HistoryCoreyTicknorFinalPaper

Corey Ticknor
1
Texas State University
Survival of Zuni Culture during Spanish Conquest, 1540-1821
Corey Ticknor
History 4399
Fall 2015
Dr. Joaquín Rivaya-Martínez

Corey Ticknor
2
Introduction
The European expansion of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had profound
effects on the native peoples of the Americas, Africa, southern Asia, and the many
islands of the Western Pacific. The native people’s territory allowed for new resources
and financial opportunities for the competitive European polities, and no one nation
benefited more in the sixteenth century than Spain. In 1492, Cristopher Columbus
accidentally discovered America during his exploratory voyage to Asia. Columbus first
landed in the Bahamas, and, after discovering the territory was not Asia, he claimed the
new territory in the name of Spain1. For the next 30 years, Spain proceeded to conquer
the territory of South America, and by 1521, upon the destruction of the powerful Aztec
civilization, Spain established the colony of New Spain in what is now Mexico2.
Boatloads of silver were found, mined, and traded, and quickly made Spain the richest
country in the world by the mid sixteenth century. Soon, the European nations continued
thirst for power led them to expand into North America. Their exploration was the
beginning of a long two hundred year relationship with the numerous Native American
groups residing in the Great Southwest.
In spite of the Spanish invasion and subsequent European influences on today’s
Mexico, the Western Pueblo Zuni Indians were able to continue their cultural and native
way of life3. The Zuni used a multitude of strategies to combat acculturation and
maintain their distinct culture during and after Spanish contact. Many scholars in the
past, like the well-known Edward Spicer and Alfred Louis Kroeber, have contributed a
1 Howarth, William. “Putting Columbus in His Place.” Southwest Review 77, no. 2/3 (1992): 154-58.
2 Ibid, 158-165
3 Spicer, Edward. Cycles of Conquest:The Impact of Spain,Mexico, and the United states on the Indians of
the Southwes,1533-1960.Tucson,University of Arizona Press,1962: 187-200

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great deal to explain how the Zuni Indians managed to maintain their culture under
Spanish rule. However, scholars have yet to understand the full scope of factors which
allowed Zuni culture to survive through Spanish influence, from 1540 to 1821. Using
documentary and ethnographic evidence, this paper will emphasize ten key factors I
believe essential to how Zuni Indians maintained their language, architecture, agrarian
lifestyle, and religious customs, throughout Spanish control of the Great Southwest.
These ten factors were Zuni architecture, the refuge at Corn Mountain, Zuni territorial
location, Zuni’s agrarian lifestyle, Zuni language, Zuni religious customs, false promises
of protection by the Spanish, the Pueblo Revolt, Zuni consolidation techniques, and a
peaceful relationship with the Spanish in the 1700s. By drawing attention to these ten
key elements essential to maintaining Zuni culture through Spanish influence, I hope to
shed further light on the complex social interactions between the Zuni Indians and the
Spanish, from 1540-1821.
In order to explain the ten factors I believe contributed to Zuni cultural
perseverance during Spanish influence, I will summarize their interaction with the
Spanish between the years 1540 and 1821, and draw attention to the ten key factors as
they arise in my case study.
Early History
The Zuni are a division of the Western Pueblo Indian groups existing in the Great
Southwest, and differed from that of the Eastern Pueblo people4. The separate Pueblo
groups varied in language and social structure, and did not do much in terms of
interaction. Like relations between most native groups, occasionally the Zuni allied
4 Ibid,187-200

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themselves with other tribes in times of conflict, but after the conflict was ended the
groups would return to the previous structure of seclusion5. However, all Pueblo groups
share two important traits architecture and agriculture. All Pueblo communities built
large, closely consolidated villages, with some houses five stories in height, and all
Pueblo Indians cultivated crops as their main food source6. The Zuni were no exception,
and some historians have gone as far as to call the Zuni villages a great example of a
stereotypical Pueblo Indian village (Eggan, 1950)7.
8
According to data from tree ring samples gathered from the Zuni village of
Hawikuh, around 1100-1300AD the Zuni began consolidating in large villages, in Mid-
5 Ibid, 188
6 Ibid, 14
7 Eggan, Fred. Social Organization of the Western Pueblos. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950:
176 - 210
8 Macmillan/McGraw-Hill[map]. 2007. Web. http://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/native-american-
indians/apache-land.htm

