references and citations must be formatted according to APA style as outlined by the Ashford Writing Center.
.
Week 1 System and Application Overview An overview of the system.docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 1: System and Application Overview:
An overview of the system or software application an intended users
Week 1: Requirements Specification:
Detailed requirements specification with both functional and nonfunctional requirements
Week 2: System and Application Design:
A high-level design in the form of use cases and detailed design models utilizing computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools to represent the data, processes, and interfaces
Week 3: Test and Quality Assurance Plan:
A test and quality assurance plan that included the various tests and quality control measures that need to be taken into consideration
Week 4: Development Strategy:
A development strategy that weighs make versus buy or insourcing versus outsourcing acquisition strategies
Integration and Deployment Plan
Develop an overall work breakdown structure (WBS) for the 7 system development life cycle (SDLC) phases:
Preliminary Analysis
System Analysis or Requirements Definition
System Design
Development
Integration and Testing
Acceptance, Installation, and Deployment
Operation Support and Maintenance
.
Week 1 DQOne objective of this course is learning how to cor.docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 1 DQ
One objective of this course is learning how to correctly interpret statistical measures. This includes learning how to identify intentionally misleading statistics. For this week's activity create your own example of a misleading statistic. Explain the context of the data, the source of the data, the sampling method that you used (or would use) to collect the data, and the (misleading) conclusions that would be drawn from your example. Be specific in explaining how the statistic is misleading.
500 hundred words one page
.
Week 1 - AssignmentDo the followingA corporation is created b.docxsheronlewthwaite
Week 1 - Assignment
Do the following:
A corporation is created by state issuing a charter upon the application of individuals known as incorporators. As a creature of state legislative bodies, the corporation is more complex to create and operate than other forms of businesses.
Write a one page essay describing the advantages and disadvantages of forming a corporation. Also, outline the complexities of creating a corporation.
In a Word document, you will want to save your essay file as ‘Week 1_Assignment_Your Name’ and submit the file for grading.
.
Weather Forecast Assignment Objective create a weather map.docxsheronlewthwaite
This document provides an assignment to create a weather map and forecast for 4 areas in late summer. Students must draw two midlatitude cyclones, one over the Great Lakes occluding and one mature over Colorado. They must write forecasts for areas along the warm front, cold front, cut off low, and occlusion, and show weather station models for at least 8 cities including dew point, temperature, wind, clouds, and pressure. Students should also draw isobars around each cyclone and across the US on their map.
Weak ties are valuable parts of a social network becausea.it is.docxsheronlewthwaite
Weak ties are valuable parts of a social network because:
a.
it is easier to sever them if a friendship doesn't blossom smoothly.
b.
it is easier to exert power over those to which we have such ties.
c.
they are more likely to introduce us to new information and ideas.
d.
we do not have to invest as much energy in maintaining them.
.
We have read and watched, in the two You Tube clips from the.docxsheronlewthwaite
We have read and watched, in the two You Tube clips from the Judaism and Christianity chapters, that monotheistic proselytizing religions have often been blamed for colonizing or destroying indigenous and foreign religions. Today, most of the world's monotheists live in countries that were once colonized by Portugal, France, Britain, Spain, Germany or other European countries. Because of this history, some critics of monotheism have argued that monotheistic religions are bad neighbors to other religions. Your task in this prompt is to reflect on this critique in light of what we have read about the history, practice, and teachings of Monotheistic faiths.
Writing Prompt:
Based on the readings and the YouTube clips we have watched explain whether or or not the teachings and practices of monotheistic faiths are helpful resources for becoming neighbors with the other non-monotheistic faiths we have studied? Explain why or why not.
Organizational Guidelines:
Introduction:
Introduce the position you are taking and clearly explain in a sentence or two why you are taking the position.
Paragraph One:
Discuss the historical events, practices or teachings that you think make monotheistic religion a good neighbor or a bad neighbor. (Be sure to use information from Brodd text and YouTube clips.)
Paragraph Two:
Expound on what you have articulated in paragraph one or present other relevant historical, events, or teachings.
*Note: You may not see a need to take two paragraphs here if not continue to the next point.
Paragraph Two or Three:
Discuss what monotheist stand to learn from other religions, which we have read, that could make them better neighbors. Or, if you think Christians are good neighbors discuss what you think the other religions we have read could learn from monotheism.(Expound on this point as you see fit.)
*Note: Choose only one or two religions here. You do not need to discuss all of the religions we have read. You also could choose to group the religions if you find they hold one thing in common that is distinct from monotheistic faith.
Paragraph Four: Conclusion
Restate and summarize your argument. Discuss what you think is the future for monotheism as it is faced with coming to terms with an awareness of religious diversity.
Word Processing Guidelines
1. 12pt font
2. 1 inch margins
3. 800 words maximum
4. For referencing please use the parenthetical format
Examples: (Brodd, 23); (YouTube, Judaism); or (YouTube, Christianity).
Helpful Guiding Questions:
What events or concepts in the history and practice of monotheism do you think make it susceptible to dominating the religions of its neighbors?
What events or concepts in the history and practice of monotheism make it the ideal neighbor to other religions?
What might monotheists learn, from the religions we have read, that might make Christians better neighbors to the world's religions? Or, what can Christians teach practitioners of the religions we have read so far that might make.
Web Site Project 1 Purpose The purpose of this project is to .docxsheronlewthwaite
Web Site Project 1
Purpose:
The purpose of this project is to demonstrate the ability to implement basic HTML code to create a simple three-page web site that displays text and links, and to properly validate the code and publish the site to the Web.
Instructions:
Create a three-page website about your favorite city. The home page should introduce the user to the city and why it is your favorite; then, briefly explain what the rest of the site contains. Page two should give general information about the city – a brief history/general information and current demographical statistics. Finally, the third page should display information about attractions, tourism, etc.
Requirements:
Your web site must demonstrate effective use of the basic HTML code from chapter 2. In order to complete
Web Site Project 1
, each page must include, at a minimum:
a properly coded head section
o
include an appropriate title to display in the title bar
a body section that demonstrates effective use of
o
heading 1 and heading 2 elements
o
paragraph and/or blockquote elements
o
line break element
o
unordered, ordered, or description lists
at least
two
different lists should be used, but not necessarily on
the same page
o
div and anchor elements
divs should be used to indicate “divisions” between sections of a web page, and create white space; for example, between the heading, navigation, content, and footer
anchor elements should be used to construct relative, absolute, and email links
o
bold and italicize phrase elements
navigation and external links
o
create navigation links to link your web pages
o
link to at least four other web sites that pertain to your favorite city
NOTE:
the external links do not have to be on every page and
cannot
include the site(s) you used for research
•
email and copyright information
o
include the text
Questions? Contact
with a link to your email address
o
include the word
Copyright
and the copyright symbol (note: the symbol
must use the appropriate code)
o
must include links to at least two online sources
o
this information must display on every page
.
