International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The Journal will bring together leading researchers, engineers and scientists in the domain of interest from around the world. Topics of interest for submission include, but are not limited to :
Impacts of climate change on livelihood by zewde alemayehu tilahunzewde alemayehu
Climate change is negatively impacting livelihoods in several ways. It is causing weather extremes like droughts and floods more frequently, reducing food security and forcing migration. Subsistence farmers are especially vulnerable as they depend on climate-sensitive rain-fed agriculture. Studies show countries like Ethiopia, which rely heavily on agriculture, may see agricultural income reductions of 60% by 2100 due to climate change. Climate change is exacerbating existing issues in Ethiopia like land degradation and deforestation, further threatening livelihoods. Adaptation is needed to help vulnerable communities cope with the effects of climate change and protect livelihoods.
Climate Change Impacts on the Livelihoods of Vulnerable Groups Dr. Joshua Zake
A presentation made during the International Training Course on climate change adaptation in agriculture and natural resource management organized by Wageningen University and Makerere University. The training course was conducted in February 2015 and it benefited participants from Asia, East, West and Southern Africa.
11.population growth and sustainable land management in indiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes the relationship between population growth, sustainable land management, and food security in India. It notes that India faces challenges of high population growth putting pressure on limited land and water resources, leading to issues like land degradation, water scarcity, and food crises. Sustainable land management is presented as a solution that can help increase agricultural production to meet food demands while preserving land quality and the environment for future generations. Key concepts discussed include Malthusian theory of population growth outpacing food supply, the environmental impacts of intensive cultivation and groundwater extraction for irrigation, and balancing economic development with sustainable resource use.
Climate Change and Vulnerability in Ghana by Justice Ampofo AgyeiJustice Ampofo
Climate change is one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats to the livelihood of forest dependent communities in developing countries. The impacts of climate change on ecosystem services and the livelihood of communities surrounding the SRFR have been identified in this paper. These communities are very vulnerable due to their high dependence on ecosystem services and their low capacity to climate change impacts. Sectors that are adversely affected by climate change include agriculture, biodiversity, and water resources. These impacts are most likely to deepen poverty, food insecurity and the poor livelihoods of the communities. To address these negative impacts, the communities have adapted various adaptation strategies in agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and water resources management to minimize climate change impacts. To improve ecosystem services, adaptation to climate change impacts, the resilience and capacity of the local communities, it is important to put in place appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.
The document discusses key challenges related to soil preservation and sustainable management. It notes that soil is a non-renewable resource under increasing pressure from population growth and competing land uses. Approximately one third of global land is currently degraded. Sustainable soil management is imperative for reversing degradation trends and ensuring future global food security given limited opportunities for agricultural expansion. The document outlines recommendations for promoting sustainable soil practices including technologies, policies, education, and investment to increase production while using less land and inputs.
The document discusses the relationship between the environment and sustainable economic development. It defines environment and explains how it is interdependent with development. Sustainable development is defined as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. While economic growth benefits standards of living, it has also degraded ecosystems. Maintaining balance requires policy interventions like promoting cleaner technologies, efficient resource use, and international cooperation. Development and environment impact each other, so sustainable development is needed.
Impacts of climate change on livelihood by zewde alemayehu tilahunzewde alemayehu
Climate change is negatively impacting livelihoods in several ways. It is causing weather extremes like droughts and floods more frequently, reducing food security and forcing migration. Subsistence farmers are especially vulnerable as they depend on climate-sensitive rain-fed agriculture. Studies show countries like Ethiopia, which rely heavily on agriculture, may see agricultural income reductions of 60% by 2100 due to climate change. Climate change is exacerbating existing issues in Ethiopia like land degradation and deforestation, further threatening livelihoods. Adaptation is needed to help vulnerable communities cope with the effects of climate change and protect livelihoods.
Climate Change Impacts on the Livelihoods of Vulnerable Groups Dr. Joshua Zake
A presentation made during the International Training Course on climate change adaptation in agriculture and natural resource management organized by Wageningen University and Makerere University. The training course was conducted in February 2015 and it benefited participants from Asia, East, West and Southern Africa.
11.population growth and sustainable land management in indiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes the relationship between population growth, sustainable land management, and food security in India. It notes that India faces challenges of high population growth putting pressure on limited land and water resources, leading to issues like land degradation, water scarcity, and food crises. Sustainable land management is presented as a solution that can help increase agricultural production to meet food demands while preserving land quality and the environment for future generations. Key concepts discussed include Malthusian theory of population growth outpacing food supply, the environmental impacts of intensive cultivation and groundwater extraction for irrigation, and balancing economic development with sustainable resource use.
Climate Change and Vulnerability in Ghana by Justice Ampofo AgyeiJustice Ampofo
Climate change is one of the greatest environmental, social and economic threats to the livelihood of forest dependent communities in developing countries. The impacts of climate change on ecosystem services and the livelihood of communities surrounding the SRFR have been identified in this paper. These communities are very vulnerable due to their high dependence on ecosystem services and their low capacity to climate change impacts. Sectors that are adversely affected by climate change include agriculture, biodiversity, and water resources. These impacts are most likely to deepen poverty, food insecurity and the poor livelihoods of the communities. To address these negative impacts, the communities have adapted various adaptation strategies in agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and water resources management to minimize climate change impacts. To improve ecosystem services, adaptation to climate change impacts, the resilience and capacity of the local communities, it is important to put in place appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies.
The document discusses key challenges related to soil preservation and sustainable management. It notes that soil is a non-renewable resource under increasing pressure from population growth and competing land uses. Approximately one third of global land is currently degraded. Sustainable soil management is imperative for reversing degradation trends and ensuring future global food security given limited opportunities for agricultural expansion. The document outlines recommendations for promoting sustainable soil practices including technologies, policies, education, and investment to increase production while using less land and inputs.
The document discusses the relationship between the environment and sustainable economic development. It defines environment and explains how it is interdependent with development. Sustainable development is defined as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. While economic growth benefits standards of living, it has also degraded ecosystems. Maintaining balance requires policy interventions like promoting cleaner technologies, efficient resource use, and international cooperation. Development and environment impact each other, so sustainable development is needed.