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Western New Mexico9. Since then, the Shiwona/Shinakawin (Zuni) have resided over
relatively the same territory for over 800 years, and amazingly, the Zuni have been able
to maintain their original native language, and continue to practice many of their
ancestral traditions; despite living under the presumed control of three alien states10.
Zuni Architecture
In 1539, Fray Marcos de Niza was sent by Spanish Viceroy Don Antonio de
Mendoza to explore and survey the North Western Territories of the American Great
Southwest11. After hearing of the extravagant architecture in the Northern frontier of
New Mexico, Viceroy Mendoza could not resist the possible riches to be found in the
Northern Territory. Fry Marcos’ expedition was the first time the Zuni encountered
Europeans, and was the beginning of their long two hundred year relationship.
Fray Marcos’ expedition first contacted the Zuni people at the village of
Hawikuh. At the time, Hawikuh was one of 6 Zuni villages in existence, and was the
largest of the villages12. Before Fray Marcos’ approached the city, he sent a member of
his expedition ahead to test the civility of the Zuni. Fray Marcos’ chose a black man
named Estevan to go on ahead to first make contact. Estevan was most likely chosen
because he happened to be a surviving member of the Cabeza de Vaca expedition a few
years prior13. During Estevan’s time with de Vaca, he encountered many Indian tribes
9 Dutton,Bertha P. Friendly People:The Zuñi Indians. Santa Fe, N.M: Museumof New Mexico Press,
1963: 7-15
10 Spicer, Edward. Cycles of Conquest:The Impact of Spain,Mexico, and the United states on the Indians
of the Southwes,1533-1960.Tucson,University of Arizona Press, 1962: 187-200
11 Gutierrez, Ramón. When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality,and Power in
New Mexico, 1500-1846.Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1991: 39-50
12 Hodge, Fredrick Webb. History of Hawikuh,New Mexico: One of the So-Called Cities of Cibola. Los
Angeles: South Museum, 1937: 20-60

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around the Eastern American Coast, and seemingly had a knack for successfully wooing
natives into accepting him. However, this wasn’t the case with the Zuni at Hawikuh.
Reports on what occurred when Estevan arrived at the Zuni city have been disputed, but
we can be certain Estevan was killed soon after entering the village14.
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado was the next Spaniard to encounter the Zuni.
Guided by Fray Marcos, Coronado led a large army to Hawikuh, in search of the Seven
Cities of Cibola (seven cities of gold). Many different Mexican Indians had described the
mythical cities and the rumor of their existence sparked the interest of the Spanish
officials15. The Zuni denied Coronado entrance in Hawikuh. As a result, Coronado
viciously went about conquering the village in the name of Spain.
Upon inspection of Hawikuh, Coronado quickly realized it was not one of the
golden cities of Cibola, but he did note the impressive buildings he observed in a
translated letter to the Viceroy of New Spain:
The Six “little villages” all have “very good houses, with three and four and five stories,
where they are very good apartments,and good rooms with corridors, and some very
good rooms underground and paved, which are made for winter, and are something like a
sort of hot baths. The ladders which they have for their houses are all movable and
portable, which are taken up and placed where ever the please. They are made of two
pieces of wood, with rounds like ours.” (Hodge, 1937)16
The impressive architecture displayed by the Zuni was one important factor allowing for
the preservation of their culture under Spanish influence. The Spanish were largely
1963: 7-15
14 Ibid
15 Hodge, Fredrick Webb. History of Hawikuh,New Mexico: One of the So-Called Cities of Cibola. Los
Angeles: South Museum, 1937: 20-60
16 Ibid