Web QuizAssignment Name Web Field Trip Military Industrial Com.docxsheronlewthwaite
Web Quiz
Assignment Name:
Web Field Trip: Military Industrial Complex
Title:
Military Industrial Complex
Introduction:
World War II and then the Cold War increased the annual budget of the United States dramatically in the two decades from 1940 to 1960. During this period, the United States went from a reluctant participant in Western European culture to the military protector of Western Europe. The increase in the money spent on the military had enormous implications not only for the role of the United States in geopolitics, but also for the viability of democratic institutions within the United States. As members of congress became increasingly beholden to military contractors who supplied jobs in their congressional districts, the nature of politics in the United States changed significantly. In 1960, republican president Dwight Eisenhower called attention to what he originally labeled the military-industrial-congressional complex, a phrase that he later shortened to simply the military industrial complex.
To read Eisenhower's warning, see the following site.
Activity
Visit this URL:
Military-Industrial Complex Speech, Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1961
Instructions:
Answer the following questions in the fields below.
1.
Why was Eisenhower a particularly well informed person on this subject?
2.
How did Eisenhower feel about the escalating costs of warfare?
3.
What were the implications of leaving this issue alone?
Web Quiz
Assignment Name:
The Port Huron Statement of the Students for a Democratic Society (1962)
Title:
The Port Huron Statement of the Students for a Democratic Society (1962)
Introduction:
The Port Huron statement was issued by a meeting of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) convention in Port Huron, Michigan, held on June 11-15, 1962. Largely written by Tom Hayden, the statement proclaims that young people are breaking away from the conservatism bred by the Cold War, frightened by the prospect of nuclear war, and alienated from American society by the falsehoods they have been told. The statement lays out the ways the New Left movement will create a grass-roots "participatory democracy," able to reconnect the public with American politics.
Visit URL:
The Port Huron Statement of the Students for a Democratic Society (1962)
Instructions:
After reading the introduction and the primary source provided, answer the questions below.
What does the statement say about African Americans and civil rights?
What concerns are raised about poverty in the United States?
What economic changes are called for?
What are the key components of participatory democracy?
Why are the demands of the Port Huron Statement considered on the liberal/left end of the political spectrum?
.
Web Technology PresentationSubmit a presentation for the CIO. Your.docxsheronlewthwaite
Web Technology Presentation
Submit a presentation for the CIO. Your presentation should address in detail the requirements for changing the database to a web-based architecture. Your CIO is interesting in knowing whether it is cost effective to use the cloud as an alternative for storing data. Explore additional options such as hosted SQL servers, SaaS providers, cloud deployment models, and the security implications.
To help the CIO make an informed decision, discuss the steps required to determine whether a web solution is appropriate and viable.
it should be 3-4 pages and tunitin free
.
We normally think of the arts as very different from technologies in.docxsheronlewthwaite
We normally think of the arts as very different from technologies in spite of the fact that art (with perhaps a few exceptions) is practiced with the help of technology. This practice creates interdependence between technology and art. To what extent does art respond to, or is shaped by, the technology that enables it? To what extent have advanced and accessible digital technologies, such as websites, digital photography, and YouTube, changed the relationship between art and technology? Are these technologies reshaping our attitudes toward artists?
.
Web Discussion and Assignment #41 page is Web Discussion with this.docxsheronlewthwaite
Web Discussion and Assignment #4
1 page is Web Discussion with this requirements.
2 page assignment #4 more later send info.
1 page Web Discussion Post
Take Christian Smith's subcultural identity theory and discuss it in terms of some example from your own life. Think of the sub-cultures in your own life that you belong to. It can be anything -- any kind of group or collective identity. Examples include fans of a particular sub-genre of music or fiction or art or sports team, participation in a sorority or fraternity, a religious group, a political group, etc. It doesn’t have to be a group that you belong to explicitly, just other people that you might identify with in some way or another.
Once you have a group in mind, talk about the symbolic things about this group that create a sense of collective identity. Smith talks about evangelical Christianity as creating strong symbolic boundaries through the unique beliefs and practices of their religion. But you could also think of this as much more simple practices. For example, if I wanted to write about being a University of Arizona football fan, I could talk about the practice of wearing clothing that identifies me as part of that group. Or I could talk about going to pep rallys or tailgating events where I can interact socially with other members of that group.
The key to applying the subcultural identity theory to understand culture, is to identify the ways in which different sub-cultures create symbolic boundaries that enable collective identity.
.
Web Application SeurityAs the Information Systems Security Offic.docxsheronlewthwaite
Web Application Seurity
As the Information Systems Security Officer for your large health care company, you have been assigned the task of implementing Web security. Determine how you would implement security to eliminate single points of failure.
Describe the implementation of Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) in support of Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS). Assess how you are assured that your browser is secure. Determine if the user data truly is protected or this is a false sense of security. Give an example of SSL being compromised.
.
We use computers and electronic systems to run and store just about .docxsheronlewthwaite
We use computers and electronic systems to run and store just about everything. Personal computers and the Internet are now included as part of the Department of Homeland Security's cybersecurity issues.
Cybersecurity involves protecting the information by preventing, detecting, and responding to attacks on information that is housed in technology.
There are many levels of risks in cybersecurity, some more serious and damaging than others. Among these dangers are:
Viruses erasing the entire system.
Individuals breaking into personal computer systems and altering the systems' files.
Individuals using personal computers to attack others' computer systems.
Individuals stealing credit card information and making unauthorized purchases.
Unfortunately, there is no 100% guarantee that even with the best precautions some of these things won't happen. Risk reduction steps exist to minimize vulnerability to information.
Tasks:
Create a PowerPoint Presentation containing 6–8 slides to address the following:
Analyze and discuss the vulnerabilities and recommend what security management can do to minimize the potential of a government or private organization being at risk for cybersecurity damage.
Outline the steps you recommend and identify any impediments to successfully implementing the suggested cybersecurity program.
Support your presentation with at least three outside scholarly resources using APA in-text citations. Add detailed speaker notes for each of the slides.
.
we need to understand all six project feasibility factors. Its true.docxsheronlewthwaite
we need to understand all six project feasibility factors. It's true we need to consider all of them when beginning to plan for a system change. Why is the process of assessing project feasibility so important? What are the various methods for assessing project feasibility? When would one of them take precedence over the others
.
we have to write an essay 2 pages about Gustave Whitehead and the Wr.docxsheronlewthwaite
we have to write an essay 2 pages about Gustave Whitehead and the Wright brothers and we have to write an opinion on who do we think flew the first plane.