Presentation from Salman Hussain, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) describing TEEB Agriculture and Food, a study designed to provide an economic evaluation of the ‘eco-agri-food systems’ complex. The presentation was prepared and delivered in occasion of the International Symposium on Agroecology for Food Security and Nutrition, held at FAO in Rome on 18-19 September 2014.
Climate change impacts on vulnarable people in uganda esp women a country a...Dr. Joshua Zake
This paper presents an analysis and position of climate change impacts on livelihood of vulnerable groups (especially women) in Uganda among other related critical issues. Furthermore, it highlights key recommendations targeting key stakeholders at all levels to take proactive actions to advance adaptation and mitigation to these impacts.
Soil degradation is a major threat to global food security and sustainable development. An estimated 33% of the world's soil is currently degraded due to unsustainable land management practices and climate change impacts. With the global population projected to reach over 9 billion by 2050, food demand is expected to increase 60% which will further stress soil resources. International programs are working to promote sustainable soil management, restore degraded lands, and build resilience to climate change in vulnerable regions. Key actions needed include use of sustainable technologies, soil protection projects, regulations on contaminants, and education on maintaining soil health.
MDBS Climate change cross-cutting paper v6b Final - namesDr Seán Doolan, MBA
Climate change is already affecting Ghana's economic development and poses challenges to achieving development goals. It acts as a "stress-multiplier" exacerbating existing vulnerabilities. Both adaptation and mitigation efforts are needed, requiring leadership across sectors to build climate resilience. Climate change impacts different regions and populations in Ghana in varying ways, increasing risks for the most vulnerable groups. Responses are needed at national, sectoral, and local levels to safeguard development gains and pursue low-carbon growth opportunities in the face of a changing climate.
This document reviews factors influencing Ethiopian farm households' decisions to invest in soil and water conservation. Land degradation through soil erosion and nutrient depletion threatens food security and productivity in Ethiopia's highlands. While the government has promoted conservation, studies have found mixed results on adoption factors. The review finds adoption and investment intensity are influenced by different processes. Addressing all relevant factors is needed, as no single policy can drive major changes alone.
National Stakeholders sharing sharing workshop on PID and Climate Change Adap...Dr. Joshua Zake
A presentation made during the National stakeholders dialogue on Participatory Innovation Development and Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation, Kampala.
Watershed Characterization And Management Planning In Wular Catchment [www.wr...WriteKraft Dissertations
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 . Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission
“To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer’s aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world
Subjects/Areas We Cover
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
Disaster and Poverty: The Differential Impacts of Disaster on the Poor in the...Abu M. Sufiyan, PhD
This dissertation examines the differential impacts of natural disasters on poor communities in the Gulf Coast region of the United States. The study aims to determine if disasters exacerbate poverty and if higher poverty levels result in greater losses from disasters. Key findings include:
1) Disasters are found to increase measures of poverty such as incomes below the poverty line and income inequality. Higher disaster fatalities and losses are linked to decreased economic status.
2) Poverty is also found to result in higher social vulnerability and losses from disasters, as counties with higher poverty conditions experienced greater impacts.
3) The dissertation utilizes statistical analyses of disaster impacts, economic indicators, and poverty levels across multiple Gulf Coast states over 30 years to test its
Climate change adaptation opportunities and challenges from two communities i...Alexander Decker
Climate change is disproportionately affecting poor communities in developing countries like Ethiopia. Two communities in Ethiopia were surveyed to understand their perceptions of and ability to adapt to climate change impacts like drought. The communities demonstrated good awareness of climate impacts but lagged in adaptation efforts due to limited resources. While communities are actively adapting, their capacity is insufficient to deal with increasing disaster frequency and severity expected due to climate change. Increased global support is urgently needed to help vulnerable communities adapt.
Climate change poses security risks for India through its impacts. Rising sea levels and extreme weather events may displace millions of people in India and cause food and water insecurity. This could exacerbate existing social tensions and conflicts. Neighboring countries like Bangladesh may see environmental refugees fleeing to India, altering demographics. Water disputes may also arise between India and its neighbors like China and Pakistan. The Indian military will need to adapt operations and potentially provide more humanitarian aid. Overall, climate impacts threaten stability in India and could impact its relationships in South Asia.
Challenges and Perspective of Disaster ManagementRutuja Chudnaik
Challenges and Perspective of Disaster Management,Disaster- An Introduction,The cost and consequences of disasters, Development and natural disasters, Disaster Risk Reduction, Disaster Management Cycle, Disaster management in India, Natural Disaster – Droughts, Drought: causes and effects, Impact of drought: Indian scenario, Drought disaster challenges and mitigation in India, Drought assessment: tools and techniques, Drought management and challenges, Drought management framework in India, Conclusion.
Building Resilience in Rural Development through Sustainable Development Prac...Adetokunbo Lawrence
The document summarizes findings from a field trip report on sustainable agricultural development in Saki East LGA, Oyo State, Nigeria. It discusses the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GES), which provides subsidized farm inputs to registered farmers. About 3,000 farmers in Saki East LGA benefit from the program. While GES has increased access to inputs, issues remain around product marketing and conflicts between farmers and nomadic herders. The local government is taking initiatives to support agriculture through pilot farms, a poultry farm, feed mill, and input distribution. Recommendations focus on improving marketing, capacity building, and resolving farmer-herder conflicts.
Valuation of soil conservation practices in adwa woreda, ethiopia a conting...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that uses contingent valuation methods to estimate the value that farmers place on soil conservation practices in Adwa Woreda, Ethiopia. 218 farmers were surveyed using a double bounded dichotomous choice format to elicit their willingness to pay for soil conservation. Regression analysis found that age, sex, education level, family size, perceptions, land tenure, livestock ownership, and initial bids were significant factors influencing willingness to pay. The average willingness to pay per household was estimated to be 56.65 person days per year. Aggregated across the study area, the total value of soil conservation was estimated to be 1,373,592 person days per year or approximately 16.5 million Ethiopian Birr. The
Paper tries to look at the positivity and negativities of hill areas and suggest options for its holistic and integrated development to make hill areas more sustainable , productive, livable, qualitative, effective, efficient, promoter of economy, employment and banishers of poverty.