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impressed with the Zuni villages upon contact, and regarded them as being more civilized
than the more nomadic, spread out, Native groups; like the Navajos and Apache17.
According to Spicer, one of the most important driving forces behind the Spanish
conquest of the American Great Southwest was the drive to civilize the ill-perceived
“savage” and “barbaric” Native Americans. Spanish Franciscans and Jesuits desperately
wanted to “civilize” the Native Americans according to certain Spanish customs, and
expected the Natives to achieve a series of fundamental elements necessary to achieving
civility18. Spicer describes these factors as followed: First, “Spanish regal authority and
law must be the framework of Indian life.” Second, “the setting for the primary elements
of civilization must be town life.” Third, Natives must be made to dress in Spanish
Manner. Fourth, they must practice monogamy and partake in formal wedding
ceremonies. Fifth, they should live in stone or adobe houses.19 I agree with Spicer in
believing these five items are at the core of what Spanish believed to be essential to
civilize the Natives, but I would also add a sixth item concerning the acceptance of
Christian religion. Given these six items essential to Spanish acculturation, we can see
how the Zuni already fit slightly into the idea of what the Spanish perceived as civilized.
The Zuni already achieved items two and five of civilization before Spanish
arrival, and the impressive infrastructure witnessed in the Zuni villages would not allow
for the Spanish strategy of “reduction20.” This led to more peaceful tactics being
implemented on the Zuni and ultimately proves the important role the Zuni village
organization played in maintaining their culture during Spanish Influence.
18 Ibid, 280-288
19 Ibid, 282
20 Ibid, 14

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Corn Mountain
After Coronado conquered Hawikuh the remaining Zuni escaped and joined the
other six villages at a mesa nearby, commonly known as Corn Mountain (Towaylane in
the native language), in 154021. This Mesa served the Zuni time and time again as a place
of refuge and defense against invaders since long before the Spanish had come into their
territory (Leighton and Adair, 1966)22. Corn Mountain served as a natural defense to
further isolate themselves from the Spanish, and this isolation from the Spanish was
important to the perpetuation of the Zuni culture. The refuge Corn Mountain provided,
was an important tool to ensure the survival of the Zuni people during times of crisis, and
was an important factor to Zuni cultural survival.
Corn Mountain was also important to Zuni cultural survival in how it brought
together the multiple Zuni villages into one village. As described in this paper, often the
Zuni villages will retreat and consolidate their forces at Corn Mountain, in times of crisis.
The ability of the multiple Zuni villages to consolidate, live, and function together atop
the mesa will prove itself to be a fundamental reason allowing the Zuni to maintain their
culture under Spanish governance.
The Zuni people’s ability to consolidate into one village in times of conflict was
unique to the Zuni people, and their ability to do so will also prove important to Zuni
cultural survival, during Spanish influence.
1963: 7-15
22 Leighton, Dorothea Cross, and John Adair. People of the Middle Place: a study of the Zuni Indians. Hew
Haven, Conn: Human relations Area Files Press, 1966: 11-22

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Zuni Location
After retreating to Corn Mountain, the Zuni remained there until Coronado was
long gone, and they eventually came down 23. The Zuni resettled in their villages and
accepted Spanish rule, and missionaries thereafter. The main means of enforcement to
ensure newly conquered Native Americans civilized was the introduction of missionaries
and churches into their villages24. The missionaries acted as enforcers of the Spanish
rule, along with their assigned bodyguards, and were expected to actively promote
Christianity within their assigned communities25.
This process was difficult in the Zuni community, as it was a long distance form
the Governor of the Great Southwest’s headquarters in Santé Fe and there were no good
roads for transportation. In fact, the Spanish considered the Zuni as being on the
“northern frontier,” and, unlike members of the Eastern Pueblos in the Rio Grande valley,
the Zuni were never forced to pay tribute to the Spanish crown (no taxes). Their distance
from Santé Fe was a key factor contributing to their cultural survival in New Spain, as it
made the arrival of missionaries and the proper implementation of Spanish acculturation
strategy extremely difficult to achieve26. This stagnation in the Spanish acculturation
process allowed the Zuni to have an additional few years of isolation not many other
Native Americans were fortunate enough to have.
23 Ibid
25 Ibid
26 Ibid, 14

