This document discusses a study that examined the effectiveness of using fear appeals to improve traffic safety attitudes among adolescents. The study exposed some adolescents to emotionally intense presentations from victims of severe traffic accidents. Surprisingly, the study found no clear evidence that this improved attitudes, and even a slight tendency toward worse attitudes. More unexpectedly, the study found that having experience with a severe traffic accident victim within one's social circle also did not result in better attitudes or behavior. This suggests that risky attitudes may reflect a subculture with shared norms, and isolated safety interventions are not effective at changing them. The findings raise questions about the positioning and use of injury prevention programs that rely primarily on fear appeals.
FB Smarty Facebook Case Study - Asa Waters MansionFB Smarty
This FB Smarty Case Study of Asa Waters Mansions highlights the fact that numerous businesses and organizations started their Facebook presence as Facebook Personal Profiles rather than Facebook Business Pages. Learn why that isn't the best way to grow your Facebook Community. Thank you to Asa Waters for agreeing to be our Case Study this month.
This study investigated traffic safety attitudes among secondary school pupils in the Netherlands to guide development of traffic safety education. A survey assessed pupils' knowledge and attitudes across 7 domains related to traffic safety. Key findings were that specific attitudes, such as conformity to peer norms and consideration for others, strongly correlated with actual accident involvement. In contrast, traffic rule knowledge did not correlate with accidents. Attitudes tended to become less safe as pupils grew older. The study confirms that infrastructure measures alone are insufficient for accident prevention and that education also needs to target attitudes.
A presentation that looks how outdoor education coordinators communicated risk to parents and how the important area of risk perception research can influence how the messages are received.
This document provides an overview of road safety from various perspectives. It begins by defining key terms related to road safety such as safety, unsafety, risk, and accidents. It describes how road unsafety manifests itself through traffic accidents that result in death, injury, or property damage. It also discusses how risk is defined mathematically and how subjective and objective perspectives of road safety differ. The document then outlines various chapters that will provide insight into problems, causes, objectives and solutions regarding road safety from the perspectives of theory, trends, policy, data collection, and research.
Effects of persuasive communication and group discussionsCharles. Goldenbeld
This document summarizes a research article that studied the effects of persuasive communication and group discussions on the acceptability of anti-speeding policies among male and female drivers. The study had two stages:
1) Drivers were randomly assigned to conditions with different types of persuasive messages (e.g. written information only, fear appeal video only, or both) and their responses were measured.
2) Drivers then participated in group discussions and their responses were measured again to see if social communication impacted acceptability.
The study found that fear appeal messages had counterproductive effects on male drivers' acceptability but not females', and that group discussions generally shifted attitudes in a more negative direction for both genders. For females,
The CSU Evaluation Team is beginning their work for the year evaluating several youth programs in conjunction with Colorado state agencies. This includes analyzing data from 2010-2011 to assess outcomes for the Tony Grampsas Youth Services program, and comparing results from 2008-2011. The team will also continue evaluating the Colorado Works and Statewide Strategic Use Fund programs to measure outcomes for TANF-eligible youth and families. They are working with each agency to refine measurements and indicators. Additionally, the team is wrapping up the second year of evaluating two suicide prevention training programs through collecting and analyzing survey data. This data will help assess the effectiveness of the trainings and develop ideas for enhanced suicide prevention.
This study explored physical trauma experiences among 217 school children in Ndirande, Malawi. Many children reported experiences with trauma: 86 had fallen from a tree, with 44 being injured; 8 had been hit by a motor vehicle, with 2 hospitalized; and 87 had witnessed a road accident. Girls were more likely than boys to fall from trees and get injured. While most children reported being taught road safety, only 41.9% knew the proper procedure for crossing the road. The study highlights the exposure of Malawian children to physical trauma and the need for improved prevention, education, and management of trauma.
A web-based survey and theoretical research focuses mainly on the hazards that children are exposed to while surfing the digital world. It addresses the problem from parents/caregivers perspective and tries to shed light over the best ways of understanding and precautionary means. It is important for families to take all preventive measures to protect their kids from such hazards.
FB Smarty Facebook Case Study - Asa Waters MansionFB Smarty
This FB Smarty Case Study of Asa Waters Mansions highlights the fact that numerous businesses and organizations started their Facebook presence as Facebook Personal Profiles rather than Facebook Business Pages. Learn why that isn't the best way to grow your Facebook Community. Thank you to Asa Waters for agreeing to be our Case Study this month.
This study investigated traffic safety attitudes among secondary school pupils in the Netherlands to guide development of traffic safety education. A survey assessed pupils' knowledge and attitudes across 7 domains related to traffic safety. Key findings were that specific attitudes, such as conformity to peer norms and consideration for others, strongly correlated with actual accident involvement. In contrast, traffic rule knowledge did not correlate with accidents. Attitudes tended to become less safe as pupils grew older. The study confirms that infrastructure measures alone are insufficient for accident prevention and that education also needs to target attitudes.
A presentation that looks how outdoor education coordinators communicated risk to parents and how the important area of risk perception research can influence how the messages are received.
This document provides an overview of road safety from various perspectives. It begins by defining key terms related to road safety such as safety, unsafety, risk, and accidents. It describes how road unsafety manifests itself through traffic accidents that result in death, injury, or property damage. It also discusses how risk is defined mathematically and how subjective and objective perspectives of road safety differ. The document then outlines various chapters that will provide insight into problems, causes, objectives and solutions regarding road safety from the perspectives of theory, trends, policy, data collection, and research.
Effects of persuasive communication and group discussionsCharles. Goldenbeld
This document summarizes a research article that studied the effects of persuasive communication and group discussions on the acceptability of anti-speeding policies among male and female drivers. The study had two stages:
1) Drivers were randomly assigned to conditions with different types of persuasive messages (e.g. written information only, fear appeal video only, or both) and their responses were measured.
2) Drivers then participated in group discussions and their responses were measured again to see if social communication impacted acceptability.
The study found that fear appeal messages had counterproductive effects on male drivers' acceptability but not females', and that group discussions generally shifted attitudes in a more negative direction for both genders. For females,
The CSU Evaluation Team is beginning their work for the year evaluating several youth programs in conjunction with Colorado state agencies. This includes analyzing data from 2010-2011 to assess outcomes for the Tony Grampsas Youth Services program, and comparing results from 2008-2011. The team will also continue evaluating the Colorado Works and Statewide Strategic Use Fund programs to measure outcomes for TANF-eligible youth and families. They are working with each agency to refine measurements and indicators. Additionally, the team is wrapping up the second year of evaluating two suicide prevention training programs through collecting and analyzing survey data. This data will help assess the effectiveness of the trainings and develop ideas for enhanced suicide prevention.