Did he fly before the wright brothers? You have to write both sides of the debate and then decide who is telling the truth . two pages due Thursday
Sorry I just realize I forgot to write the guys name . Gustave whitehead
Did Gustave whitehead flew before the right brothers.
.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
2. Police Foundation’s director
of research from 1979 to
1985.
POLICE
FOUNDATION
Abstract
The new paradigm of “evidence-based medicine” holds
important implications for policing. It suggests that just doing
research is not enough and that proactive efforts are required to
push accumulated research evidence into practice through
national
and community guidelines. These guidelines can then focus in-
house evaluations of what works best across agencies, units,
victims, and officers. Statistical adjustments for the risk factors
shaping crime can provide fair comparisons across police units,
including national rankings of police agencies by their crime
prevention effectiveness. The example of domestic violence, for
which accumulated National Institute of Justice research could
lead to evidence-based guidelines, illustrates the way in which
agency-based outcomes research could further reduce violence
against victims. National pressure to adopt this paradigm could
come from agency-ranking studies, but police agency capacity
to
adopt it will require new data systems creating “medical charts”
for crime victims, annual audits of crime reporting systems, and
in-house “evidence cops” who document the ongoing patterns
and effects of police practices in light of published and in-house
research. These analyses can then be integrated into the NYPD
Compstat feedback model for management accountability and
continuous quality improvement.
Most of us have thought of the
statistician’s work as that of measuring
3. and predicting . . . but few of us have
thought it the statistician’s duty to try to
bring about changes in the things that he
[or she] measures.
—W. Edwards Deming
—— 2 ——
Of all the ideas in policing,
one stands out as the most
powerful force for change: police
practices should be based on
scientific evidence about what
works best. Early in this century,
Berkeley Police Chief August
Vollmer’s partnership with his
local university helped generate
this idea (Carte and Carte 1975),
which was clearly derived from
that era’s expansion of the
scientific method into medicine,
management, agriculture, and
many other fields (Cheit 1975).
While science had greater initial
impact in those other professions
during the first half of the
century, policing in recent
decades has been moving rapidly
to catch up. However, any
assessment of this idea in modern
policing must begin with an
accurate benchmark: catching up
to what? More complete evidence
4. on the linkage between research
and practice suggests a new
paradigm for police improvement
and for public safety in general:
evidence-based crime prevention.
For years, Sherman (1984,
1992) and others have used
medicine as the exemplar of a
profession based upon strong
scientific evidence. Sherman has
praised medicine as a field in
which practitioners have advanced
training in the scientific method
and keep up-to-date with the
most recent research evidence by
reading medical journals. He has
cited the large body of
randomized controlled
experiments in medicine—now
estimated to number almost one
million in print (Sackett and
Rosenberg 1995)—as the highly
rigorous scientific evidence used
to guide medical practices. He
has suggested that policing
should therefore be more like
medicine.
Sherman was right about the
need for many more randomized
experiments in policing, but
wrong about how much medicine
was really based on scientific
research. New evidence shows
5. that doctors resist changing
practices based on new research
just as much as police do, if not
more so. Closer examination
reveals medicine to be a
battleground between research
and practice, with useful lessons
for policing on new ways to
promote research. Those lessons
come from a new strategy called
“evidence-based medicine,”1
“widely hailed as the long-sought
link between research and
practice” (Zuger 1997) to solve
problems like the following
(Millenson 1997, 4, 122, 131):
• An estimated 85 percent of
medical practices remain
untested by research evidence.
• Most doctors rarely read the
2,500 medical journals
available, and instead base their
practice on local custom.
• Most studies that do guide
practice use weak, non-
randomized research designs.
Medicine, in fact, seems just
as resistant to the use of evidence
to guide practice as are fields with
lower educational requirements,
such as policing. The National
6. Institutes of Health (NIH)
Consensus Guidelines are a case
in point. NIH convenes advisory
boards to issue to physicians
recommendations that are based
on intensive reviews of research
evidence on specific medical
practices. These recommendations
usually receive extensive publicity,
and are reinforced by mailings of
the guideline summaries to some
one hundred thousand doctors.
But according to a RAND
evaluation, doctors rarely change
their practices in response to
publication of these guidelines
(Kosecoff et al. 1987, as cited in
Millenson 1997). Thus three
years after research found that
heart attack patients treated with
calcium antagonists were more
likely to die, doctors still
prescribed this dangerous drug to
one-third of heart attack patients.
Eight years after antibiotics were
shown to cure ulcers, 90 percent
of ulcer patients remained
untreated by antibiotics
(Millenson 1997, 123–25).
Evidence Cops
The struggle to change
medical practice based on
research evidence has a long
history, with valuable implications
7. for policing. In the 1840s, Ignaz
Semmelweiss found evidence that
maternal death in childbirth
could be reduced if doctors
1 The term “evidence” in this mono-
graph refers to scientific, not criminal,
evidence.
—— 3 ——
washed their hands before
delivering babies. He then tried to
apply this research to medical
practice in Vienna, which led to
his being driven out of town by
his boss, the chief obstetrician.
Hundreds of thousands of women
died because the profession
refused to comply with his
evidence-based guidelines for
some forty years. The story shows
the important distinction between
merely doing research and
attempting to apply research to
redirect professional practices.
One way to describe people
who try to apply research is the
role of “evidence cop.” More like
a traffic cop than Victor Hugo’s
detective Javert, the evidence
cop’s job is to redirect practice
through compliance rather than
8. punishment. While this job may
be as challenging as herding cats,
it still consists of pointing
professionals to practice “this way,
not that way.” As in all policing,
the success rate for this job varies
widely. Fortunately, the initial
failures of people like Semmelweiss
paved the way for greater success
in the 1990s.
Consider Scott Wein-
garten, M.D., of Cedars-Sinai
Hospital in Los Angeles. As
director of the hospital’s Center
for Applied Health Services
Research, Weingarten is an
evidence-cop-in-residence. His
job is to monitor what the 2,250
doctors are doing to patients at
the hospital and to detect
practices that run counter to
recommendations based on
research evidence. He does this
through prodding rather than
punishment, convening groups of
doctors who treat specific
maladies to discuss the research
evidence. These groups then
produce their own consensus
guidelines for practices that
become hospital policy. Thirty-
five such sets of guidelines were
produced in Weingarten’s first
four years on the job (Millenson
9. 1997, 120).
What NIH, Weingarten, and
the 1995 founders of the new
journal called Evidence-Based
Medicine are all trying to do is to
push research into practice. Just
as policing has become more
proactive at dealing with crime,
researchers are becoming more
proactive about dealing with
practice. This trend has developed
in many fields, not just medicine.
Increased pressure for
“reinventing government” to
focus on measurable results is
reflected in the 1994 U.S.
