This document discusses different forms of government and democracy. It covers key topics like different systems of representation, political participation, and the roles of the state. Activities are included that ask students to define concepts like liberal democracy, analyze representation systems, and consider how extensive political participation relates to liberal democracies. The document is a module on democracy, participation, and the state within a course on politics and power in public health.
PUBLIC ADMINSTRATION Presented byDateInstitutionI.docxdenneymargareta
PUBLIC ADMINSTRATION
Presented by:
Date
Institution
Introduction
Public administration comes with a number of advantages.
Can be used as a governance instrument
Used to develop change
Used as an instrument of welfare state.
Incident command is vital in addressing emergency tasks.
Public policies describes the activities to be executed.
Organizational theory provides insights on what need to be done.
Public administration is defined as the ability of becoming a multidisciplinary used in research and practical fields in the public policy discipline. Public administration comes with a number of advantages. Some of which include being used as an instrument of developing change. Whenever people of a given state think of developmental projects and formalities, public administration is essential in governing what the members are in a position of executing any rights which they might come across (Greenel, 2004) For instance, development of national transport system and communication network and channels calls for the government intervention in addressing these matters.
2
Significance of public administration
Can be used as a governmental instrument.
Utilized as a tool of change and development.
Utilized as a tool in the welfare state.
The significance of public administration are best felt in the following areas. First is the utilization governmental instrument. It is the role of public administration to ensure law and order in a given state is maintained. There is need to better the management in addressing various aspects of its public affairs. Secondly is using it as a change of development. Thirdly is using it as a welfare state. The government takes care of its citizen welfare, particularly in the modern world.
3
Incident command
Used in organizing emergency responses to various incidents.
Example of emergency tasks include hostages, school shooting and mass causality.
Incident command is essential in organizing people.
Facilitates quick response teams towards the emergency issues arising.
Used in organizing emergency responses to various incidents. There are a number of emergency risks associated with various states. Example of emergency tasks include hostages, school shooting and mass causality. Incident command is essential in organizing people. Facilitates quick response teams towards the emergency issues arising (Greenel, 2004).
4
Public policies & Organizational theory
Involves laws and ordinances governing a given government.
Elected federal officials are the one’s who formulate these policies.
Both levels of the government are responsible in overseeing the entire process.
Organizational theories explain and predict the manner in which organizations function.
. Public policies involves laws and ordinances governing a given government. Elected federal officials are the one’s who formulate these policies. Both levels of the government are responsible in overseeing the entire process. Organizational theor ...
Summary of chapter 3In the sixteenth century, Sir Thomas More co.docxfredr6
Summary of chapter 3
In the sixteenth century, Sir Thomas More coined the term utopia to signify an imaginary society of perfect harmony and happiness. More’s Utopia was a subtle attack on the ills of English society under Henry VIII. The first important attempt to define the “perfect” political order, however, had been made by Plato in The Republic.
Four works stand out as representative of utopian thought in the history of Western political philosophy. In The Republic, Plato sought the just society through philosophical inquiry. In the seventeenth century, Francis Bacon’s New Atlantis demonstrated how the human condition could be elevated through modern science. Karl Marx later propounded the view that only through the radical reorganization of economic relationships within society could true justice and an end to human misery be achieved. The ultimate aim of Marx’s theory of social transformation is the creation of a classless society. Finally, in B. F. Skinner’s Walden Two, a prime example of a contemporary utopian scheme, behavioral psychology holds the key to utopia. The form and content of the just society were of less concern to Skinner than the methods for bringing such a society into existence.
Thoughts of utopia have been inspired by idealism and impatience with social injustices. However, its presumed desirability conflicts with its practical possibility. The principal obstacle to utopian society is the unpredictability and selfishness of human nature, which utopian thinkers commonly have sought to control through eugenics programs, compulsory education, and the abolition of private property.
Utopian visionaries often blame politics for the failure to improve society. As a result, in many utopian blueprints, the role of politics in bringing about desired change is either greatly reduced or eliminated entirely. This leaves most utopian schemes open to criticism, for they could easily become blueprints for totalitarianism. Such blueprints often take shape in writings about dystopias—utopias that turn into nightmares.