This study explored physical trauma experiences among 217 school children in Ndirande, Malawi. Many children reported experiences with trauma: 86 had fallen from a tree, with 44 being injured; 8 had been hit by a motor vehicle, with 2 hospitalized; and 87 had witnessed a road accident. Girls were more likely than boys to fall from trees and get injured. While most children reported being taught road safety, only 41.9% knew the proper procedure for crossing the road. The study highlights the exposure of Malawian children to physical trauma and the need for improved prevention, education, and management of trauma.
A web-based survey and theoretical research focuses mainly on the hazards that children are exposed to while surfing the digital world. It addresses the problem from parents/caregivers perspective and tries to shed light over the best ways of understanding and precautionary means. It is important for families to take all preventive measures to protect their kids from such hazards.
This annotated bibliography summarizes 8 scholarly articles that examine the effects of texting and driving. The studies found that texting while driving significantly increases the risk of car crashes and can impair drivers' ability to detect hazards. Statistics showed that over 90% of college students surveyed had texted while driving, and half had drifted into other lanes as a result. Experimental driving simulators demonstrated that reaction times were slower when texting compared to normal driving. While some drivers feel laws against texting and driving will not change their behavior, the studies found that emotional appeals using images and stories of deaths from texting and driving can influence attitudes. The research highlights the danger of texting while driving and the need for policies and education to address this
This document summarizes an honors thesis that examines how varying the scale of financial incentives in economic experiments affects measured risk preferences. The thesis conducted a study using Holt and Laury's lottery choice framework with three treatments that differed in payoff structures and probabilities to induce risk behavior. The study found that increasing the scale of payoffs resulted in significantly more risk-averse behavior. Contrary to other research, demographic factors like gender and risky behaviors from a follow-up survey did not predict risk preferences. Self-financing college did predict more risk-averse choices in two treatments, suggesting income should be controlled for. The results provide evidence that the scale of incentives used is important for eliciting realistic risk behavior in experiments.
Using the empirical research article that your instructor approved iheiditownend
Using the empirical research article that your instructor approved in the Week 5 assignment, ask yourself: “Is this a quantitative research article or a qualitative research article?” Remember, in quantitative research, the emphasis is on measuring social phenomenon because it is assumed that everything can be observed, measured, and quantified. On the other hand, in qualitative research, it is assumed that social phenomenon cannot be easily reduced and broken down into concepts that can be measured and quantified. Instead, there may be different meanings to phenomenon and experiences. Often in qualitative research, researchers use interviews, focus groups and observations to gather data and then report their findings using words and quotations.
Consider how these different methods affect the sampling design and recruitment strategy, and ask yourself how the recruitment of research participants will affect the findings.
For this Assignment, submit a 3-4 page paper. Complete the following:
Read your selected empirical research article, and identify whether the study is a quantitative or qualitative study. Justify the reasons why you believe it is a quantitative or qualitative study. (Your instructor will indicate to you if you are correct in identifying the research design. This will point you to whether you will use the “Quantitative Article and Review Critique” or the “Qualitative Article and Review Critique” guidelines for the final assignment in week 10.)
Using the empirical research article, focus on the sampling method in the study and begin to evaluate the sampling method by answering the following:
Describe the sampling methods in your own words (paraphrase, do not quote from the article).
Describe the generalizability or the transferability of the research finding based on the sampling method.
Discuss the limitations the article identified with the sample and how those limitations affect the reliability or credibility.
Explain one recommendation you would make to improve the sampling plan of the study that would address these limitations in future research.
Child Maltreatment and Disaster Prevention: A Qualitative Study of Community Agency Perspectives
Shannon Self-Brown
, PhD,*
Page Anderson
, PhD,†
Shannan Edwards
, MS,† and
Tia McGill
, MPH*
Author information
Article notes
Copyright and License information
Disclaimer
This article has been
cited by
other articles in PMC.
Go to:
Abstract
Introduction:
Child maltreatment (CM) is a significant public health problem that increases following natural disasters. Ecological approaches have been used to study these complex phenomena, and the current research fits within this perspective by conducting qualitative interviews with disaster response and family-serving community agencies. The purpose of the study was to identify whether or not community agencies identified CM as an issue that is relevant for disaster planning and response and their perspectiv ...
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This lesson plan aims to teach students about the causes and effects of youth crime. It includes several activities: discussing a news video about a crime, having groups research different causes of youth crime, matching crimes with their effects, and analyzing a news article about a crime. The lesson seeks to help students understand why youth crime occurs and its impacts, as well as how societies address the issue.
1) Several studies examined texting and driving behaviors among college students and found alarmingly high rates of students reporting texting while driving. For example, one study found 91.2% of college student participants had texted while driving.
2) The studies also found texting while driving was associated with other risky driving behaviors. Students who frequently texted while driving were more likely to engage in behaviors like not wearing a seatbelt or drinking and driving.
3) The studies suggested texting while driving among college students is influenced by social factors. Students were more likely to text and drive if they perceived friends and partners engaged in the risky behavior as well. Stricter laws against texting and driving were also linked
(Re) Considering risk assessment and safety planning in child protection work with domestic violence cases.
Angelique Jenney, MSW, PhD.
Director, F family Violence Services,
Child Development Institute
Asst Prof (Status-Only)
Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work
University of Toronto
This paper reviews studies on school safety and safety precautionary measures in schools to safe guard the lives and properties in the school environment. To this end, the review is done under the following headings: theoretical framework; concept of safe school; relevance of the concept of safe school to health education; empirical evidences of studies on school safety. The primary responsibility of every Local Education Authority (LEA) is to ensure a safe and secure environment for students, staff and visitors. Specific actions that schools can take to increase school safety include ways to identify possible warning signs of students-at-risk and provide support to such students who do not feel that they belong in the school community. Working together, schools and community partners can focus their emergency planning using national guidance, including efforts to build a positive school climate to establish relations of trust and respect among students and staff in order to encourage them to share information about threatening behavior before an incident occurs. Students who do not feel safe at school stay home, and when students are not in school, they do not perform academically; it is therefore recommended that students’ perception of safe school is vital for progress in the entire educational endeavour.
Applied Epidemiology - A Full-Subject Self-Directed Computer-Based Problem-So...Scott Faria
This document describes a computer-based simulation developed to teach applied epidemiology to public health students. The simulation requires students to investigate a real pollution problem affecting a community by collecting and analyzing health and environmental data, designing an epidemiological study, and presenting their findings. It aims to provide students a realistic problem-solving experience that conveys the complexity of real-world public health issues while allowing mistakes without consequences. The simulation spans an entire subject period and allows students to develop skills in teamwork, strategic planning, data analysis, software use, and report writing within budget and time constraints modeled on real-world conditions.