The project aims to restore degraded lands in Mali through sustainable palm grove management. Local communities were empowered to organize themselves and regenerate doum palm trees, which provide economic and ecological benefits. Through consultation and demonstration projects, sustainable land use techniques were promoted. A local management agreement for the palm groves was adopted based on social and cultural norms. The restoration efforts helped increase resilience, fix sand dunes, and support livelihoods, while strengthening social cohesion in the community.
Hill area development - Emerging Issues- Sustainable OptionsJIT KUMAR GUPTA
Paper describes in brief the role and importance of Hill areas in the development of the nation. It also tries to define the emerging problems which are being faced by these areas. Considering the present status of hill areas, paper tries to list few options/ steps which can be leveraged to make the hill areas more sustainable ,livable and promoters of quality of life for all communities living in both hills and plains
Weekly Wetlands Sustainability Report - (June 5) NET Africa (www.netafrica.be)NET Africa
The document is the first issue of a weekly wetland sustainability report published by NET Africa. It includes articles on connecting education and citizen science to wetland monitoring, challenges facing the Sio-Setiko wetland in Kenya and Uganda, and the introduction of two youth ambassadors, Jacinta Ruguru of Kenya and Henry Gandhi of East Africa, who will contribute reports on achieving sustainable development goals related to wetlands.
The document discusses the economic consequences of climate change in Tanzania. It notes that Tanzania's agricultural economy is heavily vulnerable to climate change effects like droughts and extreme rainfall. Key impacts include declining water levels in lakes and rivers which threatens hydropower and socioeconomic activity. Tourism, an important economic sector, is also endangered by climate unpredictability affecting wildlife and ecosystems. The government of Tanzania has implemented policies and strategies to tackle issues like environmental degradation, promote sustainable resource management, and build climate resilience.
1. Rapid population growth in India is threatening the environment through expansion of agriculture, uncontrolled urbanization and industrialization, and destruction of natural habitats.
2. Growing population puts pressure on land and resources, leading to issues like land degradation, soil erosion, deforestation, and pollution of water and air.
3. Population growth contributes to environmental degradation by increasing demand for food, housing, energy, and other resources, intensifying land use and degrading forests and land. Rising consumption also increases pollution and stresses ecosystems.
Population growth and sustainable land management in indiaAlexander Decker
This document discusses population growth, sustainable land management, and their relationship in India. It notes that many developing countries like India face problems of high population growth creating issues like poverty, food crises, and land degradation, while resources like land are limited. Sustainable land management is necessary to ensure land productivity and quality for current and future generations. The concept of sustainable land management aims to use renewable land resources like soil, water, and plants in a way that protects long-term productivity while allowing for economic and social benefits.
The document discusses using geographic information systems (GIS) to facilitate effective community-based adaptation to climate change in India. It outlines several advantages of GIS for this purpose, such as efficiently creating maps to identify vulnerable areas and populations, understand community assets and weaknesses, and help guide policy. The document also describes different types of participatory GIS that can be used, including public participation GIS, participatory GIS, and community resource mapping, which empower local communities and facilitate collaboration between communities and officials.
Presentation from Salman Hussain, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) describing TEEB Agriculture and Food, a study designed to provide an economic evaluation of the ‘eco-agri-food systems’ complex. The presentation was prepared and delivered in occasion of the International Symposium on Agroecology for Food Security and Nutrition, held at FAO in Rome on 18-19 September 2014.
Climate change impacts on vulnarable people in uganda esp women a country a...Dr. Joshua Zake
This paper presents an analysis and position of climate change impacts on livelihood of vulnerable groups (especially women) in Uganda among other related critical issues. Furthermore, it highlights key recommendations targeting key stakeholders at all levels to take proactive actions to advance adaptation and mitigation to these impacts.
Soil degradation is a major threat to global food security and sustainable development. An estimated 33% of the world's soil is currently degraded due to unsustainable land management practices and climate change impacts. With the global population projected to reach over 9 billion by 2050, food demand is expected to increase 60% which will further stress soil resources. International programs are working to promote sustainable soil management, restore degraded lands, and build resilience to climate change in vulnerable regions. Key actions needed include use of sustainable technologies, soil protection projects, regulations on contaminants, and education on maintaining soil health.
MDBS Climate change cross-cutting paper v6b Final - namesDr Seán Doolan, MBA
Climate change is already affecting Ghana's economic development and poses challenges to achieving development goals. It acts as a "stress-multiplier" exacerbating existing vulnerabilities. Both adaptation and mitigation efforts are needed, requiring leadership across sectors to build climate resilience. Climate change impacts different regions and populations in Ghana in varying ways, increasing risks for the most vulnerable groups. Responses are needed at national, sectoral, and local levels to safeguard development gains and pursue low-carbon growth opportunities in the face of a changing climate.
This document reviews factors influencing Ethiopian farm households' decisions to invest in soil and water conservation. Land degradation through soil erosion and nutrient depletion threatens food security and productivity in Ethiopia's highlands. While the government has promoted conservation, studies have found mixed results on adoption factors. The review finds adoption and investment intensity are influenced by different processes. Addressing all relevant factors is needed, as no single policy can drive major changes alone.
National Stakeholders sharing sharing workshop on PID and Climate Change Adap...Dr. Joshua Zake
A presentation made during the National stakeholders dialogue on Participatory Innovation Development and Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation, Kampala.
Watershed Characterization And Management Planning In Wular Catchment [www.wr...WriteKraft Dissertations
Writekraft Research and Publications LLP was initially formed, informally, in 2006 by a group of scholars to help fellow students. Gradually, with several dissertations, thesis and assignments receiving acclaim and a good grade, Writekraft was officially founded in 2011 . Since its establishment, Writekraft Research & Publications LLP is Guiding and Mentoring PhD Scholars.
Our Mission
“To provide breakthrough research works to our clients through Perseverant efforts towards creativity and innovation”.