Government Performance Results
Act (GPRA), which requires all
federal agencies to file annual
reports on quantitative indicators
of their achievements. Education
is under growing pressure to raise
test scores as proof that children
are learning, which has led to
increased discussion of research
evidence on what works in
education (Raspberry 1998). And
the U.S. Congress has required
that the effectiveness of federally
funded crime prevention
programs be evaluated using
“rigorous and scientifically
recognized standards and
methodologies” (House 1995,
10. sec. 116). All this sets the stage
for a new paradigm for making
research more useful to policing
than it has ever been before.
Key Questions
In suggesting a new paradigm
called evidence-based policing,
there are four key questions to
answer: What is it? What is new
about it? How does it apply to a
specific example of police
practice? How can it be
institutionalized?
What is it?
Evidence-based policing is the
use of the best available research
on the outcomes of police work
to implement guidelines and
evaluate agencies, units, and
officers. Put more simply,
One way to describe people
who try to apply research is the
role of “evidence cop.”
—— 4 ——
evidence-based policing uses
research to guide practice and
evaluate practitioners. It uses the
11. best evidence to shape the best
practice. It is a systematic effort
to parse out and codify
unsystematic “experience” as the
basis for police work, refining it
by ongoing systematic testing of
hypotheses.
Evaluation of ongoing
operations has been the crucial
missing link in many recent
attempts to improve policing. If it
is true that most police work has
yet to go “beyond 911”
(Sparrow, Moore, and Kennedy
1990), the underlying reason may
be a lack of evaluation systems
that clearly link research-based
guidelines to outcomes. It is only
with that addition that policing
can become a “reflexive” or
“smart” institution, continuously
improving with ongoing
feedback.
The basic premise of
evidence-based practice is that we
are all entitled to our own
opinions, but not to our own
facts. Yet left alone to practice
individually, practitioners do
come up with their own “facts,”
which often turn out to be
wrong. A recent survey of 82
Washington State doctors found
137 different strategies for
12. treating urinary tract infections
(Berg 1991). No doubt the same
result could be found for
handling domestic disturbances.
A study evaluating the accuracy
of strep throat diagnoses based
on unstructured examination by
experienced pediatricians found it
far inferior to a systematic,
evidence-based checklist used by
nurses. The mythic power of
subjective and unstructured
wisdom holds back every field
and keeps it from systematically
discovering and implementing
what works best in repeated tasks.
A prime example of the
power of systematic, ongoing
evaluations comes again from
medicine. In 1990, the New York
State Health Department began
to publish death rates for
coronary bypass surgery grouped
by hospital and individual
surgeon. This action was
prompted by research showing
that while the statewide average
death rate was 3.7 percent, some
doctors ran as high as 82 percent.
Moreover, after adjusting for the
risk of death by the pre-operation
condition of the patient caseload,
patients were 4.4 times more
likely to die in surgery at the least
13. successful hospitals than at the
best hospitals. Despite enormous
opposition from hospitals and
surgeons, these data were made
public, revealing a strong practice
effect: the more operations
doctors and hospitals did each
year, the lower the risk-adjusted
death rate. Using this clear
correlation to push low-frequency
surgeons and hospitals out of this
business altogether, hospitals
were able to lower the death rate
in these operations by 40 percent
in just three years (Millenson
1997, 195).
Evidence-based policing is
about two very different kinds of
research: basic research on what
works best when implemented
properly under controlled
conditions, and ongoing
outcomes research about the
results each unit is actually
achieving by applying (or
ignoring) basic research in
practice. This combination creates
a feedback loop (fig. 1) that
begins with either published or
in-house studies suggesting how
policing might obtain the best
effects. The review of this
evidence can lead to guidelines
taking law, ethics, and community
14. Figure 1. Evidence-Based Policing.
Literature
Best
Evidence
In-House
Guidelines
Outputs
Outcomes
➤
➤
➤
➤
➤
➤
➤
➤
—— 5 ——
culture into account. These
guidelines would specify
15. measurable “outputs,” or
practices that police are asked to
follow. Their varying degrees of
success at delivering those
outputs can then be assessed by
tracking risk-adjusted
“outcomes,” or results over a
reasonably long follow-up period.
These outcomes may be defined
in several different ways: offenses
per 1,000 residents, repeat
victimizations per 100 victims,
repeat offending per 100
offenders, and so on. The
observation that some units are
getting better results than others
can be used to further identify
factors associated with success,
which can then be fed back as
new in-house research to refine
the guidelines and raise the
overall success level of the agency.
Such research could also be
published in national journals or
at least kept in an agency
database as institutional memory
about success and failure rates for
different methods.
What is new about it?
Skeptics may say that there is
nothing new in evidence-based
policing, and that other
paradigms already embrace these
principles. On closer examination,
16. however, we will see that no
other paradigm contains the
principles for its own
implementation. No other
paradigm contains a principle for
both changing practices and
measuring the success of those
changes with risk-adjusted
outcomes research (like bypass
surgery death rates). No other
paradigm—not even NYPD’s
Computerized Crime Comparison
Statistics (Compstat) strategy
(Bratton with Knobler 1998)—
uses scientific evidence to hold
professionals accountable for
results in peer-reviewed and even
public discussions of outcomes
evidence.
Evidence-based policing is
clearly different from, but very
helpful to, all three present
paradigms of policing. Incident-
specific policing, or 911
responses, currently lack any
outcomes measure except time
out of service. Police officers who
take too much time to handle a
call are sometimes accused of
shirking and are urged by
supervisors to work faster.2 But
no one tracks the rate of repeat
calls by officer or unit to see how
effective the first response was in
17. preventing future problems.
Evidence-based policing could
use such outcomes to justify
longer time spent on each call on
the basis of an officer’s average
results, rather than issuing a
crude demand that he or she stay
within an average time limit. It
could also place much more
emphasis on learning how to deal
with each call most effectively
and preventively, a question that
currently gets little attention.
Community policing,
however defined, is not clearly
linked to evidence about
effectiveness in preventing crime.
It is much more about how to do
police work—a set of outputs—
than it is about desired results, or
outcomes. Working with the
community and listening to and
respecting community members
are all important elements of the
paradigm. But that paradigm
alone has been easy for many
officers to ignore. Adding the
accountability systems from the
paradigm of evidence-based
policing could actually make
police far more active in working
with the community.
Problem-oriented policing is
18. clearly the major source for
2 This sounds oddly like the pressure
for drive-in, drive-out childbirth health
insurance now barred by federal law.
Evidence-based policing is
clearly different from, but
very helpful to, all three
present paradigms of policing.
—— 6 ——
evidence-based policing. Herman
Goldstein’s writings (1979,
1990), as well as John Eck and
William Spelman’s SARA model
(1987), clearly emphasize
assessment of problem-solving
responses as a key part of the
process. Yet there is no clear
statement about the use of
scientific evidence either in
selecting strategies for responding
to problems or in monitoring the
implementation and results of
those strategies (Sherman 1991).