The document discusses the author's singing journey from their early childhood experiences singing in talent shows and with their sister, to participating in their first School of Rock program, and now singing on their church's worship team. A friend's encouragement to "dream on, and sing louder" has motivated the author to pursue singing and not let anyone take their voice away. The journey details the progression of the author's involvement with singing over the years from casual singing to actively participating in musical programs and performances.
Persuasive Essay Topics For Middle Schoolers. Top 145Nicole Dixon
This document discusses exogenous estrogen and its role in endometrial cancer (EC) development. It notes that excess exposure to exogenous estrogen through sources like hormone therapy, tamoxifen use, and phytoestrogens is a major cause of EC. Studies have found increased EC risks associated with estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy. Cyclic combined hormone therapy and progesterone replacement have been shown to reduce EC risk when taken with estrogen. Tamoxifen and raloxifene used to treat breast cancer also increase EC risk in postmenopausal women. The risks vary based on dose and duration of exposure to exogenous estrogen sources.
A Model of Disaster Resilience Among Colleges and Universities: A Mixed Metho...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :This research paper aimed to create a comprehensive framework for measuring disaster
resilience in colleges and universities. The study used a mixed method through Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA), which involved analyzing data from a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed based on
in-depth interviews with 12 selected participants from the University of Mindanao, as well as relevant literature
and studies. It was reviewed and validated by 10 experts using a method called Content Validity Ratio (CVR).
This questionnaire was then administered to 400 students from 10 different colleges in University of Mindanao.
After conducting the Exploratory Factor Analysis and performing rotations and iterations, the researchers
identified five main constructs that characterize disaster resilience among colleges (1) disaster preparedness, (2)
disaster awareness, (3) community readiness, and (4) disaster management, (5) disaster resilience. The
researchers aimed to create an organization called “Council of College Disaster Volunteers (CCDV)” which
consist of student volunteers. These factors can be used to develop effective management strategies and
strengthen efforts in preventing and managing disasters and accidents.
KEYWORDS:content validity ratio, criminology, disaster resilience, disaster management, exploratory factor
analysis, and Philippines.
Understanding and improving community flood preparedness and response: a rese...Neil Dufty
The document presents a research framework developed to understand and improve community flood preparedness and response in the Wimmera region of Victoria, Australia. The framework considers (1) contributing factors like risk perception and flood experience that influence preparedness and response, (2) indicators used to measure preparedness and response levels, and (3) interventions that can be implemented to influence preparedness and response. The framework was used in a social research project across 6 communities in the Wimmera region to gain insights into flood preparedness and response in the region. The framework provides a holistic way to examine key issues and could be applied to other hazards and stages of disaster management beyond just flooding.
Scoring and predicting risk preferencesGurdal Ertek
This study presents a methodology to determine risk scores of individuals, for a given financial risk preference survey. To this end, we use a regression based iterative algorithm to determine the weights for survey questions in the scoring process. Next, we generate classification models to classify individuals into risk-averse and risk-seeking categories, using a subset of survey questions. We illustrate the methodology through a sample survey with 656 respondents. We find that the demographic (indirect) questions can be almost as successful as risk-related (direct) questions in predicting risk preference classes of respondents. Using a decision-tree based classification model, we discuss how one can
generate actionable business rules based on the findings.
http://research.sabanciuniv.edu.
- Dr. Guilarte held one-on-one meetings with MPH EHS students to get to know them better and discuss their goals and aspirations. He was impressed by their diversity of backgrounds and interests in environmental health and public health.
- Dr. Kleiman arranged for over 60 unused but working computers from Columbia University to be donated and repurposed for use by nonprofit groups and individuals in need. EHS students assisted with this effort.
- Adjunct instructor Michael Musso taught a workshop at the Society for Risk Analysis annual meeting on conducting health risk assessments at contaminated sites. He also presented two posters describing his risk assessment work.
- Dr. Shaman has been using mathematical models to analyze and
The document discusses crisis management in response to a collapse at a copper mine. It outlines 10 fundamental steps to consider in crisis management involving potential life-threatening conditions. These include having a comprehensive crisis plan, quickly identifying the crisis, and telling all relevant information to those affected fast and honestly. It also discusses the importance of crisis identification and moving fast to find corrective measures. The summary focuses on the key aspects of crisis management discussed in the document - having a plan, identifying the crisis, and communicating transparently and quickly.
The Role of Teachers in School Safety.pdfjarialakman
The document discusses Leslie Lee Brown's dissertation which examines teachers' perceptions of their abilities to effectively respond to crises on their school campuses. Brown surveyed teachers in numerous southeastern states to understand their views on issues like school violence, natural disasters, terrorism, and crisis management planning. The study found that while teachers report practicing drills with some regularity, they do not feel adequately prepared or trained to handle a crisis situation at their schools.
The document discusses transforming transport to improve safety and access for vulnerable populations including women, children, and the elderly. It defines vulnerable road users as those with little protection or reduced capabilities. Common issues faced by vulnerable groups are a lack of choice and voice for children, barriers on multiple fronts for women, and transport systems not designed for the elderly. Knowledge on the scale and nature of problems for vulnerable road users is still limited. Actions recommended include emphasizing mobility options and universal design principles in transport planning and increasing vulnerable groups' involvement in decision making.
This document discusses risk assessment in social work. It notes that risk assessment aims to improve decisions by making risks explicit and reducing unpredictable events. The document examines different types of risk assessment schedules and considers whether they can accurately predict risk levels. It also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of various risk assessment tools, noting they have particular strengths and weaknesses. Researchers have found risk assessment tools are not always scientific or objective and may rely on value judgments rather than facts.
Generating privacy-protected synthetic data using Secludy and MilvusZilliz
During this demo, the founders of Secludy will demonstrate how their system utilizes Milvus to store and manipulate embeddings for generating privacy-protected synthetic data. Their approach not only maintains the confidentiality of the original data but also enhances the utility and scalability of LLMs under privacy constraints. Attendees, including machine learning engineers, data scientists, and data managers, will witness first-hand how Secludy's integration with Milvus empowers organizations to harness the power of LLMs securely and efficiently.
Letter and Document Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Sol...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on automated letter generation for Bonterra Impact Management using Google Workspace or Microsoft 365.