Summary of chapter 4
In constitutional democracies, governments derive authority from the consent of the governed. Popular election, in theory, ensures that all viewpoints and interests will be represented. Such representation is the defining principle of a republic. Constitutions are designed to place limitations on what governments can and cannot do.
There is no one universally accepted model or theory of liberal democracy. The type of liberal democracy we choose implies a particular view of the basic nature of human society and the main threat(s) to peace and stability.
The idea of America is synonymous with representative democracy in the minds of people all over the world. For inspiration, the Founders drew upon the writings of political thinkers who lived and wrote from the time of the Renaissance to the Enlightenment and who were themselves inspired by classical political philosophy, particularly the writings o.
People’s Participation in the Administrative Processinventionjournals
In the broader field of Public administration, one of the integral elements of public accountability and control is the concept of people`s participation. According to available literature, the concept of people`s participation means participation of people in the process government and administration. It implies citizens’ control over administration or public influence on public administration. It is essential for the smooth and effective performance of the administrative machinery of the country. What this means is that people`s participation makes the public administration responsive to the needs and wants of the people. It secures public support to the government policies and programmes and makes them a success. The concept of people`s participation which constitutes an important means of enforcing administrative accountability is the subject of this article.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
PUBLIC ADMINSTRATION Presented byDateInstitutionI.docxdenneymargareta
PUBLIC ADMINSTRATION
Presented by:
Date
Institution
Introduction
Public administration comes with a number of advantages.
Can be used as a governance instrument
Used to develop change
Used as an instrument of welfare state.
Incident command is vital in addressing emergency tasks.
Public policies describes the activities to be executed.
Organizational theory provides insights on what need to be done.
Public administration is defined as the ability of becoming a multidisciplinary used in research and practical fields in the public policy discipline. Public administration comes with a number of advantages. Some of which include being used as an instrument of developing change. Whenever people of a given state think of developmental projects and formalities, public administration is essential in governing what the members are in a position of executing any rights which they might come across (Greenel, 2004) For instance, development of national transport system and communication network and channels calls for the government intervention in addressing these matters.
2
Significance of public administration
Can be used as a governmental instrument.
Utilized as a tool of change and development.
Utilized as a tool in the welfare state.
The significance of public administration are best felt in the following areas. First is the utilization governmental instrument. It is the role of public administration to ensure law and order in a given state is maintained. There is need to better the management in addressing various aspects of its public affairs. Secondly is using it as a change of development. Thirdly is using it as a welfare state. The government takes care of its citizen welfare, particularly in the modern world.
3
Incident command
Used in organizing emergency responses to various incidents.
Example of emergency tasks include hostages, school shooting and mass causality.
Incident command is essential in organizing people.
Facilitates quick response teams towards the emergency issues arising.
Used in organizing emergency responses to various incidents. There are a number of emergency risks associated with various states. Example of emergency tasks include hostages, school shooting and mass causality. Incident command is essential in organizing people. Facilitates quick response teams towards the emergency issues arising (Greenel, 2004).
4
Public policies & Organizational theory
Involves laws and ordinances governing a given government.
Elected federal officials are the one’s who formulate these policies.
Both levels of the government are responsible in overseeing the entire process.
Organizational theories explain and predict the manner in which organizations function.
. Public policies involves laws and ordinances governing a given government. Elected federal officials are the one’s who formulate these policies. Both levels of the government are responsible in overseeing the entire process. Organizational theor ...
Summary of chapter 3In the sixteenth century, Sir Thomas More co.docxfredr6
Summary of chapter 3
In the sixteenth century, Sir Thomas More coined the term utopia to signify an imaginary society of perfect harmony and happiness. More’s Utopia was a subtle attack on the ills of English society under Henry VIII. The first important attempt to define the “perfect” political order, however, had been made by Plato in The Republic.
Four works stand out as representative of utopian thought in the history of Western political philosophy. In The Republic, Plato sought the just society through philosophical inquiry. In the seventeenth century, Francis Bacon’s New Atlantis demonstrated how the human condition could be elevated through modern science. Karl Marx later propounded the view that only through the radical reorganization of economic relationships within society could true justice and an end to human misery be achieved. The ultimate aim of Marx’s theory of social transformation is the creation of a classless society. Finally, in B. F. Skinner’s Walden Two, a prime example of a contemporary utopian scheme, behavioral psychology holds the key to utopia. The form and content of the just society were of less concern to Skinner than the methods for bringing such a society into existence.