Reports on problem-oriented
policing have so far produced
little evidence either from
controlled tests or outcomes
research. Because the paradigm
stresses the unique characteristics
of each crime pattern, problem-
19. oriented policing has not been
used to respond to highly
repetitive situations like domestic
assaults or disputes. Few
comparisons of different methods
for attacking the same problem
have been developed. Few officers
are even held accountable for not
implementing a problem-solving
plan they have agreed to
undertake. Problem-oriented
policing has clearly revolutionized
the way many police think about
their objectives, moving them
away from a narrow focus on
each incident to a broader focus
on patterns and systems. But in
the absence of pressure from an
evidence-based approach to
evaluating success and
management accountability,
problem-oriented policing has
been kept at the margins of
police work.
NYPD’s Compstat strategy
(Bratton with Knobler 1998) has
pushed the results accountability
principle farther than ever before,
but it has not used the scientific
method to assess cause and effect.
Successful managers are
rewarded, but successful methods
are not pinpointed and codified.
What evidence-based policing
20. adds to these paradigms is a new
principle for decision making:
scientific evidence. Most police
practice, like medical practice, is
still shaped by local custom,
opinions, theories, and subjective
impressions. Evidence-based
policing challenges those
principles of decision making and
creates systematic feedback to
provide continuous quality
improvement in the achievement
of police objectives (see Hoover
1996). Hence the inspiration for
this paradigm is not only
medicine and its randomized
trials, but also the principles of
quality control in manufacturing
developed by Walter Shewhart
(1939) and W. Edwards Deming
(1986). These principles were
initially rejected by U.S. business
leaders, but were finally embraced
in the 1980s after Japanese
industries used them to far
surpass U.S. manufacturers in the
quality of their products.
What makes both policing
and medicine different from
manufacturing, of course, is the
far greater variability in the raw
material to be processed—human
beings. That is what gives the
gold standard of evaluation
research, the randomized
21. controlled trial, both its strength
and its limitations. The strength
of the research design, pioneered
in policing by the Police
Foundation, is its ability to
reduce uncertainty about the
average effects of a policy on vast
numbers of people. The
limitation of the research design
is that it cannot escape variability
in treatments, responses, and
implementation.
The variability of treatments
in policing is much like that in
surgery, which stands in sharp
contrast to pharmaceuticals.
While the chemical content of
medical drugs is almost always
identical, the procedural content
of surgery varies widely. Similarly,
the style and tone each officer
brings to a citizen encounter
varies enormously and can make a
big difference in the outcome of
a specific case. Dosage, timing,
and follow-up of both drugs and
police work can vary widely in
practice.
Even holding treatment
constant, there is evidence that
both patients and offenders
respond to treatments with wide
variations. Some of these
22. responses, allergic reactions, can
kill some people with treatments
that cure most others. Offenders
are known to vary in their
responses to police actions by
individual, neighborhood, and
city. And implementation of new
practices based on controlled
experiments in both medicine and
policing varies according to how
well research is communicated,
how much information is created
—— 7 ——
about whether practices actually
change, and how much
reinforcement there is for the
change, both positive and
negative.
Evidence-based policing
assumes that experiments alone
are not enough. Putting research
into practice requires just as
much attention to
implementation as it does to
controlled evaluations. Ongoing
systems for researching
implementation can close the
feedback loop to create the
principle of industrial quality
improvement.
23. How does it apply to a specific
example of police practice?
The policing of domestic
violence offers a clear illustration
of what is new about the
evidence-based paradigm.
Domestic violence has been the
subject of more police practices
research than any other crime
problem. The research has
arguably had little effect on
police practice, at least by the
new standards of evidence-based
medicine. Yet the available
evidence offers a fair and
scientifically valid approach for
holding police agencies, units,
and officers accountable for the
results of police work, as
measured by repeated domestic
violence against the same victims.
The National Institute of
Justice (NIJ) and the Police
Foundation have provided
policing with extensive
information on what works to
prevent repeated violence. The
research has also shown that, like
surgery, police practices vary
greatly in their implementation.
These variations in practice cause
varying results for repeat
offending against victims. Even
24. holding practice constant,
responses to arrest vary by
offender, neighborhood, and city.
Finally, research shows very poor
compliance with mandatory arrest
guidelines after they are adopted
(Ferraro 1989).
There are many varieties of
arrest for misdemeanor domestic
violence. The offender may or
may not be handcuffed, arrested
in front of family and neighbors,
given a chance to explain his
version of events to the police, or
treated with courtesy and
politeness. Do these variations on
the theme of arrest make a
difference? They should,
according to the “defiance”
theory of criminal sanction effects
(Sherman 1993). And they did in
Milwaukee, according to
Raymond Paternoster and his
colleagues (1997). The
Milwaukee evidence reveals that
controlling for other risk factors
among some 800 arrested
offenders, those who felt they
were not treated in a procedurally
fair and polite manner were
60 percent more likely to commit
a reported act of domestic
violence in the future (fig. 2).
This finding suggests three ways
25. 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
40%
50%
25%
Fair Unfair
Figure 2. Repeat Domestic Violence and Police Fairness.
Source: Paternoster, et al.
—— 8 ——
to push research into practice:
1) change the guidelines for
making domestic violence arrests
to include those elements that
would enable offenders to
perceive more “procedural
justice”; 2) hold police
accountable for using these
guidelines by comparing rates of
repeat victimization associated
26. with different police units; and
3) compute these rates using
statistical adjustments for the pre-
existing level of recidivism risks.
The NIJ research provides
other evidence for ways that
police can reduce repeat
offending in misdemeanor
domestic violence. Rather than a
one-size-fits-all policy, the
evidence suggests specific guide-
lines to be used under different
conditions. Offenders who are
absent when police arrive—as
they are in some 40 percent of
cases—respond more effectively
to arrest warrants than offenders
who are arrested on the scene
(Dunford 1990). Offenders who
are employed are deterred by
arrest, while offenders who are
unemployed generally increase
their offending more if they are
arrested than if they are handled
in some other fashion (Pate and
Hamilton 1992; Berk et al. 1992;
Sherman and Smith 1992).
Offenders who live in urban areas
of concentrated poverty commit
more repeat offenses if they are
arrested than if not, while
offenders who live in more
affluent areas commit fewer
repeat offenses if they are arrested
(Marciniak 1994). All of these
27. findings could be changed by
further research, but for the
moment they are the best
evidence available.
This research evidence could
support guidelines for policing
domestic violence that differed by
neighborhood and absence or
presence of the offender. It could
also support guidelines about
listening to suspects’ side of the
story before making arrest
decisions and generally treating
suspects with courtesy. Other
evidence, such as the extremely
high-risk period for repeat
victimization in the first days and
weeks after the last police
encounter (Strang and Sherman
1996), could be used to fashion
new problem-oriented strategies.