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Zuni Agrarian Lifestyle
There were six Zuni villages existing in 1605, and the Zuni Valley was fully
cultivated by 158227. The Spanish brought with them livestock like cows and horses and
sheep, new crops like wheat, new tools and weapons, and new farming techniques. Since
before the Spanish invasion, the Zuni were already living an agrarian lifestyle. They
were masters of growing maze, and already had domesticated the dog and turkey before
the Spanish introduction of domesticated animals. Given this fact, it was easier for the
Zuni to transition into the Spanish farming style28. This proves the importance of the
Zuni agrarian lifestyle in maintaining culture in New Spain, since the Zuni had similar
views on agriculture as the Spanish did.
Zuni Language and Religion
Missionaries did not arrive in Zuni territory until 1629. They set up a mission
first at Hawikuh and 4 more by 163329. The missionaries stationed in the Zuni territory
were expected to actively convert Native Americans into civilized Christians, and
expected to document all baptisms and Christianized members30. This was difficult to
account for in the Zuni missions however, even though there were many baptisms
documented, the missionaries often found Natives were also participating in their own
Native ritual, essentially disregarding the Christian faith. One reason for the Natives
confusion in what it meant to be baptized into the Catholic Church came from a language
1963: 7-15
30 Gutierrez, Ramón. When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality,and Power in
New Mexico, 1500-1846.Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1991: 227

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barrier in the Missions. Within the American Great Southwest there existed over 30
different Native groups each with their own unique language31. Of the six previously
discussed attributes important to civilizing the Natives, deciphering the various native
languages of the Great South West was not seen as important to the process.
Missionaries in charge of civilizing the Zuni natives, often gave little effort in attempting
to learn the Zuni language, and also did little in discouraging its use32. The allowance for
the continuation of the Zuni language was an enormous factor contributing to the
continuation of Zuni culture. Maintaining their own language allowed the Zuni to be
much sneakier, in regards to their native rituals, and made it difficult for missionaries to
implement their civilization strategies.
Another factor, which allowed the Zuni to continue their culture, was that they
were already a monogamous people before Spanish contact33. The largest difference
between the Spanish and Zuni marriage relationships pertained to ceremony. Unlike the
Spanish, the Zuni native religion saw no need for ceremonial events to occur in order to
legitimize marriage, and, oddly enough, historians have found very little evidence of
divorce cases amongst the Zuni people34. It is strange to think, that a less concrete
marriage tie could yield more concrete devotion, but that was the case in Zuni culture.
During the years of peace with the Spanish, many Zuni people accepted the marriage
ceremonies brought by the invaders. The change wasn’t so drastic to destroy the Zuni
marriage culture, and after marriage was legitimized, the Zuni simply continued to carry
32 Ibid, 157-200
33 Eggan, Fred. Social Organization of the Western Pueblos. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950:
200-204
34 Ibid, 185-200

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out traditional Zuni marriage culture. Again, this was made possible in part by a
perpetuation of the use of Zuni language, and ultimately another important factor in
understanding why the Zuni were able to maintain culture during Spanish influence.
Spanish False Promises
In the ending months of the year 1633, the Zuni attacked and killed two
missionaries and their soldier escorts. When the Spanish first conquered the Zuni and
asked for their surrender to Spain, they also enticed the Natives to do so with explained
incentives that would accompany living under Spanish rule. These included, entrance
into heaven, and transversely, freedom from imminently being doomed to hell, new
technology, new agricultural techniques, and most importantly protection. Protection
from outside Native groups was the number one incentive for the Zuni and other Western
Pueblo Indians to adhere to Spanish rule. Regularly throughout history the Zuni had been
raided and terrorized by the Navajo to the North West and the Apache to the South, and
Spanish military power was an appealing alternative defense from the rival native
groups35.
However, as Spicer explains, in the years leading up to 1633, the Zuni quickly
wised up to what the Spanish were really capable of, and what they were trying to
accomplish. The first missionaries to the Zuni did not come until 1629, and after their
arrival the missionaries were quickly distinguished as having an agenda different than
what was promised by the Spanish. Raiding from outside native groups on Zuni territory
continued, and since the Zuni territory was so far from the main headquarters in Santé Fe,
Spanish protection from outside raiders was nearly impossible. The lack of protection by