Thoughts of utopia have been inspired by idealism and impatience with social injustices. However, its presumed desirability conflicts with its practical possibility. The principal obstacle to utopian society is the unpredictability and selfishness of human nature, which utopian thinkers commonly have sought to control through eugenics programs, compulsory education, and the abolition of private property.
Utopian visionaries often blame politics for the failure to improve society. As a result, in many utopian blueprints, the role of politics in bringing about desired change is either greatly reduced or eliminated entirely. This leaves most utopian schemes open to criticism, for they could easily become blueprints for totalitarianism. Such blueprints often take shape in writings about dystopias—utopias that turn into nightmares.
Summary of chapter 4
In constitutional democracies, governments derive authority from the consent of the governed. Popular election, in theory, ensures that all viewpoints and interests will be represented. Such representation is the defining principle of a republic. Constitutions are designed to place limitations on what governments can and cannot do.
There is no one universally accepted model or theory of liberal democracy. The type of liberal democracy we choose implies a particular view of the basic nature of human society and the main threat(s) to peace and stability.
The idea of America is synonymous with representative democracy in the minds of people all over the world. For inspiration, the Founders drew upon the writings of political thinkers who lived and wrote from the time of the Renaissance to the Enlightenment and who were themselves inspired by classical political philosophy, particularly the writings o.
People’s Participation in the Administrative Processinventionjournals
In the broader field of Public administration, one of the integral elements of public accountability and control is the concept of people`s participation. According to available literature, the concept of people`s participation means participation of people in the process government and administration. It implies citizens’ control over administration or public influence on public administration. It is essential for the smooth and effective performance of the administrative machinery of the country. What this means is that people`s participation makes the public administration responsive to the needs and wants of the people. It secures public support to the government policies and programmes and makes them a success. The concept of people`s participation which constitutes an important means of enforcing administrative accountability is the subject of this article.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
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Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
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Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of Labour
HLPR6006 - Module 3 (2022)
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Politics and Power in Public Health Dr Helen Brown
AND THE STATE
DEMOCRACY, PARTICIPATION
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Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Overview
Government types
Forms of democracy
Political participation
3. Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
4. Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Activity 3.1:
Brutes, Liberals and the Leviathan
1. How do social contract theorists justify the existence of
government? What is their view of 'human nature’?
2. What does 'liberal' mean when describing a liberal
democracy? What are liberal democracies' key features?
3. Summarise the key differences between the liberal, neo-
pluralist and New Right views of the State.
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CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
6. Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
7. Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Political Participation
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CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
CRICOS Provider Code 00301J
Activity 3.1 continued…
4. Is extensive political participation a warning sign for a
liberal democracy, or an indicator of its health? Why?
To get you thinking further…..
How does Laverack define ‘activism’ and the differentiation between
conventional and unconventional strategies?
Define the different types of power and describe the relevance for health
promotion and ‘control of destiny’ (from Module 1)?
What is ‘hegemonic power’ and why might challenging it be important for
public health?
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Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
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Activity 3.2: Representative Democracy
1. Proportional representation (e.g. Legislative Council)
2. Majoritarian preferential voting (e.g. Legislative
Assembly)
After accessing websites (and other sources if needed) -
what are the implications of these different systems in
relation to the political make-up of the different houses.
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Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
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Next week: Neoliberalism and Social
Protection
What are the key value systems and policy contexts in
which our societies function?
Health Partnerships, Politics and Power
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Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
Politics and Power in Public Health
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Key concepts
Direct/Participatory democracy
Indirect/Representative democracy
Liberal democracy
Authoritarian government
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Module 4: Democracy, Participation and the State
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Questions & comments
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Editor's Notes
1
If we take it as a given that public health is political then we need to delve into political structures and the development of governments. We now turn to exploring some of the concepts that underpin our particular form of government in Australia - a liberal democracy. The comparison of different political structures and governments is a useful way to gain clarity about the strengths and weaknesses of different systems, broaden our understanding and shine a fresh light on our own governmental processes.
For our purposes we will look at two broad classifications of government with a hybrid in between (described
in Table 1).
