The document discusses the importance of sensory processing, perception, cognitive processing, and memory in aviation, highlighting how pilots utilize visual, auditory, and vestibular systems for effective navigation and decisions. It covers training techniques that enhance pilots' situational awareness, task management, and error mitigation strategies, such as the use of checklists and Cockpit Resource Management (CRM). Additionally, it addresses cognitive biases and decision-making models that pilots employ in high-stress and complex environments.

1. Human Factors in Aviation
Tamkinut Rizvi

2. Sensory Processing and Perception in
Aviation
 Visual Perception Depth Perception: Pilots rely on binocular and monocular depth cues.
Binocular cues (like retinal disparity) help at close distances, while monocular cues (size,
perspective, texture) are useful for distant objects. Depth perception is crucial during
landing approaches, judging the runway distance, and avoiding collisions.
 Color Perception:
 Color coding in instruments is standardized for quick interpretation. For instance, green
may signify operational status, yellow indicates caution, and red denotes critical warnings.
This coding aids quick visual scanning and prioritization.
 Peripheral Vision:
 Beyond detecting objects outside the direct line of sight, peripheral vision helps in
maintaining spatial orientation and monitoring changes in the environment without shifting
attention from primary tasks. Training often reinforces how to use peripheral cues to detect
potential collisions or changes in the horizon.

3. Sensory Processing and Perception in
Aviation
 Auditory Processing
 Selective Attention: In environments filled with multiple auditory signals, such as cockpit
alarms, ATC communications, and engine sounds, selective attention allows pilots to
prioritize critical auditory information.
 Auditory Discrimination and Speech Intelligibility: Communication clarity is crucial in
aviation, where pilots rely on precise instructions from ATC. Pilots must distinguish between
similar sounds (e.g., instructions involving “five” and “nine” can be confused due to similar
sounds, which is why the phonetic alphabet and standardized phraseology help).
 Vestibular and Proprioceptive Systems
 Spatial Orientation: The vestibular system in the inner ear helps maintain a sense of
orientation and balance. During high-speed maneuvers or prolonged turns, the vestibular
system can misinterpret sensory information, potentially causing illusions like the
"graveyard spin" or "graveyard spiral" (where a pilot, feeling level, inadvertently maintains
a turn).

4. Sensory Processing and Perception in Aviation
 Perceptual Illusions and Countermeasures
 False Horizon Illusion: This occurs when pilots mistake clouds or terrain as the horizon,
leading to potential misalignment in flight orientation. Training on using instruments as the
primary orientation reference can counteract this.
 Autokinetic Effect: A stationary point of light can seem to move in the dark, which may
cause pilots to misjudge the location of other aircraft or ground objects. Instrument
reliance and controlled scanning techniques help minimize this risk.
 Motion Illusions: During rapid acceleration, a pilot may feel as if they are tilting
backward, which can lead to incorrect pitch adjustments. This is countered by training to
trust instruments over physical sensations.

5. Cognitive Processing, Memory, and
Attention
 Cognitive Processing and Information Flow Information Encoding and Retrieval:
Pilots are trained to encode and retrieve information effectively under stress. Procedures,
checklists, and consistent routines aid memory retrieval during emergencies.
 Mental Models: Pilots build mental models of how the aircraft operates, how it responds
to various controls, and what to expect in different environmental conditions. These
models help pilots anticipate and manage flight dynamics, especially in unfamiliar or
rapidly changing conditions.
 Types of Memory
 Working Memory: Used for processing immediate tasks, like following ATC instructions.
Working memory is limited and can be overloaded in complex situations, so aviation relies
on tools like checklists and displays to ease memory demands.

6. Cognitive Processing, Memory, and Attention
 Procedural Memory: Through extensive training, many responses become automatic (like
muscle memory for operating the yoke or throttle). This procedural memory is crucial
during emergencies when pilots rely on ingrained actions without needing to think about
each step.
 Episodic Memory: Pilots use episodic memory, which recalls personal experiences, to
draw on past flights and situations. For example, a pilot who has experienced turbulence in
similar conditions can predict and respond more effectively.
 Attention Management in Complex Environnements
 Focused Attention: Critical during takeoff, landing, and emergencies, where pilots cannot
afford any distractions. This requires both training and environmental controls (like
limiting unnecessary conversations during critical phases of flight).
 Divided Attention and Task Switching: Dividing attention across multiple tasks (e.g.,
monitoring instruments, communicating with ATC) is challenging. Training involves
simulations to improve the ability to switch focus efficiently.

7. Cognitive Processing, Memory, and Attention
 Selective Attention and the “Cockpit Resource Management” (CRM): CRM
techniques help prioritize tasks and focus on critical information while minimizing non-
essential tasks. This is also where communication with the co-pilot and ATC becomes
crucial, as shared attention can reduce cognitive overload.
 Errors and Cognitive Biases in Aviation
 confirmation Bias: A pilot who believes the weather will improve might focus on signs
that confirm this view, even when evidence suggests deteriorating conditions. CRM
training emphasizes the need for objectivity.
 Anchoring Bias: Anchoring can occur when initial information (like a previous heading)
affects decisions, even when updated information contradicts it. This bias is mitigated
through frequent cross-checking and active use of updated data.

8. Situational Awareness and Decision-Making in Complex
Environments
 Building Situational Awareness (SA)
 Level 1 – Perception of Elements in the Environment: Recognizing significant details,
such as changes in altitude, airspeed, or proximity to other aircraft, allows for rapid
response. Pilots are trained to scan instruments systematically to gather accurate situational
data.
 Level 2 – Comprehension of the Current Situation: Here, pilots synthesize data from
multiple sources to understand the aircraft’s current state (e.g., altitude relative to obstacles
and terrain).
 Level 3 – Projection of Future Status: Based on current trends (e.g., speed, weather
changes), pilots anticipate potential hazards and adjust accordingly. Mental simulation
helps pilots project and prepare for outcomes.

9. Decision-Making Processes
 Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD) Model: This model suggests that experienced pilots
make decisions by recognizing patterns from prior experiences, enabling rapid choices
without deliberate evaluation. For example, a pilot who detects signs of wind shear may
instinctively react based on similar previous encounters.
 Analytical Decision Making: In unfamiliar situations, pilots apply analytical reasoning,
evaluating options, outcomes, and risks systematically. For instance, when unexpected
weather emerges, a pilot may analyze fuel levels, alternate airports, and updated forecasts
before choosing to divert.
 Error Management and Mitigation Strategies Checklists and Standard
 Operating Procedures (SOPs): Pilots rely on checklists and SOPs to minimize human
error by ensuring every critical task is completed. Checklists serve as an external memory
aid that helps overcome cognitive limitations.
 Cockpit Resource Management (CRM): CRM focuses on teamwork, communication, and
effective delegation between the flight crew, allowing better monitoring and error correction.
This is crucial during emergencies when task-sharing helps reduce individual cognitive load.

10. Error Management and Mitigation Strategies Checklists and Standard
 High-Stress Decision Making and Adaptability Training Under Simulated Stress:
High-stress simulations (e.g., engine failure, sudden turbulence) help pilots practice rapid
decision-making under pressure. By building familiarity with stressful conditions, they
improve their ability to stay composed and think clearly in real scenarios.
• Coping with Time Pressure: When time is limited, pilots rely on RPD and CRM
strategies. Time-critical training emphasizes prioritizing tasks, such as “aviate,
navigate, communicate,” to ensure immediate safety while resolving the situation.