Interested in deploying letter generation automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
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Similar to Ictc Tpaper Katteler Road Users Receptivity To Fear Appeal Oct 07
This annotated bibliography summarizes 8 scholarly articles that examine the effects of texting and driving. The studies found that texting while driving significantly increases the risk of car crashes and can impair drivers' ability to detect hazards. Statistics showed that over 90% of college students surveyed had texted while driving, and half had drifted into other lanes as a result. Experimental driving simulators demonstrated that reaction times were slower when texting compared to normal driving. While some drivers feel laws against texting and driving will not change their behavior, the studies found that emotional appeals using images and stories of deaths from texting and driving can influence attitudes. The research highlights the danger of texting while driving and the need for policies and education to address this
This document summarizes an honors thesis that examines how varying the scale of financial incentives in economic experiments affects measured risk preferences. The thesis conducted a study using Holt and Laury's lottery choice framework with three treatments that differed in payoff structures and probabilities to induce risk behavior. The study found that increasing the scale of payoffs resulted in significantly more risk-averse behavior. Contrary to other research, demographic factors like gender and risky behaviors from a follow-up survey did not predict risk preferences. Self-financing college did predict more risk-averse choices in two treatments, suggesting income should be controlled for. The results provide evidence that the scale of incentives used is important for eliciting realistic risk behavior in experiments.
Using the empirical research article that your instructor approved iheiditownend
Using the empirical research article that your instructor approved in the Week 5 assignment, ask yourself: “Is this a quantitative research article or a qualitative research article?” Remember, in quantitative research, the emphasis is on measuring social phenomenon because it is assumed that everything can be observed, measured, and quantified. On the other hand, in qualitative research, it is assumed that social phenomenon cannot be easily reduced and broken down into concepts that can be measured and quantified. Instead, there may be different meanings to phenomenon and experiences. Often in qualitative research, researchers use interviews, focus groups and observations to gather data and then report their findings using words and quotations.
Consider how these different methods affect the sampling design and recruitment strategy, and ask yourself how the recruitment of research participants will affect the findings.
For this Assignment, submit a 3-4 page paper. Complete the following:
Read your selected empirical research article, and identify whether the study is a quantitative or qualitative study. Justify the reasons why you believe it is a quantitative or qualitative study. (Your instructor will indicate to you if you are correct in identifying the research design. This will point you to whether you will use the “Quantitative Article and Review Critique” or the “Qualitative Article and Review Critique” guidelines for the final assignment in week 10.)
Using the empirical research article, focus on the sampling method in the study and begin to evaluate the sampling method by answering the following:
Describe the sampling methods in your own words (paraphrase, do not quote from the article).
Describe the generalizability or the transferability of the research finding based on the sampling method.
Discuss the limitations the article identified with the sample and how those limitations affect the reliability or credibility.
Explain one recommendation you would make to improve the sampling plan of the study that would address these limitations in future research.
Child Maltreatment and Disaster Prevention: A Qualitative Study of Community Agency Perspectives
Shannon Self-Brown
, PhD,*
Page Anderson
, PhD,†
Shannan Edwards
, MS,† and
Tia McGill
, MPH*
Author information
Article notes
Copyright and License information
Disclaimer
This article has been
cited by
other articles in PMC.
Go to:
Abstract
Introduction:
Child maltreatment (CM) is a significant public health problem that increases following natural disasters. Ecological approaches have been used to study these complex phenomena, and the current research fits within this perspective by conducting qualitative interviews with disaster response and family-serving community agencies. The purpose of the study was to identify whether or not community agencies identified CM as an issue that is relevant for disaster planning and response and their perspectiv ...
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This lesson plan aims to teach students about the causes and effects of youth crime. It includes several activities: discussing a news video about a crime, having groups research different causes of youth crime, matching crimes with their effects, and analyzing a news article about a crime. The lesson seeks to help students understand why youth crime occurs and its impacts, as well as how societies address the issue.
1) Several studies examined texting and driving behaviors among college students and found alarmingly high rates of students reporting texting while driving. For example, one study found 91.2% of college student participants had texted while driving.
2) The studies also found texting while driving was associated with other risky driving behaviors. Students who frequently texted while driving were more likely to engage in behaviors like not wearing a seatbelt or drinking and driving.
3) The studies suggested texting while driving among college students is influenced by social factors. Students were more likely to text and drive if they perceived friends and partners engaged in the risky behavior as well. Stricter laws against texting and driving were also linked
(Re) Considering risk assessment and safety planning in child protection work with domestic violence cases.
Angelique Jenney, MSW, PhD.
Director, F family Violence Services,
Child Development Institute
Asst Prof (Status-Only)
Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work
University of Toronto
This paper reviews studies on school safety and safety precautionary measures in schools to safe guard the lives and properties in the school environment. To this end, the review is done under the following headings: theoretical framework; concept of safe school; relevance of the concept of safe school to health education; empirical evidences of studies on school safety. The primary responsibility of every Local Education Authority (LEA) is to ensure a safe and secure environment for students, staff and visitors. Specific actions that schools can take to increase school safety include ways to identify possible warning signs of students-at-risk and provide support to such students who do not feel that they belong in the school community. Working together, schools and community partners can focus their emergency planning using national guidance, including efforts to build a positive school climate to establish relations of trust and respect among students and staff in order to encourage them to share information about threatening behavior before an incident occurs. Students who do not feel safe at school stay home, and when students are not in school, they do not perform academically; it is therefore recommended that students’ perception of safe school is vital for progress in the entire educational endeavour.
Applied Epidemiology - A Full-Subject Self-Directed Computer-Based Problem-So...Scott Faria
This document describes a computer-based simulation developed to teach applied epidemiology to public health students. The simulation requires students to investigate a real pollution problem affecting a community by collecting and analyzing health and environmental data, designing an epidemiological study, and presenting their findings. It aims to provide students a realistic problem-solving experience that conveys the complexity of real-world public health issues while allowing mistakes without consequences. The simulation spans an entire subject period and allows students to develop skills in teamwork, strategic planning, data analysis, software use, and report writing within budget and time constraints modeled on real-world conditions.
The document discusses the author's singing journey from their early childhood experiences singing in talent shows and with their sister, to participating in their first School of Rock program, and now singing on their church's worship team. A friend's encouragement to "dream on, and sing louder" has motivated the author to pursue singing and not let anyone take their voice away. The journey details the progression of the author's involvement with singing over the years from casual singing to actively participating in musical programs and performances.
Persuasive Essay Topics For Middle Schoolers. Top 145Nicole Dixon
This document discusses exogenous estrogen and its role in endometrial cancer (EC) development. It notes that excess exposure to exogenous estrogen through sources like hormone therapy, tamoxifen use, and phytoestrogens is a major cause of EC. Studies have found increased EC risks associated with estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy. Cyclic combined hormone therapy and progesterone replacement have been shown to reduce EC risk when taken with estrogen. Tamoxifen and raloxifene used to treat breast cancer also increase EC risk in postmenopausal women. The risks vary based on dose and duration of exposure to exogenous estrogen sources.
A Model of Disaster Resilience Among Colleges and Universities: A Mixed Metho...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :This research paper aimed to create a comprehensive framework for measuring disaster
resilience in colleges and universities. The study used a mixed method through Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA), which involved analyzing data from a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed based on
in-depth interviews with 12 selected participants from the University of Mindanao, as well as relevant literature
and studies. It was reviewed and validated by 10 experts using a method called Content Validity Ratio (CVR).