Liberal democracies are likely the most familiar and Australia is included in this category
(Hague and Harro, 2013). In this system, rulers are chosen through free, fair and regular elections. There is
universal suffrage (all or nearly all citizens are entitled to vote) and those running for election will often join
political parties that coalesce around similar belief systems or ideologies and this assists voters in making
their choice. In addition, an independent media provides information to citizens before and during election
campaigns in order for them to make an enlightened choice. The inclusion of the term liberal in liberal
democracy refers to the limits placed on these governments by their constitutions that protect individual
rights (or liberties) such as freedom of assembly, property, religion and speech. These protections are
enforced through independent courts.
The other main form of governments are authoritarian regimes. These forms of governments are neither
democractic nor liberal; citizens have very little capacity to control their rulers. If elections do occur the
choice may be artifically constricted or large sections of the population may be excluded from participating.
Those who rule may control the media and there may be little communication between them and those ruled
(Hague and Harro, 2013).
The classic argument in favour of government is found in social-contract
theories, first proposed by seventeenth-century philosophers like Thomas
Hobbes (see p. 111) and John Locke (see p. 255). Social-contract theory, in fact,
constitutes the basis of modern political thought. In Leviathan ([1651] 1968),
Hobbes advanced the view that rational human beings should respect and obey
their government because without it society would descend into a civil war 'of
every man against every man: Social-contract theorists develop their argument
with reference to an assumed or hypothetical society without government, a socalled
'state of nature: Hobbes graphically described life in the state of nature as
being 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short: In his view, human beings were
essentially power-seeking and selfish creatures, who would, if unrestrained by
law, seek to advance their own interests at the expense of fellow humans. Even
the strongest would never be strong enough to live in security and without fear:
the weak would unite against them before turning on one another. Quite simply,
without government to restrain selfish impulses, order and stability would be
impossible. Hobbes suggested that, recognizing this, rational individuals would
seek to escape from chaos and disorder by entering into an agreement with one
another, a 'social contract: through which a system of government could be
established.
Social-contract theorists see government as a necessary defence against evil
and barbarity, their view of human nature being essentially pessimistic. An alternative
tradition exists, however, which portrays government as intrinsically
benign, as a means of promoting good and not just of avoiding harm. This can
be seen in the writings of Aristotle, whose philosophy had a profound effect on
medieval theologians such as Thomas Aquinas (see p. 181). In 'The Treatise of
Law', part of Summa Theologiae (1963), begun in 1265, Aquinas portrayed the
state as the 'perfect community' and argued that the proper effect of law was to
make its subjects good. He was clear, for instance, that government and law
would be necessary for human beings even in the absence of original sin. This
benign view of government as an instrument which enables people to cooperate
for mutual benefit has been kept alive in modern politics by the social-democratic
tradition (see p. 276).
LIBERALISM
Such systems of government are 'liberal' in the sense that they respect the
principle of limited government; individual rights and liberties enjoy some
form of protection from government. Limited government is typically upheld
in three ways. In the first place, liberal-democratic government is constitutional.
A constitution defines the duties, responsibilities and functions of the
various institutions of government and establishes the relationship between
government and the individual. Second, government is limited by the fact that
power is fragmented and dispersed throughout a number of institutions, creating
internal tensions or 'checks and balances'. Third, government is limited by
the existence of a vigorous and independent civil society, consisting of
autonomous groups such as businesses, trade unions, pressure groups and so
forth. Liberal democracies are 'democratic' in the sense that government rests
on the consent of the governed. This implies a form of representative democracy
in which the right to exercise government power is gained by success in
regular and competitive elections. Typically, such systems possess universal
adult suffrage and secret-ballot elections, and respect a range of democratic
rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of
movement. The cornerstone of liberal-democratic government is political
pluralism, the existence of a variety of political creeds, ideologies or philosophies
and of open competition for power amongst a number of parties. The
democratic credentials of such a system are examined in greater depth in
Chapter 6.
As the word's origins suggest - the Greek demokratia, meaning rule (kratos) by the people (demos) - the
core principle of democracy is self-rule (Hague and Harro, 2013).