Most important, the existing
research can be used to create a
fair system for evaluating police
performance on the basis of risk-
adjusted outcomes. That evidence
(fig. 3) shows that the likelihood
of a repeat offense is strongly
linked to the number of previous
offenses each offender has.
Once the risk of repeat
offending can be predicted with
28. reasonable accuracy, it becomes
possible to use those predictions
as a benchmark for police
performance. Just as in the bypass
surgery death rates in New York,
the outcomes of policing can be
Figure 3. Risk of Repeat Domestic Assault by Priors.
Milwaukee Domestic Violence Experiment
0
20
40
60
80
0 1 2 3 7
Percent Repeats
42%
48%
75%
60%
—— 9 ——
29. controlled for the risk level
inherent in the caseload they face.
Using a citywide database of all
domestic assaults, now running
over ten thousand cases per year
in cities like Milwaukee, a model
can be constructed to assess the
risk of repeat offending in each
case. The overall mix of cases in
each police precinct or for each
officer can generate an average
risk level for that caseload. Each
police patrol district can then be
evaluated according to the actual
versus predicted rate of repeat
offending each year (fig. 4). All
patrol districts in the city can
then be compared on the basis of
their relative percentage
difference between expected and
actual rates of repeat domestic
assault (fig. 5).
By constructing information
systems for this kind of outcome
research, police departments can
focus on an objective that has
only previously been measured in
major experiments. Making the
goal of policing each domestic
assault the outcome of a reduced
repeat offending rate rather than
the output of whether an arrest is
made would have several effects.
One is that crime prevention
30. would get greater attention than
retribution for its own sake.
While not everyone would
welcome that, it is consistent with
at least some police leaders’ view
of the purpose of the police as a
crime prevention agency (Bratton
with Knobler 1998). Another
effect would be to seek out and
Figure 4. Observed vs. Expected Risk of Repeat
Domestic Violence.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Observed Expected
Percent Repeat
25%
50%
-100
31. -50
0
50
100
150
200
PCT 1 PCT 2 PCT 3 PCT 4 PCT 5
Percent Repeat
Figure 5. Observed vs. Expected Ranking by Precinct.
–50%
–25%
50%
150%
—— 10 ——
even initiate more research on
what works best to prevent
domestic violence. In the world
as we now know it, no one in
policing—from the police chief to
32. the rookie officer—has any direct
incentive to reduce repeat
offending against known victims.
No one in policing is held
accountable for accomplishing, or
even measuring, that objective.
As a result, no one knows
whether repeat victimization rates
get better or worse from year to
year. Using outcomes evidence to
evaluate performance would make
police practices far more victim-
centered, the top priority being
that of preventing any further
assaults.
How can it be
institutionalized?
The strongest claim about
evidence-based policing is that it
contains the principles of its own
implementation. The principles of
using evidence both to change
and evaluate practice can be
applied to a broad institutional
analysis of implementation. Thus
while the changes described
above would have to occur one
police agency at a time, there are
certain national forces that can
help start the ball rolling. This
can be seen, for example, in
national rankings of big-city
police agencies, as well as national
33. mandates for improving police
data systems to provide better
evidence. Yet even such external
pressures will not succeed
without internal evidence cops to
import, apply, and create research
evidence.
No institution is likely to
increase voluntarily its
accountability except under
strong external pressure. It is
unlikely that evidence-based
policing could be adopted by a
police executive simply because it
appears to be a good idea. The
history of evidence-based
medicine and education strongly
suggests that professionals will
only make such changes under
external coercion. Nothing seems
to foster such pressure as much as
performance rankings across
agencies (Millenson 1997;
Steinberg 1998). Just as various
public performance measures
allow stockbrokers to rank
publicly-held corporations and
provide those companies with
strong incentives for better
results, public information about
police performance would create
the strongest pressure for
improvement.3
34. One example of how the
major city police departments
could be ranked on performance
can be found in their homicide
rates, which already receive
extensive publicity. What these
statistics lack, however, is any
scientific analysis of expected risk.
Police performance has nothing
to do, at least in the short run,
with the social, economic,
demographic, and drug market
forces that help shape a city’s
homicide rate. While police
performance may also affect those
homicide rates, the other factors
must be taken into account.
Using risk-adjusted homicide
rates provides one indication of
how well a police department
may be doing things like
confiscating illegal weapons,
patrolling hot spots, regulating
violent taverns and drug markets,
and monitoring youth gangs.
While the basic research literature
would increasingly provide a
source of guidance for taking
initiatives against homicide, a
3 The 1919 results of the first
national rankings of hospitals were
deemed so threatening that the American
College of Surgeons decided to burn the
report immediately in the furnace of
New York’s Waldorf-Astoria Hotel
35. (Millenson 1997, 146).
The strongest claim about
evidence-based policing is that
it contains the principles of
its own implementation.
—— 11 ——
risk-adjusted outcomes analysis
(fig. 6) would indicate how well
that research had been put into
practice.4
If a credible national research
organization would produce such
“league rankings” among big-city
police departments each year (like
the U.S. News & World Report
rankings of colleges and
universities), the predictable
result in the short term would be
attacks on the methodology used.
That is, in fact, what continues to
go on in New York with the
death rates in surgery. But the
New York rankings have spread
to other states, and consumers
have found them quite valuable.
Doctors—and police—may also
find rankings very valuable in the
long run. Both professions should
enjoy greater public respect as
they get better at producing the
36. results their consumers want.
The more seriously
performance indicators influence
the fate of organizations, the
more likely they are to be
subverted. Recent examples
include the U.S. Postal Service in
West Virginia, where an elaborate
scheme to defeat the on-time
mail delivery audit was recently
alleged (McAllister 1998). Other
examples include teachers helping
students to cheat on their answers
to national achievement tests and,
of course, police departments
under-reporting crime. The New
York City police have removed
three commanders in the past five
years for improperly counting
crime to make their performance
look better (Kocieniewski 1998),
and several chiefs of police
elsewhere have been convicted on
criminal charges for similar
conduct.
Quite apart from pressures to
corrupt data, criminologists have
long known that police crime
reporting is not reliable, with the
possible exception of homicide.
No two agencies classify crime
the same way. The same event
37. may be called an aggravated
assault in one agency and a
“miscellaneous incident” in
another. The recent FBI decision
to drop Philadelphia from the
national crime reporting program
was not an isolated action. In
1988, the FBI quietly dropped
the entire states of Florida and
Kentucky. Since the FBI lacks
resources to do on-site audits in
each police agency every year,
these examples are just the tip of
a very big iceberg. There are
already rising suspicions of police
manipulation of crime data as
4 While many of the basic risk factors
would be computed from Census data
that could be out of date by the middle
of each decade, other risk data can be
derived from annually updated sources,
such as the NIJ ADAM data on drug
abuse among arrestees. Unemployment,
school dropout, teen childbirth, and
infant mortality data are also available
annually for each city and could help
predict the expected rate of homicide.