This questionnaire was then administered to 400 students from 10 different colleges in University of Mindanao.
After conducting the Exploratory Factor Analysis and performing rotations and iterations, the researchers
identified five main constructs that characterize disaster resilience among colleges (1) disaster preparedness, (2)
disaster awareness, (3) community readiness, and (4) disaster management, (5) disaster resilience. The
researchers aimed to create an organization called “Council of College Disaster Volunteers (CCDV)” which
consist of student volunteers. These factors can be used to develop effective management strategies and
strengthen efforts in preventing and managing disasters and accidents.
KEYWORDS:content validity ratio, criminology, disaster resilience, disaster management, exploratory factor
analysis, and Philippines.
Understanding and improving community flood preparedness and response: a rese...Neil Dufty
The document presents a research framework developed to understand and improve community flood preparedness and response in the Wimmera region of Victoria, Australia. The framework considers (1) contributing factors like risk perception and flood experience that influence preparedness and response, (2) indicators used to measure preparedness and response levels, and (3) interventions that can be implemented to influence preparedness and response. The framework was used in a social research project across 6 communities in the Wimmera region to gain insights into flood preparedness and response in the region. The framework provides a holistic way to examine key issues and could be applied to other hazards and stages of disaster management beyond just flooding.
Scoring and predicting risk preferencesGurdal Ertek
This study presents a methodology to determine risk scores of individuals, for a given financial risk preference survey. To this end, we use a regression based iterative algorithm to determine the weights for survey questions in the scoring process. Next, we generate classification models to classify individuals into risk-averse and risk-seeking categories, using a subset of survey questions. We illustrate the methodology through a sample survey with 656 respondents. We find that the demographic (indirect) questions can be almost as successful as risk-related (direct) questions in predicting risk preference classes of respondents. Using a decision-tree based classification model, we discuss how one can
generate actionable business rules based on the findings.
http://research.sabanciuniv.edu.
- Dr. Guilarte held one-on-one meetings with MPH EHS students to get to know them better and discuss their goals and aspirations. He was impressed by their diversity of backgrounds and interests in environmental health and public health.
- Dr. Kleiman arranged for over 60 unused but working computers from Columbia University to be donated and repurposed for use by nonprofit groups and individuals in need. EHS students assisted with this effort.
- Adjunct instructor Michael Musso taught a workshop at the Society for Risk Analysis annual meeting on conducting health risk assessments at contaminated sites. He also presented two posters describing his risk assessment work.
- Dr. Shaman has been using mathematical models to analyze and
The document discusses crisis management in response to a collapse at a copper mine. It outlines 10 fundamental steps to consider in crisis management involving potential life-threatening conditions. These include having a comprehensive crisis plan, quickly identifying the crisis, and telling all relevant information to those affected fast and honestly. It also discusses the importance of crisis identification and moving fast to find corrective measures. The summary focuses on the key aspects of crisis management discussed in the document - having a plan, identifying the crisis, and communicating transparently and quickly.
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Ictc Tpaper Katteler Road Users Receptivity To Fear Appeal Oct 07
1. ROAD USERS’ RECEPTIVITY TO FEAR APPEAL:
EVIDENCE-BASED CONTRA-INDICATION
HERMAN KATTELER
ITS - RADBOUD UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN, NL
PO Box 9048
6500 KJ Nijmegen - Netherlands
Phone +31 24 365 3570
E-mail h.katteler@its.ru.nl
Summary
This paper provides unexpected empirical evidence that gives rise to severe doubts on the
potential effectiveness of injury prevention programs that aim to improve specific attitudes.
The paper discusses the outcome of an empirical study among adolescents on the impact of
emotionally confronting traffic safety education. The study focused on the impact of
exposing boys and girls of 14 - 17 years old to victims of traffic accidents in a emotionally
intensive manner. The study could not find clear evidence for positive impact – even a slight
tendency towards worse attitudes was found –. However, the study provided an interesting
by-product that throws a surprising light on how risk-taking attitudes and risky riding
behaviour are to be viewed.
One of the variables included in the study was the degree in which youngsters had
experienced severe road victims in their immediate proximity. A high degree of this close by,
impressive and emotionally strong experience can be considered as a more intrusive and
above all more durable experience than a once-only, be it intrusive lecture by a road victim.
However, this intrusive victim experience within one’s own social circle did not result in
better attitudes or behaviour. Interestingly enough, bad attitudes and bad behaviour appear
to reflect a type of sub-culture with shared norms and values, among these risky behaviour.
Trying to change those accident-prone attitudes and behaviour would imply, then, changing
a broader set of values commonly accepted in the sub-group. Herewith, an isolated fear-
driven traffic safety education does not have a good chance of success. In case repeated
studies would confirm the outcome of the study, a drastic change in the use and positioning
of injury prevention programs would be required.
1. Background of the study
Several indications emerged from empirical studies in the past 20 years that behavioural
characteristics such as committing driving violations and fast driving are associated with
increased accident risk (Reason et al, 1991; Parker et al. 1995; Iversen, 2004). Also attitude
dimensions have reliably shown to be associated with accident involvement (Ulleberg &
Rundmo 2002; Katteler & Woldringh, 2004). The usual research approach tries to describe if
not explain accident frequency in terms of underlying attitudes and behavioural tendencies.
Given the empirical evidence of association between these entities, it is obvious that
agencies design injury prevention programs aiming to influence attitudes and behaviour in a
positive direction. It seems obvious that reaching better attitudes will help improving traffic
1
2. behaviour that will presumably reduce, in turn, the chance of accident involvement. After
the many empirical studies on relationship between attitudes, behavioural tendencies and
accident involvement, the urgent and politically interesting question is more how to reach
better attitudes rather than to demonstrate the theoretical and empirical relationships.
Whereas the general strategy aiming to influence attitudes and behavioural tendencies in
order to have less accidents is more or less undisputed, the way this could be realised is far
from undisputed. Particularly the preferred nature of road safety publicity campaigns and
advertisements is subject of reflection and discussion. Should the tenor be soft or positively-
stimulating or harder and stress the negative aspects of bad attitudes and bad behaviour?
Should the contents target on either a rational processing of information provided or
interfere with road users’ emotions? However, there is even doubt on the attitude
influencing power of the majority of traffic safety campaigns as literature review concluded
that many campaigns failed to document effects on the number of accidents (Elvik & et al.,
1989). Nevertheless, a meta-analysis suggests that campaigns aimed at influencing attitudes
may be the most efficient measure to improve safety on the roads (Delhomme, 1999).
