The Knuckles Mountain Range in Sri Lanka is a biodiversity hotspot, constituting only 0.03% of the island yet hosting a significant portion of its endemic species and providing important watershed services. Human activities, particularly the Moragahakanda agricultural development project and plantations, have led to habitat degradation and biodiversity loss, threatening various species and ecosystems in the area. Conservation efforts are underway, including reforestation, creating buffer zones, and establishing wildlife corridors to mitigate these impacts.

2. About the Knuckles Mountain Range....
The Knuckles Mountain Range lies in central Sri Lanka, in the Districts of Matale and
Kandy. The range takes its name from a series of recumbent folds and peaks in the
west of the massif which resemble the knuckles of clenched fist when viewed from
certain locations in the Kandy District.
Figure 1- Location of the conservation forest
The higher mountain area is often robed in thick layers of cloud. In addition to its
aesthetic value, the range is of great scientific interest. It is a climatic microcosm of the
rest of Sri Lanka as the conditions of all the climatic zones in the country are exhibited
in the massif. At higher elevations there is a series of isolated cloud forests, harboring a
variety of flora and fauna. Although the range constitutes approximately 0.03% of the
island’s total area, it is home to a significantly higher proportion of the
country’s biodiversity. The isolated Knuckles range harbors several relict, endemic flora
and fauna that are distinct from central massif. More than 34 percent of Sri Lanka's
endemic trees, shrubs, and herbs fish species , birds and animals are only found in
these forests. Aside from holding a rich biodiversity, the Knuckles forest delivers a
number of important ecosystem services — it constitutes 30% of the watershed forest of
the Mahaweli river catchment, the largest river in Sri Lanka and is a major source of
water for agriculture and power generation. Several tributaries of the Mahaweli river
originate from the Knuckles forest, with the area serving as part of the upper and middle

3. catchments of the river. The forest also plays a crucial role in regulating water quality
and flow rate.
Figure 2-the board describing the fish diversity
Human impact
Knuckles mountain forest range (KMFR) in Sri Lanka that has been designated as a
world heritage site for its high level of biodiversity is heavily disturbed and fragmented
due to various human activities mainly tea and cardamom plantation

4. Figure 3- Tea plantation in knuckles Figure 4- Pinus plantation in knuckles
The bird species richness, abundance and similarity of bird species composition were
investigated in three prominent agricultural land-uses i.e. Pinus, cardamom and
abandoned tea plantations, and in an undisturbed sub-Montana forest in Northern Flank
of KMFR. The Pinus and abandoned tea plantations supported a fewer number of bird
species than undisturbed forest. But the cardamom plantation with diverse, native
shade trees, had a bird species richness comparable to undisturbed forest
The other human activity that the biodiversity is heavily disturbed is the
MORAGAHAKANDA agricultural development project. Six major vegetation types
present in KMFR have been affected by this project; tropical dry mixed evergreen
forests, tropical moist evergreen forests, riverine forests, tropical thorn forests, dry
patina grassland (savannah) and agricultural lands. A total of 456 plant species
belonging to 93 families have been recorded in the project area. Among them were 29
endemic species.14 nationally threatened species and 247 medicinal plant species.
vertebrate fauna totaling 272 species belonging to 84 families have been recorded in
various habitat and vegetation types in the project area. There were 47 endemic and 42
nationally threatened species among them. The major threats to the biodiversity of the
MORAGAHAKANDA project area have been identified as habitat degradation,
deterioration, modification, direct exploitation of flora and fauna and spread of invasive
species. At present only a few invasive alien species occur in the project area.

5. However, during the construction stage earth moving machinery as well as construction
material such as soil and gravel that are brought into the site can introduce seeds of
invasive alien species into the area. Further, the areas cleared of vegetation to extract
borrow material as well as construction material storage areas are also potential sites
for establishment of alien invasive species. Therefore, during the construction stage
there is a strong possibility of introduction and establishment of invasive plant species
into the project area which can subsequently spread into surrounding areas. As much of
the work takes place in protected areas, special attention needs to be taken to prevent
the introduction of alien invasive species.
Impacts due to labour force for construction activities will lead to establishment of
campsites, generation of sewage, waste water and solid waste. Further, they may
engage in activities that are detrimental to natural habitats such as hunting, and illegal
extraction of timber and non timber forest products. 203 Noise and vibrations that will
arise due to activities such as excavation, cutting, drilling and filling and compaction
work, as well as operation of construction related vehicles during the construction phase
will cause disturbance especially to the fauna that inhabits the project area. Clearance
of plant cover during the construction phase will lead to increased soil erosion, which in
turn will result in increased sedimentation of natural waterways in the cleared areas.
Further, access road creation, land preparation will result in blockage or alteration of
natural flow paths in the area resulting changes in the drainage patterns in the area.
Figure 5- MORAGAHAKANDA agricultural development project

6. Figure 6 & 7-dam construction work
KALUGANGA reservoir and agricultural extension project area also falls within the dry
zone bio region and the intermediate zone bioregion in knuckles. The area contain
mosaic of habitats that support rich floral diversity and faunal assemblages. Among
them the kalu ganga basin area had a greater natural habitat diversity of all the habitats
the river and the riverine habitat supported the richest species assemblage followed by
tanks disturbed forests and scrublands. The natural ground spring and forest are the
unique habitats present within the human resettlement area. A total of 401 plant species
including 33 endemic and 17 nationally threatened species identified. Also 307 faunal
species will be threatened which representing butterflies, dragonflies, fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Among them 38 species are endemic to
Srilanka. Biodiversity loss fragmentation and degradation of habitats due to the
establishment of the two reservoirs are the largest impact with increased human
elephant conflict being the second and other associated developments such as
resettlement areas roads etc. Positive impact on certain species of freshwater fish, such
as Wallagoattu (shark fish), and Systomusrichmondi by providing habitats. Disruption of
the movement patterns of wide ranging species such as elephants and ungulates. Loss
of habitat in the inundation area for stream dwelling fish especially those species that
are endemic threatened and restricted to this region (eg- Dawkinsiasrilankensis ,
Systomusrichmondi, Devarioaequipinnatus). Also loss of unique habitats and migratoty
paths as well as the loss of threatened and endemic species.

7. Figure 8 & 9-this river is situated in a lower place of the mountain where human impact is high and fish
diversity is low
Figure 10,11 & 12-when the MORAGAHAKANDA reservoir is filled with water this place
disappears in water and habitat destruction occurs while diversity is harmed as a result

8. The other human activities that the biodiversity is disturbed are picnics , hiking, other
human events where humans discard garbage which are non bio degradable to the
environment.
Figure 13- boards have been placed advising people not to harm the environment
Activities implemented to minimize the
impacts on the environment
1. Reforestation of Amban Ganga Basin catchment area
2. Demarcating a 100m buffer zone around Moragahakanda reservoir and reforestation
of 650ha inside this buffer zone
3. Establishment an elephant corridor between Giritale- Minneriya nature reserve and
wasgamuwa national park. Habitat enrichment is carried out in these areas.
4. Rehabilitation of tanks in adjacent natural areas.
5. Eradicating wildlife in the water spread areas.
6. Relocation of wildlife in the water spread areas
7. Establishment of an electric fence around the resettlement area to reduce human
elephant interactions.

9. 8. Boards are placed which advice humans not to harm the environment with their
actions
9. Conduction of awareness programs targeting communities