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the Spanish delegitimized the promises made, and this ultimately lead to the Zuni’s
decision to kill the Spanish missionaries in 163336.
After killing the missionaries, the Zuni fled again to Corn Mountain, and took
refuge there for ten years. They feared Spanish reprisal for what they had done, but after
ten years of no vengeance the Zuni again came down from the Mesa and established two
villages at Hawikuh and Holana37. Again, the Zuni agreed to Spanish missionaries
coming in, and proceeded to help build churches at both villages. One reason for the lack
of Spanish backlash was attributed to the shear distance and manpower needed to
penetrate into the Zuni territory, and again reinforces the importance of their location in
allowing their culture to be maintained. The Spanish accepted peace once the Zuni
returned to their villages off the mesa.
Pueblo Revolt
In the following years the Zuni were subject to harsh labor treatment administered
by the missionaries and civil servants. Raiding from outside rival groups also continued
to occur, and in 1670 an Apache raiding party infiltrated and killed the missionary at
Hawikuh38. Soon after, in 1680, the Native pueblo groups in the great south west
orchestrated possibly the most successful revolt in New Spain’s history39. Eastern
Pueblos in cahoots with Western Pueblos, systematically killed all the remaining
missionaries in the Rio Grande valley, and proceeded to push out all the Spanish settlers
from New Mexico. The occasion would become known as the Pueblo Revolt, and for
36 Ibid
1963: 7-15
39 Ibid

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twelve years after its occurrence there was no Spanish presence in Zuni territory. The
lack of Spanish influence in Zuni territory allowed for a revitalization of Zuni religion
and culture, and was extremely important to how the Zuni maintained their culture under
Spanish rule.
An obvious reason for the Pueblo revolts occurrence resulted from the harsh
treatment of missionaries at the time. Harsh labor was implemented in Zuni villages, and
though volunteer laborers were legally supposed to be paid a wage, often this did not
occur. Civil servants also were documented to have used and exploited native labor for
their own personal gain. The Zuni never had to pay a tax to the Spanish during their
entire 200 year relationship40. However, many Eastern Pueblo groups were expected to
pay tribute. The Governor of the Great Southwest was in charge of assuring the natives
paid the tax, and any excess revenue gained was money in his pocket essentially.
Historian Marc Simmons wrote extensively on the Governor of the Great Southwest
during the 17th century, Juan de Onate41. Onate is described as obviously having a large
interest in advancing his own personal gain as Governor of the Great Southwest, and this
was often the case for any official in power there42. This included the missionaries, who
would often attribute their harsh treatment and power trips to the bidding of God’s work
(Simmons)43.
40 Ibid
41 Scholes, France V., Marc Simmons, and José Antonio Esquibel. Juan Domínguez de Mendoza :Soldier
and Frontiersman of the Spanish Southwest,1627-1693 / Edited by France V. Scholes,Marc
Simmons, José Antonio Esquibel ;Translated by Eleanor B. Adams. Coronado Historical Series: 7.
Albuquerque :University of New Mexico Press, 2012
43 Scholes, France V., Marc Simmons, and José Antonio Esquibel. Juan Domínguez de Mendoza :Soldier
and Frontiersman of the Spanish Southwest,1627-1693 / Edited by France V. Scholes,Marc
Simmons, José Antonio Esquibel ;Translated by Eleanor B. Adams. Coronado Historical Series: 7.
Albuquerque :University of New Mexico Press, 2012

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A less obvious reasoning for the Pueblo revolt was the difference in opinion
between church and civil officials on the purpose of labor in the native communities.
Missionaries saw the existence of labor as an important tool for furthering Spanish
acculturation, and viewed most natives as lazy people. For the civil servants, the laborers
were a commodity, and important to fattening their pockets. Both organizations accused
the other of unlawfully interfering with the civilization of the Native people in the Great
Southwest, and from these allegations soon came an investigation by the Spanish into the
possibility of corruption44. What was found, was numerous numbers of cases of unlawful
exploitation on both the civil and church side, and ultimately proved how truly corrupt
both sides of the Spanish coin were45. These accusations and investigations are
important, because they demonstrate discourse amongst Spanish officials on the proper
treatment of the Zuni people. This discourse made the Spanish appear broken and weak
in the years leading up to 1680, and it wasn’t until that year the two branches of power
finally began working together in a concise idea of how to treat the Natives46. The years
of Spanish discourse was quickly replaced with stern formatted strategy, and it was this
transition that ultimately lead to the Pueblos of New Mexico organizing and revolting.
Zuni Consolidation
The Zuni were given the Cruzate Land Grant from the Spanish in 1689, which
covers roughly the same territory the Zuni now control today47. In 1692, Governor Diego
45 Ibid
46 Ibid
47 Jenkins, Myra Ellen. "Spanish Land Grants in the Tewa Area." New Mexico Historical Review 47, no. 2
(1972): 113-134