A particular strand of campaigns uses a fear-based strategy strategies brought into action by
semi-public agencies and government agencies. An explicit appeal to the emotion of fear is
being made when delivering the message. This continues to happen despite the
controversies concerning the effectiveness of the fear-based strategy. Tay, Watson et al.
(2001) provide a clear-cut overview of two main viewpoints with related literature
references. An elementary assumption for using fear appeals is the area of traffic safety is
that road users will become more highly motivated to accept the recommendations
advocated by the communicator because emotional tension is aroused. The higher the level
of fear arousal, the greater the persuasiveness of the communication. This line of thoughts
is challenged by scholars who pointed to the a low degree of fear arousal being optimal, to
the absence of the relationship or, even, to a negative relationship. Other researchers focus
on the explanation of these divergent outcomes pointing at the existence of a fear-control
process on the one hand – with message rejection as a result – and a danger control
process on the other hand resulting in adaptive behaviour and message acceptance.
Dependent on the type and level of fear arousal, the subject chooses the one or the other or
both to some extent. Combined with studies that show a positive relationship between fear
and persuasion and subsequent adapted behaviour, controversy is strong resulting in
uncertain agencies starting campaigns with a general sense of performing fear-based
campaigns that don’t hurt to try with at least some chance of success.
The study presented in this paper does not aim demonstrating a fear-based campaign to be
effective or not effective. Nevertheless, the study discussed here was initiated by the
province of Zeeland in the Netherlands in order to learn whether or not the use of fear
appeal by exposing young people to a victim of a severe traffic accident is effective or not in
changing attitudes towards or behaviour in traffic. The study provided insight that goes
beyond this question and gives rise to a broader discussion of how to position traffic safety
campaigns at all. Before unfolding this insight, the design of the study will be shortly
described (section 2) and the originally targeted main result will shortly be mentioned
(section 3). The unintended type of finding, attained as a by-product of the study, is subject
of discussion in section 4. The result will be discussed and positioned in a broader context in
the final section.
2
3. 2. Design of the study
The study was designed around the chosen strategy of the regional Committee on Traffic
Safety of the Dutch province of Zeeland to offer school classes a guest lecture by a victim of
a severe traffic accident. It was deemed useful and effective to offer the programme to all
secondary school classes of children in the age of 14-16 years old. The authorities wanted
an evaluation of the effectiveness of this type of approach aiming at improving traffic safety
attitudes. The evaluation was carried out by ITS – Radboud University Nijmegen in the last
quarter of 2005 and the first quarter of 2006. The evaluation study confined itself to the first
three schools that received the lecture. This included 15 classes in total.
The impulse: fear-appeal by victims of accidents
Victims of severe traffic accidents confronted young persons with the consequences of an
accident by way of a guest lecture in a classroom context. The guest lecture consisted of a
one hour presentation including discussion of an accident with related emotions and
consequences by the victim of the accident. In this case, the victims were first-degree/once
removed family members of a relative that was killed in the accident. Table 1 shows some
details of the context of the guest lecture. All lectures were given by the mother or the
husband/wife of the victim of the accident. The guest lectures followed a standard pattern.
After presentation of a few general statistics, the relative reported about the accident, the
killed person in question and the consequences, supported by photographs. The session was
concluded with discussion. All reporting relatives were previously supervised and supported
by de Foundation for Victims of Traffic accidents (Stichting Slachtofferhulp). The guest
lecture could be followed by a deepening lesson by the class teacher on his initiative, with
the aim to channel emotional reactions of the children and to deepen the impact of the
emotionally loaded information provided. Such a follow-up was given in half of the classes.
Table 1 – Guest lecture characteristics
Narrator Type of accident Type of vehicle
School 1 relative: mother of killed fatal accident (collision) moped
person
School 2 relative: husband of killed fatal accident, one-sided passenger car gone into a
person skid
School 3 relative: fatal accident
- mother - swirving passenger car
- husband - one-sided idem, gone into a skid
Quasi-experimental design
The design contained two important elements of an experimental research design. As a first
element, both a measurement preceding the emotional impuse and a measurement
afterwards was made. This allowed a comparison of attitudes and reported behaviour at
different moments and conclusions about changed attitudes and behaviour. The second
element was the test-group-reference group principle. Inclusion of pupils that did not
receive any confronting impulse allowed a sound analysis of the effects of the emotional
impulse by taking into account a differential development of attitudes in the different
groups. This approach allowed identification of effects on a firm basis. Given this design the
option was open to select only those pupils who participated both in the before and in the
after measurement. In fact, not all classes that participated before could participate in the
after measurement. The results presented here include all responding pupils. A secondary
analysis was performed by SWOV in the context of a nation-wide study describing the
effects of different types of safety education programmes (Twisk et al., 2006) focussing on
just those who participated twice. The design was quasi-experimental in the sense that there
3
4. was no full control over the allocation of pupils to test group and reference group. The
allocation of classes to the test group was related to the appointments that could be made
with the school direction for the guest lecture. In order to avoid interaction between pupils
that had received meanwhile the guest lecture and control group members, the control
classes were selected at other schools.
Data collection could happen by completion of written questionnaires. The individual pupils
completed the questionnaire individually in classroom context. The pre-measurement was
carried out a few weeks before the guest lecture. The after-measurement was made about
one month after the emotional input. A total number of about 300 pupils participated before
and after, both in the test group and in the reference group.
Table 2 – Number of respondents in the quasi-experimental design
Before After
Test group 307 258
Reference group 353 338
Total 660 596
3. Empirical results
The majority of the pupils (60%) receiving the confronting report by the relatives of killed
victims of an accident in traffic was quite impressed. Girls were more impressed than boys
were. Pupils of age 16/17 appeared to be more impressed than younger ones. Although
outside the core of the study, pupils were asked whether or not they changed their behavior
in the weeks after the lesson. The large majority, 86 percent, claimed that they did not
change their behavior at all (40%) or a very lit change. The core of the study was the
comparison of attitudes and behavior before and after rather than the self-reported
behavioural change. To this end, a large set of questions was used. Attitude questions
included sets of items that proved to be scalable in an earlier nation-wide study on attitudes
of young people towards traffic safety (Woldringh & Katteler, 2002; Katteler, 2004). The
behaviour related questions were mainly inspired by driver behavior questionnaires. These
DBQ questions were adjusted to the specific mobility situation of these young people being
of an age at which they are used to use the bicycle or the moped for their trips. The main
variables subject of measurement are shown in table 3.