Hypothetical Data
Figure 6. Homicide by City, Actual vs. Predicted.
-60
-40
38. -20
0
20
40
60
80
NYC Balt. Chi LA Dallas
Percent Difference
–50%
–25%
25%
60%
NYC Baltimore Chicago LA Dallas
—— 12 ——
crime rates fall in many cities.
More serious pressure from
national rankings would threaten
data integrity even more.
39. One viable solution to this
problem is a federal requirement
for police departments to retain
CPA firms to produce annual
audits of their reported crime
data. This requirement could be
imposed as a condition for
receiving federal funds, just as
many other federal mandates have
already done. Anticipating court
challenges about unfunded
mandates (such as the Brady Bill),
Congress could also provide
funds to pay for the audits.
Crime counting standards could
be set nationally by the
accounting profession in
collaboration with the FBI.
Alternatively, each state legislature
could require (or even fund)
these audits as a means of
assuring fairness in performance
rankings of police departments
within the state. State agencies
such as the criminal justice
statistical centers could also
produce such rankings as a
service to taxpayers. States already
have the option of spending
federal funds on such a purpose
under the broad category of
evaluation funds.
In the process of revitalizing
crime data integrity, there would
be great value in reorganizing
40. police data systems. Most
important would be the creation
of a “medical chart” for each
crime victim. Like computerized
patient records, this chart would
show the diagnosis (offense
description) for each incident a
victim presents to a police agency,
perhaps anywhere in the state.
The chart would also show what
police did in response, everything
from taking an offense report to
arresting an offender whose
release date from prison is also
kept, updated, in the
computerized victim chart. This
information tool could help
develop many proactive police
methods for preventing repeat
victimization. Allowing officers to
use these data to keep their own
private “batting averages” for
repeat victimization (even
without adjusting for risk) may
encourage them to become
involved and committed to doing
a better job at preventing crime.
Better records are also needed
about what police do about crime
according to certain patterns of
offenses. “Medical charts” for
violent taverns, frequently robbed
convenience stores, and other hot
spots where most crime occurs
41. would be very useful for ongoing
problem-oriented policing
attempts to reduce repeat
offending at those places. Similar
records could be kept about a
pattern of crimes spread out
across a wider area, such as
automatic teller machine
robberies. If officer teams or units
identify these places or patterns as
crime targets and designate a
control group, these medical
charts can become the basis for
estimating how much crime each
police unit has prevented.
Computers can also help
police officers to implement
practice guidelines. Medical
computer systems now offer
recommended practice guidelines
in response to a checklist of data,
as well as warning when drug
prescriptions fall outside
programmed parameters of
disease type and dosage. The use
of hand-held computers to advise
officers in the field and to provide
instant quality control checks may
not happen soon, but the growth
of police research may make it
inevitable in the long run.
Doctors are not expected to keep
In the process of revitalizing
42. crime data integrity, there
would be great value in
reorganizing police data
systems.
—— 13 ——
large amounts of research data in
their heads, nor even medical
guidelines for each diagnosis.
Computers will not replace good
judgment, but they can clearly
enhance it.
Federal rules could also
require police departments to
appoint a certified police
criminologist (either internally or
in partnership with a university or
research organization), who
would become the agency’s
evidence cop. Like Scott
Weingarten of Cedars-Sinai, the
departmental criminologist would
be responsible for putting
research into practice, then
evaluating the results. Whether
the criminologist is actually an
employee or a university professor
working in partnership with the
police may not matter as much as
the role itself. The criminologist
could help develop more effective
guidelines for preventing repeat
43. offending, and could develop
expected versus actual repeat
offending data by offense type for
each police district or detective
unit. A criminologist could add
the scientific method to the
NYPD Compstat process
(Bratton with Knobler 1998),
providing statistics at each
meeting on each patrol district’s
crime trends and patterns (or
even its complaints against police
officers) in relation to the
district’s risk level. Building the
capacity to import, apply, and
create evidence within each police
agency may be an essential
ingredient in the success of this
paradigm.
We may also find that the
traditional distance between
researchers and police officials
shrinks when researchers provide
more immediate managerial
information. Criminologists have
long refused to provide police
managers with data on particular
officers, deeming it contrary to
the ethics of basic research
(Hartnett 1998). By finally
providing the data in a
scientifically reasonable format,
criminologists may become far
more effective at pushing research
into practice.
44. Criminologists can also act on
the finding that doctors tend to
change practices based on
personal interaction and repeated
computerized feedback, and not
from conferences, classes, or
written research reports
(Millenson 1997, 127–30).
Similar findings have been
published about the effectiveness
of agricultural extension services,
in which university scientists visit
farms and show farmers new
techniques for improving their
crop yields. They echo a Chinese
proverb: Tell me and I will
forget; show me and I will
remember; involve me and I will
understand.
The one test of this principle
in policing to date is Alex Weiss’s
(1997) research on how police
departments adopt innovations.
Based on a national survey of
police chiefs and their top aides,
Weiss discovered that telephone
calls from agency to agency
played a vital role in spreading
new ideas. While written reports
may have supplemented the
phone calls, word-of-mouth
seems to be the major way in
which police innovations are
45. communicated and adopted.
Weiss’s study suggests the
great importance of gathering
more evidence on evidence. The
empirical question for research is,
what practices work best to
change practices? This inherently
reflexive posture may lead us to
empirical comparisons of the
effectiveness of, for example, NIJ
conferences, mass mailings of
research-in-brief reports, or new
one-on-one approaches. One
example of the latter would be
proactive telephone calls to police
agencies around the U.S. made
by present or former police
officers; callers could be trained
by research organizations to
describe new research findings. If
national consensus guidelines for
practice were developed by panels
of police executives and
The empirical
question for
research is,
what practices
work best to
change
practices?
—— 14 ——
46. researchers, the callers could
communicate those as well. Other
approaches worth testing might
include field demonstrations in
police technique. This training
would not be based on
experience, as is the current Field
Training Officer system, but
rather it would be based on
evidence that the method being
demonstrated has been proven
effective in reducing repeat
offending.
Conclusion
The test of this paradigm’s
results is not whether it is
adopted this year or in twenty
years. As Lord Keynes has
suggested, the influence of ideas
may be far more glacial than
volcanic. The pressure for better
measures of results is in the spirit
of the age, and police cannot
long escape it. All this paper does
is add one inch to the glacier, so
that we can say of policing what
Dr. William Mayo of the Mayo
Clinic said of his profession
almost a century ago: “The glory
of medicine is that it is constantly
moving forward, that there is
always something more to learn.”