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de Vargas marched a large army into New Mexico to reconquer the territory lost in the
Pueblo Revolt. Before 1692, the Spanish were unable to rally a large enough force to
reconquer New Mexico. De Vargas found the Zuni people atop the Corn Mesa, and on
that year the Zuni peacefully agreed to Spanish terms to continue missionary work, and
allow 100 Zuni children to be baptized.
The Zuni remained atop the mesa until 1699, and continued to fight the Spanish
re-conquest in other ways. For instance, the Zuni contributed troops to Eastern Pueblo
groups in their fight against the Spanish in 1693-9448. When the Zuni finally did come
down from Corn Mountain, they built a single village, with a church, on the east side of
the Zuni River, known as Zuni. The Zuni people remained at the same relative location
of this new village until present day. The Zuni people’s ability to consolidate into one
village in times of conflict was unique to the Zuni culture, and their ability to do so was
important to Zuni cultural survival during Spanish influence.
Peaceful Relations betweenSpanishand Zuni in 1700s
During the 1700s, relations were extremely relaxed between the Zuni and the
Spanish. Missionaries irregularly visited the mission at Zuni; usually only 2 were ever
present at a time. Documents also show instances of the Zuni and Spanish working
together peacefully during these years. One instance of this cooperation occurred in
1706. The Spanish were relentlessly trying to penetrate the Hopi Empire and continue to
spread Christian faith in the territory there. The largest of the Hopi villages aggressively
fought the spread of missionaries, and in 1706 sought to recruit the Zuni in a revolt to
again dispel the Spanish from New Mexico. The Zuni disagreed, and the Hopi instead
48 Hart, E. Richard, and Foreword by T.J. Ferguson. Pedro Pino: Governor of Zuni Pueblo,1830-1878.
Logan : Utah State University Press, 2003. 1-6

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attacked the Zuni village in retaliation49. The Zuni then allied themselves with the
Spanish, and joined the fight against the Hopi50.
The Zuni decision to ally with the Spanish is reasonable, because before 1706, the
Zuni were thriving quite peacefully. They didn’t mind the missionaries, and by the 1700s
the Zuni people were described by the Hopi as “completely Christianized”51. Even with
Spanish influence, the Zuni found they were able to continue living mostly like they
always had. The peaceful relations between the Zuni and the Spanish was an important
factor in explaining how their culture survived Spanish acculturation (Kessel)52.
Some believe another reason for peaceful Spanish/Zuni relations resulted from
the location of the Zuni territory. Historians like Richard Hart would have you believe
the Spanish viewed the Zuni territory as a “valuable corridor” which had to be protected,
and the Spanish could not do it alone53. Hart believes the Zuni territory was rapidly
becoming an important trade route for the Spanish in the 1700s, and a “possible route to
the pacific54.” Also, Spicer believes the Zuni traded on a very small scale, mostly for
luxury goods, however Hart believes the Zuni traded much more than previously
thought55. The Zuni Salt Lake was a valuable resource for salt in Zuni territory, and Hart
believes the Zuni regularly traded the product. It is possible that the Zuni’s location was
important to the Spanish in regards to trading, and, if this is true, then the Spanish may
49 Ibid
Logan : Utah State University Press, 2003: 1-20
52 Kessell, John L. Pueblos,Spanish and the Kingdomof New Mexico. Norman University of Oklahoma
Press, 2008.
Logan : Utah State University Press, 2003: 1-20
54 Ibid
55 Ibid