Table 3 – Variables included in the study
Attitudes Behaviour
• • Riding style (in semantic terms such
Willingness to obey traffic rules
as careless, uncertain)
• Willingness to avoid risk • Riding after using alcohol/drugs
• Acceptance to ride with • Riding with defective bicycle light
alcohol/drugs
• Items indicating mistakes
• Tendency to fulfil one’s own
• Items indicating violations
responsibility
• Tendency to fulfil responsibility to
other road users
Obviously, any change in positive direction was particularly looked at with boys and girls
that held bad attitudes or showed bad behaviour. It should be noted that most variables
showed the smallest part of the young people to have negative/bad attitudes or behaviour.
The analyses resulted in the following two main conclusions:
• As far as pupils held bad attitudes, evidence for change in a positive direction is missing.
4
5. • As far as pupils showed bad behaviour, evidence for change in positive direction is
missing. In fact, there was one exception. A development to better behavior in terms of
using better bicycle lighting could be observed. However, police reported to have made
actions to ask attention for better bicycle lighting just in the period between before and
after measurement in this study.
There is no other main conclusion than that the fear-appeal approach as performed here did
not have serious effect. Data was also analysed by SWOV in the context of a nation-wide
study on the effects of different education programmes in the Netherlands. That particular
analysis was carried out using only those pupils who participated both before and after the
fear appeal. Also here, attitudes did not prove to change at all (Twisk et al., 2006). Out of
the many behavioural aspects, only a very small set was reported to show some change.
However, in case there is no effect in the broad spectrum of behavioural items except one,
concluding to a serious effect of a fear appeal approach is not justified in our view.
Irrespective whether or not a fear appeal approach has positive effect on part of the
population, a negative effect occurring among another part of the population should not be
ignored in the final judgment of a traffic safety education programme. An unintended but
realistic effect could be that some people get more uncertain or even frightened when
moving in traffic. Although this would affect a minority, it should require a balanced
judgment taking this effect into account. Indeed, some tendency towards this unintended
effect could be observed in our study, be it a small minority. The proportion of young people
aged 14-17 years who claimed to be uncertain or frightened in traffic grew from 4% before
to 8% after the impulse. This increase was equal to the percentage of young persons (4%)
who claimed that they felt more uncertain etcetera compared to the period before.
4. Unexpected, far-reaching by-product of the study
In designing the study, a specific question was included in the questionnaire. The question
aimed to introduce a different way of fear appeal and see whether or not this alternative
fear appeal experience would have impact in the assumed direction. This alternative was the
matter of fact whether or not the subject has knowledge of and experience of a victim of a
severe traffic accident in his own social circle. The question was: do you have experience
with a victim in your close by social context. This social context was dismantled in the
following types with decreasing intensity: own family; in peer group of intimate friends;
acquaintances/neighbours; classmates/schoolmates; somebody in the wider social context.
The idea behind this question was the expectancy that if fear appeal in terms of emotional
appeal from a traffic accident works, than certainly from an accident that happened to a
known person. Stated differently, in case fear appeal via a guest lesson would not work as
too incidentally or still too far away, more chance of working fear appeal could be expected
from real-life experience in own social circle. In addition to the nearness of the victim a
second differentiation was made according to the seriousness of the victimship, ranging
from at most lightly injured via severely injured to killed. As a consequence. a strong
variable representing the seriousness of somebody’s experience with victims of traffic
accidents could be made. Each respondent was characterised according to his most serious
experience with the aim to correlate this with his attitudes towards traffic safety and
behaviour in traffic. The hypothesis was self-evident: people with intensive experience (‘road
victim peer experience’) would show better attitudes and behaviour. This hypothesis runs in
parallel to the objective of offering fear appeal in education programmes.
Before presenting the correlation between traffic accident experience in one’s own social
circle and attitudes towards and behaviour in traffic, it is useful to have a look at the
distribution of this deterrent type of experience among young people (Figure 1a). The figure
shows the proportion of young people who confirm that they had somebody severely injured
5
6. or even killed in a accident, by type of peer group. In fact, the overview points at a striking
reality: the proportion of young persons who have a road victim peer experience is rather
high. Three percent of the 627 youngsters claim they have a fatal case in their family. An
additional seven percent has a severely injured person in is family.
20 100%
9 10 12
17
severely injured
16 80% 23
29 26
fatal case 24
12
killed peer victim
12 60%
seriously injured
29
9
slightly injured
34
34
7
8 37
40% no peer victims
6
4 4
3
4
2 20% 39
28
27
22
0 0%
in ow n family friend acquaintance schoolmate 14 y 15 y 16, 17 y total
Figure 1a – Road victim peer experience (n=627) Figure 1b – Youngsters’ most serious
experience
Each person received a code according to his/her most serious experience. No less than
twelve percent of the young persons in the age of 14-17 had the most dramatic experience
of a killed peer victim (figure 1b). An additional quarter knows somebody who was seriously
injured. This makes this group of young people rather experienced in this non-enviable
way: 38 percent can be called rather experienced. It is a known fact in the Netherlands that
the province of Zeeland in which the study was carried out has relatively high accident
figures. The province has any secondary roads that are known for their risk of accident.
After the characterisation of the youngsters according to their road victim per experience, it
could be analysed to what extent the ‘heavy-experience group’ shows better attitudes or
better behaviour as learning effects of the accident experience. A high degree of this close
by, impressive and emotionally strong experience can be considered as a more intrusive and
above all more durable experience than a once-only, be it intrusive lecture by an
‘anonymous’ road victim. The expected result was that the more severe the peer accident
experience, the better the current attitudes and behaviour. This expectation runs parallel to
the intended impact of fear arousal programmes. The analysis provided a set of strong
correlations between road victim peer experience and attitudes/behaviour. Table 4 shows
one: peer victim experience and riding after the use of alcohol/drugs during the last month.
A rather strong correlation can be seen (Pearson r = .17).
Table 4 – Peer victim experience and riding after alcohol use (in %, persons of 14-17 of
age)
Victim experience No experience At most lightly At most Experience Total
injured severely with fatal
Use of alcohol injured case
No, never 69 45 40 50 49
Yes, once 12 23 29 22 22
Yes, a few times 19 32 31 28 29
Total 100% (162) 100% (199) 100% (153) 100% (73) 100% (587)
Pearson r = .17 p<.001
A striking result of the analysis is the direction of the correlation. Whereas a negative
correlation was postulated, results show a clear and statistically significant positive
correlation. The majority of the young people without peer victim experience claims to have
ridden in traffic the last month never when having used alcohol. Contrarily, the majority of
6
7. those who did have peer victim experience rode their bike/moped after having used alcohol
once or more frequently.
However, this intrusive victim experience within one’s own social circle did not result in
better attitudes or behaviour, at least not better attitudes than those who had no intrusive
victim experience. Theoretically, this people may have hold worse attitudes before the victim
experience that improved their attitude to some extent.
A further illustration is given in Figure 2 that presents the differences in intentionally
violating traffic rules. Youngsters having peer victim experience show deviant behaviour by
intentionally violating rules more frequently than youngsters without peer victim experience.