47. References
Berg, A.O. 1991. Variations
among family physicians’
management strategies for
lower urinary tract infections
in women: A report from the
Washington Physicians’
Collaborative Research
Network. Journal of the
American Board of Family
Practice (September–
October): 327–30.
Berk, Richard A.; Alec Campbell;
Ruth Klap; and Bruce
Western. 1992. The deterrent
effect of arrest in incidents of
domestic violence: A Bayesian
analysis of four field
experiments. American
Sociological Review 57: 698–
708.
Bratton, William, with Peter
Knobler. 1998. Turnaround:
How America’s top cop
reversed the crime epidemic.
New York: Random House.
Carte, Gene, and Elaine Carte.
1975. Police reform in the
United States: The era of
August Vollmer. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
48. Cheit, Earl. 1975. The useful arts
and the liberal tradition. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Deming, W. Edwards. 1986. Out
of the crisis. Cambridge:
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Center for
Advanced Engineering Study.
Dunford, Franklyn. 1990.
System-initiated warrants for
suspects of misdemeanor
domestic assault: A pilot
study. Justice Quarterly 7:
631–53.
Eck, John, and William Spelman.
1987. Problem-solving:
Problem-oriented policing in
Newport News. Washington,
D.C.: Police Executive
Research Forum.
Ferraro, Kathleen J. 1989.
Policing woman battering.
Social Problems 36: 61–74.
Goldstein, Herman. 1979.
Improving policing: A
problem-oriented approach.
Crime and Delinquency 25:
236–58.
———. 1990. Problem-oriented
49. policing. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Hartnett, Susan. 1998. Address
to the Third National
Institute of Justice
Conference on Police-
Research Partnerships,
February.
Hodge, Melville H. 1990. Direct
use by physicians of the TDS
Medical Information System.
In A History of Medical
Informatics, edited by
Bruce I. Blum and Karen
Duncan. New York: ACM.
Kosecoff, Jacqueline, et al. 1987.
Effect of the National
Institutes of Health
Consensus Development
Program on physician
practice. Journal of the
American Medical Association
258 (November 20): 2708–
13.
McAllister, Bill. 1998. A “special”
delivery in West Virginia:
Postal employees cheat to
beat rating system.
Washington Post, 10 January,
A1.
Marciniak, Elizabeth. 1994.
50. Community policing of
domestic violence:
Neighborhood differences in
the effect of arrest. Ph.D.
diss., University of Maryland.
Millenson, Michael L. 1997.
Demanding medical excellence:
Doctors and accountability in
—— 15 ——
the information age. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Office of Technology Assessment
of the Congress of the United
States. 1983. The impact of
randomized clinical trials on
health policy and medical
practice. Background paper
OTA-BP-H-22. Washington,
D.C.: Government Printing
Office.
Pate, Antony M., and Edwin E.
Hamilton. 1992. Formal and
informal deterrents to
domestic violence: The Dade
County Spouse Assault
Experiment. American
Sociological Review 57: 691–
98.
51. Paternoster, Ray; Bobby Brame;
Ronet Bachman; and
Lawrence W. Sherman. 1997.
Do fair procedures matter?
Procedural justice in the
Milwaukee Domestic Violence
Experiment. Law and Society
Review.
Raspberry, William. 1998. Tried,
true and ignored. Washington
Post, 2 February, A19.
Sackett, David L., and William
M.C. Rosenberg. 1995. On
the need for evidence-based
medicine. Health Economics 4:
249–54.
Sherman, Lawrence W. 1984.
Experiments in police
discretion: Scientific boon or
dangerous knowledge? Law
and Contemporary Problems
47, no. 4: 61–81.
———. 1992. Policing domestic
violence: Experiments and
dilemmas. New York: Free
Press.
———. 1993. Defiance,
deterrence and irrelevance: A
theory of the criminal
sanction. Journal of Research
52. in Crime and Delinquency 30:
445–73.
——— and Douglas A. Smith.
1992. Crime, punishment and
stake in conformity: Legal
and informal control of
domestic violence. American
Sociological Review 57.
Shewhart, Walter A. 1939.
Statistical methods from the
viewpoint of quality control.
Edited by W.E. Deming.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania:
Graduate School of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.
Sparrow, Malcolm; Mark Moore;
and David Kennedy. 1990.
Beyond 911: A new era for
policing. New York: Basic
Books.
Steinberg, Jacques. 1998. Public
shaming: Rating system for
schools: Some states are
finding that humiliation leads
to improvement. New York
Times, 7 January, A19.
Strang, Heather, and Lawrence
W. Sherman. 1996. Predicting
domestic homicide. Paper
presented to the American
Association for the
53. Advancement of Science,
January, in Baltimore,
Maryland.
U.S. Congress. House. 104th
Congress, 1st sess., H. Rept.
104-387, sec. 116.
Weiss, Alexander. 1992. Diffusion
of innovations in police
departments. Ph.D. diss.,
Northwestern University.
Zuger, Abigail. 1997. New way
of doctoring: By the book.
New York Times, 16
December, C1.
—— 16 ——
1201 Connecticut A venue, NW, Washington, DC 20036
(202) 833-1460 • Fax: (202) 659-9149 • e-mail:
[email protected]
ABOUT THE
POLICE FOUNDATION
The Police Foundation is a private, independent, not-for-profit
organization dedicated to
supporting innovation and improvement in policing through its
research, technical assistance, and
communications programs. Established in 1970, the foundation
has conducted seminal research in
police behavior, policy, and procedure, and works to transfer to
local agencies the best new
54. information about practices for dealing effectively with a range
of important police operational
and administrative concerns. Motivating all of the foundation’s
efforts is the goal of efficient,
humane policing that operates within the framework of
democratic principles and the highest
ideals of the nation.
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Chairman
William G. Milliken
President
Hubert Williams
Freda Adler, PhD
Lee P. Brown, PhD
William H. Hudnut III
W. Walter Menninger, MD
Victor H. Palmieri
Henry Ruth
Stanley K. Sheinbaum
Alfred A. Slocum
Sally Suchil
Kathryn J. Whitmire
55. POLICE
FOUNDATION
OFFICE OF RESEARCH
David Weisburd, PhD
Senior Research Scientist
Rosann Greenspan, PhD
Research Director
Patrick R. Gartin, PhD
Senior Research Associate
David G. Olson, PhD
Senior Research Associate
Edwin E. Hamilton, MA
Senior Research Analyst
Michael Clifton, MA
Research Associate
Jennifer C. Nickisch, MA
Research Associate
Justin Ready, MA
Research Associate
Annette C. Miller, MA
Research Assistant
Rachel Dadusc, BA
Administrative Assistant