Direct democracy was developed in ancient Athens and provided participatory models for citizens to
debate and contribute to their own governance through a large citizen assembly (with the caveat that
citizens excluded women, slaves and foreigners!). Hague and Harro (2013, p43) assert:
"In a direct democracy, the citizens themselves are the primary agent for reaching collective
decisions. Direct popular involvement – and in particular, the open deliberation that goes with it – is
judged to be educative in character, yielding confident, informed and committed citizens who are
sensitive both to public good and to the range of interests and opinions found even in small
communities.“
Logistically complex and more suited for small communities, forms of direct democracy have generally made
way for indirect forms of democracy – most commonly representative democracy where self-government
has become elected government. Contemporary forms of this system are far removed from the "intense,
collective discussions in the Athenian assembly" (Hague and Harro, 2013, p43) and are now a way to
popularly decide every few years which party or coalition of parties will make decisions on behalf of the
populous. Table 2 defines these forms.
When discussing comparative politics it is important to not fall into the easy assumption that democracy (and liberal democracy) is self-evidently the best form of rule. There are some obvious advantages of democracy over dictatorship and democracy may bring stability to previously divided societies where groups are able to share power (Hague and Harro, 2013).
But it is also not clear that democratically elected politicians engaging in policy-making is better than decision-making by experts. It can be argued that expert control provides stability and long term predictability in contrast to the short-term and electoral cycle driven decision-making by politicians regularly going to the polls.
Conversation starter – consider perspectives for and against. Possible questions to pose:
What does it mean to be a member of society?
What happens when some people are excluded from decision-making?
What is the relationship between ‘control of our circumstances’ (module 1) and participating in decision making that governs our lives?
Is there a role for health practitioners in building community political literacy?
However, democracy is not just a form of government, it is also an ideal. Opportunities for citizens to engage in the political process and gain power over the conditions in which they live, work and play is obviously compatible with the values of justice and empowerment that are central to health promotion.
Political participation is the individual and collective activities that are undertaken specifically to influence who governs and/or the decisions that they take (Hague and Harro, 2013). Political participation that works within the formal political processes such as elections and the legislature are termed conventional, while working outside of this system or possibly against it (and the status quo) is termed unconventional. The latter will be the focus of Module 12. The reading by Laverack (2013) introduces some foundation concepts for the role of citizens engaging in political action.
There are different perspectives on the value of political participation. An Aristotelian perspective (from ancient Greece) sees involvement in political decision-making by citizens as not only an obligation to community but an opportunity for personal development (Hague and Harro, 2013). This view sees political participation as a duty of citizenship – a responsibility as well as a right. To do otherwise would be ‘free-riding’ on the efforts of others.
An alternative view asserts that people are not inherently political and that engaging in political activities such as demonstrations and protests is a sign of trouble. The reverse (limited participation) is actually a sign that the system is meeting the needs of its citizens freeing them to pursue other activities; a sign of political satisfaction rather than political cynicism (Hague and Harro, 2013).
Studies looking at political participation have found a striking lack of direct participation beyond voting. Most people are what Milbrath and Goel (1977) termed political spectators (monitor politics to a greater or lesser degree but only participate directly through voting). The rest are either apathetics (who have no interest in formal politics) or gladiators (who directly engage in political campaigning); the latter outnumbered by the former (see Figure 1).
What does it mean for the type of representation/distribution of major and minor parties/diversity of views/number of representatives for a region…
Proportional representation electoral systems are used in Australia to elect candidates to the Senate, the upper houses of NSW, Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia, the Lower House
of Tasmania, the ACT Legislative Assembly and many Local Government Councils. Under this system, parties, groups and independent candidates are elected to the Parliament in proportion to the number of votes they receive. Find out more: <http://www.eca.gov.au/systems/ proportional/>
Preferential voting systems in Australian lower houses (House of Representatives and Assemblies) are majority systems where candidates must receive an absolute majority, more than 50% of the total formal votes cast, to be elected. If the absolute majority is not gained on the first count, then preferences are distributed until an absolute majority is obtained. The term "preferential voting" means voters can indicate an order of preferences for candidates on the ballot paper, i.e. who they want as their 1st choice, 2nd choice and so on. Find out more: <http://www.eca.gov.au/
systems/single/>
Those who attended parliament may have heard the tour guide explain how the upper house has more diverse views and is easier to get into for minor parties and independents due to needing to get a quota rather than over 50% like lower house.