Vision
Writekraft endeavours to be the leading global research and publications company that will fulfil all research needs of our clients. We will achieve this vision through:
Analyzing every customer’s aims, objectives and purpose of research
Using advanced and latest tools and technique of research and analysis
Coordinating and including their own ideas and knowledge
Providing the desired inferences and results of the research
In the past decade, we have successfully assisted students from various universities in India and globally. We at Writekraft Research & Publications LLP head office in Kanpur, India are most trusted and professional Research, Writing, Guidance and Publication Service Provider for PhD. Our services meet all your PhD Admissions, Thesis Preparation and Research Paper Publication needs with highest regards for the quality you prefer.
Our Achievements
NATIONAL AWARD FOR BEST RESEARCH PROJECT (By Hon. President APJ Abdul Kalam)
GOLD MEDAL FOR RESEARCH ON DISABILITY (By Disabled’s Club of India)
NOMINATED FOR BEST MSME AWARDS 2017
5 STAR RATING ON GOOGLE
We have PhD experts from reputed institutions/ organizations like Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Management (IIM) and many more apex education institutions in India. Our works are tailored and drafted as per your requirements and are totally unique.
From past years our core advisory members, research team assisted research scholars from various universities from all corners of world
Subjects/Areas We Cover
Management, Commerce, Finance, Marketing, Psychology, Education, Sociology, Mass communications, English Literature, English Language, Law, History, Computer Science & Engineering, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Pharmacy & Healthcare.
Disaster and Poverty: The Differential Impacts of Disaster on the Poor in the...Abu M. Sufiyan, PhD
This dissertation examines the differential impacts of natural disasters on poor communities in the Gulf Coast region of the United States. The study aims to determine if disasters exacerbate poverty and if higher poverty levels result in greater losses from disasters. Key findings include:
1) Disasters are found to increase measures of poverty such as incomes below the poverty line and income inequality. Higher disaster fatalities and losses are linked to decreased economic status.
2) Poverty is also found to result in higher social vulnerability and losses from disasters, as counties with higher poverty conditions experienced greater impacts.
3) The dissertation utilizes statistical analyses of disaster impacts, economic indicators, and poverty levels across multiple Gulf Coast states over 30 years to test its
Climate change adaptation opportunities and challenges from two communities i...Alexander Decker
Climate change is disproportionately affecting poor communities in developing countries like Ethiopia. Two communities in Ethiopia were surveyed to understand their perceptions of and ability to adapt to climate change impacts like drought. The communities demonstrated good awareness of climate impacts but lagged in adaptation efforts due to limited resources. While communities are actively adapting, their capacity is insufficient to deal with increasing disaster frequency and severity expected due to climate change. Increased global support is urgently needed to help vulnerable communities adapt.
Climate change poses security risks for India through its impacts. Rising sea levels and extreme weather events may displace millions of people in India and cause food and water insecurity. This could exacerbate existing social tensions and conflicts. Neighboring countries like Bangladesh may see environmental refugees fleeing to India, altering demographics. Water disputes may also arise between India and its neighbors like China and Pakistan. The Indian military will need to adapt operations and potentially provide more humanitarian aid. Overall, climate impacts threaten stability in India and could impact its relationships in South Asia.
Challenges and Perspective of Disaster ManagementRutuja Chudnaik
Challenges and Perspective of Disaster Management,Disaster- An Introduction,The cost and consequences of disasters, Development and natural disasters, Disaster Risk Reduction, Disaster Management Cycle, Disaster management in India, Natural Disaster – Droughts, Drought: causes and effects, Impact of drought: Indian scenario, Drought disaster challenges and mitigation in India, Drought assessment: tools and techniques, Drought management and challenges, Drought management framework in India, Conclusion.
Building Resilience in Rural Development through Sustainable Development Prac...Adetokunbo Lawrence
The document summarizes findings from a field trip report on sustainable agricultural development in Saki East LGA, Oyo State, Nigeria. It discusses the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GES), which provides subsidized farm inputs to registered farmers. About 3,000 farmers in Saki East LGA benefit from the program. While GES has increased access to inputs, issues remain around product marketing and conflicts between farmers and nomadic herders. The local government is taking initiatives to support agriculture through pilot farms, a poultry farm, feed mill, and input distribution. Recommendations focus on improving marketing, capacity building, and resolving farmer-herder conflicts.
Valuation of soil conservation practices in adwa woreda, ethiopia a conting...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that uses contingent valuation methods to estimate the value that farmers place on soil conservation practices in Adwa Woreda, Ethiopia. 218 farmers were surveyed using a double bounded dichotomous choice format to elicit their willingness to pay for soil conservation. Regression analysis found that age, sex, education level, family size, perceptions, land tenure, livestock ownership, and initial bids were significant factors influencing willingness to pay. The average willingness to pay per household was estimated to be 56.65 person days per year. Aggregated across the study area, the total value of soil conservation was estimated to be 1,373,592 person days per year or approximately 16.5 million Ethiopian Birr. The
Paper tries to look at the positivity and negativities of hill areas and suggest options for its holistic and integrated development to make hill areas more sustainable , productive, livable, qualitative, effective, efficient, promoter of economy, employment and banishers of poverty.
The project aims to restore degraded lands in Mali through sustainable palm grove management. Local communities were empowered to organize themselves and regenerate doum palm trees, which provide economic and ecological benefits. Through consultation and demonstration projects, sustainable land use techniques were promoted. A local management agreement for the palm groves was adopted based on social and cultural norms. The restoration efforts helped increase resilience, fix sand dunes, and support livelihoods, while strengthening social cohesion in the community.
Hill area development - Emerging Issues- Sustainable OptionsJIT KUMAR GUPTA
Paper describes in brief the role and importance of Hill areas in the development of the nation. It also tries to define the emerging problems which are being faced by these areas. Considering the present status of hill areas, paper tries to list few options/ steps which can be leveraged to make the hill areas more sustainable ,livable and promoters of quality of life for all communities living in both hills and plains
Weekly Wetlands Sustainability Report - (June 5) NET Africa (www.netafrica.be)NET Africa
The document is the first issue of a weekly wetland sustainability report published by NET Africa. It includes articles on connecting education and citizen science to wetland monitoring, challenges facing the Sio-Setiko wetland in Kenya and Uganda, and the introduction of two youth ambassadors, Jacinta Ruguru of Kenya and Henry Gandhi of East Africa, who will contribute reports on achieving sustainable development goals related to wetlands.