80
% intentionally violate
rules 63
60 53
48
40 34
20
0
no peer victims slightly injured seriously injured killed peer
Figure 2 – Peer victim experience and intentionally violating traffic rules
This clearly unexpected correlation – the more peer victim experience, the worse the
behavior – points at the existence of a cultural phenomenon. Interestingly enough, bad
attitudes and bad behaviour appear to reflect a type of sub-culture with shared norms and
values, among these risky behaviour. This socio-cultural environment actually reflects a
general background and is, in fact, a determining background variable that does shape both
attitudes and behaviour. Part of the sub-culture is the acceptance of the risky behaviour –
possibly experienced by this group as sturdy. This sturdiness brings with it that mistakes in
traffic are being made more frequently than by others, risky situations are not avoided and
people is not averse to riding after alcohol use. Consequently the risk of getting an accident
can be assumed to be accepted as inevitably.
The Zeeland study could verify this line of thought by analysing the accident involvement of
all young persons. Accident involvement was measured on a detailed basis. The
measurement took into account that accident involvement actually has levels of seriousness
ranging from more severe accidents with hospitalisation to incidents with a lucky escape.
Inevitably, the design was confined to self-reported accidents. Within this context, the pupils
were asked to report on their involvement in three types of incidents in the last two years:
- accidents resulting in hospitalisation or medical treatment;
- accidents with just material damage;
- near-accidents.
The research team was fully aware that pupils’ interpretation of situations in terms of near-
accidents might differ and that retrospection might influence the results to some extent.
Nevertheless, these disadvantages were considered secondary to the improved validity.
Whereas the percentage of pupils with injuries in the last two years appeared to be at a ten
percent level, substantially more young people faced an accident with material damage
(44%). In total, 49% of the pupils were involved in accidents of a physical or material type.
Almost half of these pupils were involved in accidents more than once. Apart from the
involvement in accidents either with physical injuries or with material damage, about half of
the pupils (47%) reported that they had one or more near-misses. Taking these near-misses
into account, 69 percent of the pupils reported some kind of (near-)accident experience.
Conceptually, the high number of pupils that appear to have had accidents or near-accidents
7
8. reinforces the idea that accident involvement includes a gradual phenomenon ranging from
near-accidents to fatal accidents. A level of (near-)accident involvement in the same order of
magnitude (60%) was also found in a nation-wide study among young people (Katteler et al.,
2003). Technically, this enabled discriminating pupils well according to this variable and to
correlate with road victim peer experience (Figure 3). Figure 3 confirms the assumed positive
correlation between victim experience in one’s own social context and the self-involvement
in an traffic accident or near-misses. The more serious the road victim peer experience the
more frequent involvement in a traffic accident (Pearson r = .20; p<001). Those pupils who
had no friends or relatives who were involved in a serious traffic accident, show a lower
accident involvement rate (55%) compared to pupils who had (73% respectively 76%). Data
suggests that it makes little or no difference whether the peer(s) were slightly injured or
seriously injured or even killed.
100
80
76
73
60
55
40
self involved
20
0
peers: not peers: slightly seriously/killed
Figure 3 – Peer victim experience and pupil’s accident involvement
These findings learn us about how reality actually is and how different it can be from what
we think reality likely is. Using fear appeal in traffic safety programmes as a means to
effectuate changes in attitudes or in behaviour proves to be, at least in the described Dutch
case, based on a faulty premise that those who hold bad attitudes or show bad behavior are
open to receive the message. However, their general mind set will prevent them from
actually taking on board the message as they adhere to the opposite of the message.
Accident-prone attitudes and behavior are more or less elementary as being part of an
accepted way of life that is accepted in their sub-group. It can be assumed that traffic safety
related attitudes and behavior are only part of a broader system of values that covers also
other domains of life. Trying to change those accident-prone attitudes and behaviour would
imply, then, the necessity to change a broader set of values commonly accepted in the sub-
group. Herewith, an isolated fear-driven traffic safety education does not have a good
chance of success.
5. Conclusion and discussion
The main conclusion of this contribution is that a substantial if not the major part of people
with bad traffic safety related attitudes and behaviour can not be expected to be receptive to
road safety campaigns that aim at reducing their bad attitudes. Their acceptance of higher
accident risk is part of a set of more general norms and values: it is a consistent part of their
life rather than that it would be a consequence of other attitudes. Consequently, changing
accident-prone behavior would require changing of this more complex whole of values and
norms. Both traffic accidents of peers and one’s own higher chance of getting involved in an
accident – and even one’s own accident involvement - do not give rise to attitudinal or
behavioural change. Neither one’s own accident experience nor messages by others (bill
8
9. boarding; guest lecture by ‘anonymous’ victims) will be a drive to change attitudes or
behaviour. This probably explains why we did not found serious effects of the chosen fear
appeal programme. The inevitable conclusion for road safety programmes would be that a
broad strategy is required rather than to focus on road safety. Traffic safety should be
integrated in an approach that addresses the tough way of life as a whole. Isolated traffic
safety campaigns among those types of groups – the very target group of such campaigns -
run the high risk of rejecting the message beforehand or ignoring the messenger by those
who are the primary target group. Road users appear not to learn from earlier traumatic
experiences on the road as these experiences are an integral part of their life style. Given
this line of thoughts, road safety campaigns target at the wrong level. In case repeated
studies would confirm the outcome of the study, a drastic change in the use and positioning
of injury prevention programs would be required.
Another study provides support to the conclusions made here. Lin et al. (2004) investigated
the effect of motorcycle crash experience on changes in risk taking among a few thousands
students in Taiwan. Their results show that students with crash experience had higher risk-
taking levels than those without crash experience. Crash experience, regardless of the way it
was measured, did not significantly change risk-taking. Both this study and our study
support Wilde’s theory that individuals choose their individual optimal target level that is
rather constant and implies risk homeostasis (Wilde 2001; Wilde 2005). Individual optimal
target levels are different given the different values of the expected gain. Our Zeeland pupils
holding bad attitudes probably have an optimal target level that is stable and internally
consistent but different from what is thought advisable by traffic safety advocates. These
pupils could possibly attach gain to though behavior within their social environment. They
could even derive authority from being deviant like young people in juvenile delinquency.
This shows that the individual level of risk acceptance is elementary. The implications for
safety education programmes of the study described here may put in a pessimistic mode as
attitudinal change will happen difficultly as risk-taking levels can be expected to be rather
stable given the embedding in the broader sub-culture norms and values. However, the
positive implication is that perspective for a successful approach to accident prevention
remains, as there is an opportunity to get accepted a lower risk level provided that a broader
approach is chosen than merely a traffic safety related approach.
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