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18
have treated the Zuni better than other Pueblo groups simply for economic purposes. The
peaceful setting would have been important to allowing the Zuni to maintain their culture
in Spanish New Mexico.
Conclusion
In Zuni territory, the late 1700s and early 1800s marks a long sequence of Navajo
raids. By 1810, the Spanish were in the process of quelling a revolutionary Mexico, and
the threat of revolution was too overwhelming for the Spanish government to also combat
the Navajos in the Great Southwest56. By 1821, the missions at Zuni were wholly
abandoned, and again the Zuni were left to fend for themselves. The Zuni had survived
the long two hundred year span of Spanish control and interaction, with their religion,
language architecture, and passion for agriculture intact. The Zuni had overcome Spanish
culture influence, and were amazingly able to continue living much as they did before
Spanish contact.
There are a number of factors contributing to how the Zuni Indians of the Great
Southwest successfully combated acculturation and maintained cultural individuality
during Spanish contact. I think Alfred L. Kroeber sums up the strength of the Zuni
culture in his quote, “it is impossible to proceed far into the complexities of the Zuni
without being impressed with the perception that this community is as solidly welded and
cross tied as it is intricately ramified57.” I was unable to touch on every contributing
factor, however I believe the ten factors mentioned were the most important in allowing
57 Kroeber, A. L. Zuñi Kin and Clan.Anthropological Papers of the American Museum
of Natural History. Vol. 18, Pt. 2. New York: The Trustees,1917.

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the Zuni culture to survive Spanish influence. This analysis should bring some clarity to
further understanding how the Zuni maintained their culture during the Spanish
civilization process. The Zuni Indians had a unique experience during the Spanish
conquest of New Spain, and their ability to adapt and maintain their culture while being
pressured by the Spanish Civilization is nothing less than extraordinary.

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20
Bibliography
Books
• Dutton, Bertha P. Friendly People: The Zuñi Indians. Santa Fe, N.M:
Museum of New Mexico Press, 1963.
• Eggan, Fred. Social Organization of the Western Pueblos. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1950: 176-210
• Gutierrez, Ramón. When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage,
Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846. Stanford, California:
Stanford University Press, 1991.
• Hodge, Fredrick Webb. History of Hawikuh, New Mexico: One of the So-
Called Cities of Cibola. Los Angeles: South Museum, 1937: 18-30, 51-57,
61-68, 114-127
• Kessell, John L. Pueblos, Spanish and the Kingdom of New Mexico. Norman
University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.
• Leighton, Dorothea Cross, and John Adair. People of the Middle Place: a
study of the Zuni Indians. Hew Haven, Conn: Human relations Area Files
Press, 1966: 11-22, 45-52,
• Scholes, France V., Marc Simmons, and José Antonio Esquibel. Juan Domínguez
de Mendoza : Soldier and Frontiersman of the Spanish Southwest, 1627-
1693 / Edited by France V. Scholes, Marc Simmons, José Antonio
Esquibel ; Translated by Eleanor B. Adams. Coronado Historical Series: 7.
Albuquerque : University of New Mexico Press, 2012.

Corey Ticknor
21
• Spicer, Edward. Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the
United states on the Indians of the Southwes, 1533-1960. Tucson:
University of Arizona Press, 1962: 14, 152-210, 280-330
 Stevenson, Matilda Coxe. The Zuni Indians / Matilda Coxe Stevenson. A Rio
Grande Classic. Glorieta, N.M. Rio Grande Press: 1970.
Journal Articles
 Brown, Tracy. “Tradition and Change in Eighteenth-Century Pueblo Indian
Communities.” Journal of the Southwest 46, no. 3 (2004): 463–500.
 Howarth, William. “Putting Columbus in His Place.” Southwest Review 77, no.
2/3 (1992): 153–65.
 Jenkins, Myra Ellen. "Spanish Land Grants in the Tewa Area." New Mexico
Historical Review 47, no. 2 (1972): 113-134
 Morell, Virginia. “The Zuni Way.” Smithsonian 38, no. 1 (April 2007): 76–83.
Primary Sources
• Cushing, Frank Hamilton, My Adventures in Zuñi. Palmer Lake, CO: Filter Press.
1967.
• Hart, E. Richard, and Foreword by T.J. Ferguson. Pedro Pino: Governor of Zuni
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