The document discusses the economic consequences of climate change in Tanzania. It notes that Tanzania's agricultural economy is heavily vulnerable to climate change effects like droughts and extreme rainfall. Key impacts include declining water levels in lakes and rivers which threatens hydropower and socioeconomic activity. Tourism, an important economic sector, is also endangered by climate unpredictability affecting wildlife and ecosystems. The government of Tanzania has implemented policies and strategies to tackle issues like environmental degradation, promote sustainable resource management, and build climate resilience.
1. Rapid population growth in India is threatening the environment through expansion of agriculture, uncontrolled urbanization and industrialization, and destruction of natural habitats.
2. Growing population puts pressure on land and resources, leading to issues like land degradation, soil erosion, deforestation, and pollution of water and air.
3. Population growth contributes to environmental degradation by increasing demand for food, housing, energy, and other resources, intensifying land use and degrading forests and land. Rising consumption also increases pollution and stresses ecosystems.
Population growth and sustainable land management in indiaAlexander Decker
This document discusses population growth, sustainable land management, and their relationship in India. It notes that many developing countries like India face problems of high population growth creating issues like poverty, food crises, and land degradation, while resources like land are limited. Sustainable land management is necessary to ensure land productivity and quality for current and future generations. The concept of sustainable land management aims to use renewable land resources like soil, water, and plants in a way that protects long-term productivity while allowing for economic and social benefits.
The document discusses using geographic information systems (GIS) to facilitate effective community-based adaptation to climate change in India. It outlines several advantages of GIS for this purpose, such as efficiently creating maps to identify vulnerable areas and populations, understand community assets and weaknesses, and help guide policy. The document also describes different types of participatory GIS that can be used, including public participation GIS, participatory GIS, and community resource mapping, which empower local communities and facilitate collaboration between communities and officials.
Sustainable agriculture in India is important given issues with conventional agriculture such as declining soil fertility, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity. Sustainable agriculture improves ecological sustainability by increasing soil organic matter and water retention, encourages biodiversity through mixed cropping, and reduces pollution. It enhances economic sustainability by focusing on local needs over exports, lowering debt risks, and opening niche markets. Socially, it aims to be inclusive, empower local knowledge, and improve food security and participation. Policies in India should promote sustainable practices like organic farming and resource conservation to ensure long-term agricultural and environmental stability.
Revolutionary Rural Economic and Environment DevelopmentBrian Lewis
The document discusses the REED Program, which aims to promote sustainable rural development through integrated aquaculture, agriculture, and environmental protection. It outlines the program's objectives of establishing model communities that produce food while restoring ecosystems. The REED Program addresses issues like water and land degradation, as well as the growing global demand for food, through community empowerment and diverse green production for local and international markets.
Significance of environmental education skills and methods for modern crisis ...garimatandon10
Environmental education plays a vital role in resolving modern environmental crises through developing skills and sensitivity. It teaches people to behave in environmentally friendly ways and take a global perspective in crisis management. Environmental education methods ensure hands-on learning about nature, developing problem-solving and observation skills. This helps manage natural crises and ensures public health and welfare by preventing environmental health problems. Environmental education creates awareness about sustainable use of resources and the importance of protecting them for future generations.
Sustainable development aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Key principles include ensuring productive assets are not unfairly minimized for future generations, minimizing environmental degradation, and ensuring the poor have access to sustainable living. Sustainable development can be achieved by restricting human activities, developing more efficient technologies, ensuring consumption rates do not exceed production or regeneration rates of resources, and minimizing all types of pollution through sensible use of natural resources.
This document discusses approaches for water sustainability in India. It notes that while India has a large population, it only has 4% of the world's renewable water resources. The document outlines challenges around uneven rainfall distribution and frequent floods and droughts. It recommends adopting integrated water resource management and a holistic approach that focuses on water conservation techniques like watershed development, rainwater harvesting, and conjunctive use of surface and groundwater. The goal is to balance water supply and demand in a sustainable manner that supports ecosystems and human needs over the long term.
6.Sudan presentation == slides deck about sudan foestrz developmentMazinElHag
This document summarizes a presentation on sustainable ecosystem management for climate change adaptation in Sudan. It outlines Sudan's regional context, climate impacts on its ecosystems, key country priorities, and proposed next steps. Sudan is highly vulnerable to climate impacts due to its large arid areas and limited resources. Climate change is expected to exacerbate problems like water scarcity and loss of wildlife. The presentation identifies priorities such as water resources management, access to natural resources, and capacity building. Short-term solutions proposed include boosting drought-resilient farming and supporting pastoralists, while long-term goals involve mainstreaming the environment into planning and strengthening governance.
Agriculture is an essential sector for sustainable development in Sri Lanka, as it has traditionally been a major source of employment. While agriculture's share of employment and income is diminishing, different growth patterns could lead to increased agricultural production. Food security is a major concern for policymakers in developing countries like Sri Lanka. Households in different sectors experience food insecurity differently, such as rural households being more able to depend on local produce compared to urban households. The agricultural sector in Sri Lanka has remained relatively stable in productivity, so the government aims to promote production through sustainable and resource-efficient programs to make farmers more competitive.
Relationship between environment and societyKaiserin Tania
This document discusses the relationship between society and the environment. It notes that sustainability depends on balancing exploitation of the environment with ethical attitudes. Technology determines our ability to exploit the environment, while ethics determines how we use technology. The document also discusses several issues impacting the environment, including climate change, water scarcity, soil degradation, and their effects on human society. Environmental sociology studies how social factors cause environmental problems and how societies address such issues. Throughout history, humans have both impacted and been impacted by the natural world.
Effectiveness of Watershed Management- Means Of Economical Development- A Cas...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Water is the life-blood of the environment, without water no living beings can survive. Water plays
unique role in development of all sectors in any economy of every country. Water is used for agricultural,
domestic, industrial, power generation and other various purposes. But misuses of water resources cause
widespread degradation of soil and disrupt the supply of potable water, generate massive economical loss.
Hence it becomes necessary to harness the water resources available on Earth through the application of
science and technology. This paper presents one such case study where large amount of rainwater is possible to
direct to recharge ground water resources. Kaneri is a small village located at distance of 10 Kms. from
Kolhapur city. It is planned to take such engineering and biological measures which will direct this extra runoff
to ground water storage. The most significant feature of the work is that if such technologies are developed and
adopted at larger scale in rural areas, it will prevent thousands of villages of the country from water supply by
tankers. Moreover this will also help us for economical development of village people which mainly occurs due
to water scarcity.
Hill and Mountain ecosystems comes under risk prone agriculture. Devastation in Uttarakhand compeled us to think over risk prone agriculture and develop managerial methods.
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H0372042047
1. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention
ISSN (Online): 2319 – 7722, ISSN (Print): 2319 – 7714
www.ijhssi.org Volume 3 Issue 7 ǁ July. 2014ǁ PP.42-47
www.ijhssi.org 42 | Page
Economic Development and Environmental Issues in Darjeeling
Himalaya of West Bengal, India: A Theoretical Perspective
Dr. Sherap Bhutia
Assistant Professor
Post Graduate Department of Geography
Chandernagore Government College
P.O. Chandernagore, Dist. Hooghly, West Bengal, INDIA
ABSTRACT : Economic development and environmental issues must go hand in hand. The natural
environment is central to economic activity and growth, providing the resources we need to produce goods and
services, and absorbing and processing unwanted by-products in the form of pollution and waste. Natural
resources are, therefore, vital for securing economic growth and development, not just today but for future
generations. This paper aims to explore the relationship between the economic growth and the pressure on
nature from the environmental sustainability perspective. The area chosen for the present study is one of the
least economically developed regions of West Bengal. The physical environment influences the type of economic
activities especially so in backward areas of Darjeeling Himalaya. Its economy is largely based on tea,
agriculture & tourism, where the former has played a significant role in the development of the region since the
beginning. The Darjeeling Himalaya constitute a fragile and unique ecological system. The region is frequently
plagued by environmental catastrophes. It reveals from the study that the area under study proves to be a
complicated region requiring considerable care & attention in the matter of intensive development.
KEY WORDS : Economic Development, environmental problems, resources, economy.
I. INTRODUCTION
Economic development and environment are interrelated to each other. Improper or uncontrolled
development is likely to cause adverse impacts on the environment, and environmental pollution or degradation
may become a major obstacle for social and economic development. The economic viability and environmental
feasibility do not welcome the industrialists. The environmental problems will be addressed more or less
automatically in the process of economic growth. All the countries are developing at different rates & from
differing historical levels of achievement. Such development with a view to meeting the socio-economic needs
implies that man must use nature in the process of development. It is not that the life-style has changed
altogether; the economy in the remote areas is still the same as it has been since the settlements started, but the
areas enjoying accessibility to urban centres have already adopted a different character, as profoundly manifest
in their day-to-day life. The development of an economy is the consequence of certain economic and
technological processes, but development itself brings about a chain of changes in the socio-economic structure
of a society. The nature, magnitude and direction of these changes depend upon the nature and pattern of
development itself. It is true that one has to make room for the growing population and in this pursuit he has to
utilize every piece of land available. But the precautions that have to be adopted should not be neglected.
II. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The backwardness of the area in terms of socioeconomic, politics and infrastructural facilities and their
variations within the area has called for a distinct study of the different social, economic and political progress
that the area has achieved. Secondly, its geo-strategic location is a reason in itself to evoke concern for the
region. Darjeeling Himalaya's vulnerable position has made it pass through different events in history, each
having a marked effect in the region. Its backwardness can be attributed to environmental/physical constraints
like rugged topography, harsh climate, varying altitude with steep slopes, unfavourable valleys; ethnic clashes;
and political instability which makes the life painstaking and hazardous. Environmental conditions play a major
role in conditioning the livelihood and economy of the people in Darjeeling Himalaya. The topography, climatic
variations, soil condition have all influenced human occupance. Subsistence agriculture, livestock, forestry,
plantations and allied activities are the major activity of the rural folks.
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Darjeeling Himalaya has only over 13% cultivable land in proportion to its total geographical area. No effort has
been made by the government to maximize the utilization of the land.
III. STUDY AREA
The Darjeeling Himalaya covers an area of 2476 Sq. Km. spanning three revenue Sub-Divisions of
Kalimpong, Kurseong and Darjeeling. Broadly speaking, the Darjeeling Himalaya falls under subtropical
perhumid climate with an average rainfall of 3104.5mm per annum, with an air temperature of maximum 26º C
and minimum 4º C. The Darjeeling Himalaya consist of eight Community Development Blocks or C.D. Blocks
which include 112 Gram Panchayat, 311 inhabited villages and 31 uninhabited villages as per 2011 census. The
total population of the study area during 2011 is 875,703 persons, of which 440,257 are male and 435,446 are
female. This Himalayan region is formed of comparatively recent rock structure that has a direct bearing on
landslides. However, heavy monsoon precipitation is however a very common cause of the landslides. Soils of
this magnificent hill area are extremely varied, depending on elevation, degree of slope, vegetative cover and
geolithology. The Himalayas serve as the source of natural resources for the population residing in the hills.
IV. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objectives of this paper are:
(i) to discuss the source of economic development in the study area.
(ii) to examine the empirical relationship between economic growth and the environment.
(iii) to discuss the ecological impacts arising from the economic development.
(iv) to explore how economic growth might be decoupled from environmental pressures.
(v) to suggest some recommendation for environmental friendly economic development.
V. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Economic development seeks increase, in the rate of increase of national income and achieving an
equitable distribution of income. Increase in national income would result only from increased production of
goods and services. The process of increase in output would involve greater consumption of resources such as
land, forest, fuels etc, whose supply is essentially limited. The productivity of an economy thus depends
considerably on the supply, quality and consumption of such natural resources. Thus reckless and thoughtless
use of these resources would cause their exhaustion and degradation, thereby reduce productivity and impede
economic growth. Also due to such depletion and degradation our future generations will not get enough of
these resources for their use thus adversely affecting their output, income and living standards. So
environmental degradation not only affects us but will also have repercussions on our future generations.
Agriculture: Agriculture in this region is grossly rain dependent and distributed between pre-kharif and kharif
seasons. Almost all upper ridges of the region are forest areas; tea plantations and native agriculture occupy
mid-hill section. Cultivation of well paddies extends down the mid-hill section up to the bottom valley in some
cases. Soil in general is shallow, medium to light textured, surface drainage is rapid, highly susceptible to
erosion by water, internally well drained, reasonably high in organic matter, poor in bases and phosphate and
distinctly acidic in reaction. Cultivation in drier months is limited to small patches where residual moisture/
limited irrigation from nearby rivulets are available. Almost all arable lands have a slope of more than 8%. In
some extreme cases poor farmers are seen cultivating very steep slopes that have gradients of 40% or even
more. The annual rainfall is very unevenly distributed over the year. Four fifth of the precipitation is witnessed
from June- September. So the hill farmers face surplus water during these months and there is acute scarcity of
water from February to May. These conditions necessitate aggressive intervention in conserving the precious
topsoil during monsoon as well as harvesting life saving irrigation water for the dry months. This could only be
done successfully by covering the arable and non-arable lands with perennial plants, disrupting the slope of
terraces with vegetable hedges planted along the contour and encouraging cultivation in leveled to inward
terraces for checking erosion and by harvesting water in durable structures on stable marginal lands.
Animal Husbandry: Livestock plays an important role to uplift the rural economy in our country and more so
in the hills. Its contribution in the Gross National Income is about 25%. Several important technological
developments in branches of Animal science has established that Animal Resources Development is one of the
most important sectors for economic growth of rural poor, marginal destitute farmers and unemployed youth of
the country with special reference to Darjeeling hills, where land holdings among these groups are significantly
3. Economic Development And Environmental…
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low and returns from agriculture are diminishing. As such, successful implementation of the animal resources
development schemes has been given priority by the State govt. for eco-friendly sustainable income generation
among the local people in Darjeeling Himalaya.
Horticulture: Most of the farmers in these regions are still practicing the traditional method of cultivating
traditional crops like ginger millet, local varieties of paddy, maize and vegetables. It has been observed that the
traditional method of crop cultivation with local traditional crop varieties is not economically viable these days
due to low productivity and high cost of cultivation. It is, therefore imperative that the emphasis and
development initiatives vis-à-vis agriculture be shifted to floriculture-horticulture crops in the hill areas of
Darjeeling District. The main fruit crops of the area are temperate fruits like orange, plum, pears and peach.
Beside these, there are substantial areas growing banana, pineapple and guava. There is also scope for
cultivation of passion fruit and its juice has great demand at present especially for the export purposes.
Tourism: Tourism is an important economic activity of hill areas of Darjeeling District generating incomes and
employment for the local population. Darjeeling receives around 3.5 lakhs domestic tourists and 50,000 foreign
tourists per year that generates near 30% of total tourism business of the region worth around Rs 350 crore per
annum. Everybody right from a chaiwala upto the hotel owner benefits from the tourism. Apart from an increase
in the income and the demand for local products, tourism also results in a multiplier effect. This refers to the
way in which tourist expenditures filter through the economy and generate other economic activities. The
multiplier effect is based on the concept of interdependency of different sectors of the economy the result of
which is that any change in the host economy‟s level of output, income, employment, government revenue and
foreign exchange flows will be greater than the value of the initial change. The multiplier is expressed as a ratio
of change in one of the above variables to the change in tourist spending that brought it about. In addition to its
contribution to economic growth in the host economy, the labour intensive nature of tourism and tourism related
industries results in a significant impact upon the level of employment in this sector. Income and employment
generation are the most obvious positive impacts of tourism.
The facilities and services deteriorate sharply during the peak season as the amenities available cannot
cope up with the huge rush. There are shortage of drinking water, electricity cut, deterioration of municipal
services, congestion in public transport and lack of accommodation all these leading to a chaotic condition. Not
only the visitors are inconvenienced and put to unnecessary tensions, even the local inhabitants get exasperated.
Though most people look upon tourist as a means of making a living, it is seen that the assets of tourism do not
belong to the people. When it comes to running hotels it is the people from the plains who run these hotels or
lease them. And in the rural areas there is very little or no people who are involved in tourism, so the question of
them benefiting does not even arise. The only ones who benefit are the travel agencies.
Tea: Darjeeling Hills has been producing finest quality tea in the world fetching the highest price. Starting on a
commercial scale in 1856 the present area under Tea Gardens is 19239 hectares producing 11-12 million Kgs. of
tea per year. Cinchona was introduced between 1861 and1869 on trial; large-scale production started from 1887.
The best of Indian quality mulberry silk is being produced in Darjeeling hills. Forestry is an important
occupation of the people of Darjeeling. Darjeeling has about 38.91 % of its area under forest. Many forest-based
industries have come up and there is huge potential for further development. Commercial tea production has
been the mainstay of livelihoods and economy in the Darjeeling hills for over 150 years. Situated in the
Himalayan front ranges in West Bengal, the Darjeeling hills were transformed in the mid-19th century from a
sparsely populated, forested landscape to one dominated by extensive tea estates, linked roads, railway, a major
town and many estate-based villages populated by workers. The area, with an elevation range of 800 to 2600
m/asl, copious and reliable precipitation (3000mm/annum), steep slopes and a diversity of micro-environments
proved suitable for the cultivation of tea on plantation basis.
Since its beginning, the tea industry has played a pivotal role in the socio-economic lives of people of
the region by providing direct employment to thousands of households and ancillary jobs to many more
thousands in chest-tea, plywood, tea packaging and other tea-related trades. In the last three-four decades,
however, the livelihood of the large, dependent population has been threatened. The gradual decline of the
Darjeeling tea industry from strong international competition, increasing production and labor costs, and
declining productivity, and other factors, have affected the sustainable livelihoods of plantation workers. Tea is
the main crop in the region and is grown over a vast area of hilly land, covering 17 542 hectares divided into 87
tea estates. After the first 3 commercial tea estates were established at Tukvar in 1852, the area under tea
expanded gradually to 39 estates in 1866, 56 in 1870 and 113 in 1874. Today there are 87 tea plantations in
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Darjeeling himalaya, producing superfine Darjeeling tea. Darjeeling tea makes up for 3 per cent of India‟s total
production.
The Darjeeling tea industry at present employs over 52 thousand people on a permanent basis, while a
further 15,000 persons are engaged during the plucking season which lasts from March to November. More than
60 percent are women and the employment is on a family basis.
VI. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
All economic activities either affect or are affected by the natural environment. Thus development
based on reckless use of the natural resources is bound to result in reduced productivity of our
economic system affecting the quality of life of the future inhabitants of this planet. Sustainable development
therefore attempts to strike a balance between the demands of economic development and the need for
protection of our natural environment. It is basically concerned with economic development in an
environmentally responsible manner, keeping in mind the needs of the future generations. Soil erosion in the
Darjeeling Himalaya is taking place rapidly by the removal of topsoil which is rich in silt and humus; so it is one
of the major problems, which is disturbing the ecological balance and agricultural development over the region.
The rate of soil erosion depends upon the amount of seasonal distribution of rainfall, steepness of the slope and
length, vegetation cover and nature of soil and the velocity of water. The process of soil formation is very slow,
rather impossible on the bare slope. So, soil erosion should be encouraged by afforestation, slope terrace
cultivation, practices and provision of proper drainage system. Landslide is one of most rampant environmental
hazards in Darjeeling and surrounding hill areas. Landslides are not new in Darjeeling hills and every year in the
monsoons landslides destroy properties and claim lives. Although landslide is a natural phenomenon, landslides
in the hills are mostly triggered by man-made structures and practices. Improper drainage systems, improper
waste management and unscientific cultivation are the factors which augment the landslides in Darjeeling.
Sanitation is almost non-existent in the hills although Darjeeling during the British period is renowned for its
effective planning and efficiency.
Rapid depletion of forests is environmentally the most destructive force in Darjeeling hilly areas. The
main reason for this is the random clearance of forests for a short-term commercial profit, dependence on forests
for fuel and fodder, uncontrolled grazing and pilferage of trees, extension of cultivation and encroachment due
to population pressure. A very large-scale deforestation over the fragile hill slopes has brought about an abrupt
change in the ecosystem in many areas and this has been aggravated by the failure to replace the felled trees in
the same form. The rate at which the forests are being wiped out in the region without heed to massive soil-
erosion and other concomitant hazards has spelt potential socio-economic danger for the people in more than
one way. The tea plantation has also contributed its share, in bringing about ecological imbalance due to
population growth in the region. In this case, soil erosion is the main menance. Nearly 80% of the total bushes
are over 50 years old. Young bushes covers only 4% of the area. The bushes after 50 years are generally
characterized by diminishing return and greater soil erosion. Pest control is an important cultural practice in tea
plantations. Malathine, aldrine, sulphur, lindane, perenox, cuprokyt, blitox, bordeaux mixture, aretan, ceresan,
prowex etc. are extensively used in tea gardens. In spite of the fact that these chemicals ensure better yield of
tea, yet the washed out residues of these pesticides contaminate water to various extent. People living nearby tea
gardens, therefore, run a risk of health hazard.During the tourist seasons in particular it has been observed that
the region became virtual garbage dumps. This is perhaps due to the lack of civic sense both in the local people
and the tourists. The pollution not only causes the health problems for the inhabitants but also has deleterious
effect on the wildlife resources. In Darjeeling, the pollution can be easily viewed when one takes look at the
traffic that is prevalent these days. The registration in the number of vehicles is on the rise mainly because of
tourism. So without proper pollution control agencies to check the pollution, the vehicular pollution in the
Darjeeling hill areas especially in the urban centres are on the rise. And according to the „Reproductive and
Child Health Project for Darjeeling Municipal Town, April 1998‟, around 20.3% of the population suffer from
Arterial Respiratory Infection.
VII. FINDINGS & CONCLUSION
As one may do in many parts of the country, the economic structure cannot be analyzed in the Queen
of the Hills merely by observing the towns and roadside developments. A house-to-house survey in the rural
villages will reveal the real picture as to how people are struggling for their livelihood. The economy of
Darjeeling hills is mainly dependent on tea and tourism. Earlier timber had a major contribution but with stricter
rules its importance has waned. Tourism in the hills generates an average of Rs 450 crore revenue annually,
equal to that of tea industry in the region.
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Cinchona and other medicinal plants have its base here. Sericulture is another section, which has been
spreading with time. Some of the major issues such as pressure of human population and cattle grazing on the
hill areas and indiscriminate felling of trees for commercial purposes have led to rapid depletion of forest cover
and reduction in the productivity of land, impairing the economic condition of the hill regions. Traditional
agriculture practices like shifting cultivation have been responsible for exposure of the thin soil-cover leading to
accelerated erosion of both soil and forest cover. Other activities like construction of roads, dams, and
unplanned buildings have further aggravated the situation. With the depletion of forests in hill areas, flooding
has increased during the rainy season and extended periods of drought have become a recurring feature in the
plains, particularly in North Bengal. Availability of water in hill areas has also suffered due to lower water
retention capacity caused by the loss of forest cover. This has led to the problems of sand-casting of fertile
plains and silting of harbors, reservoirs and river beds, besides additional hardship for hill people. The major
challenge, therefore, is to device a solution to the problem that will avert ecological disaster while meeting the
requirements of the growing population. The long-run needs both for the nation and of the community will be
served only by maintaining an ecological equilibrium.
An analysis of the development programmes carried out so far to conserve and develop natural
resources shows that there is a lack of participation of people in planning and monitoring and sustainability of
the activities created. This is mainly due to three factors viz., top down planning, inadequate mechanism at
lower level for awareness creation, and systematic co-ordination. This could be corrected only by the active
involvement of local NGOs and local community who are directly associated with such activities. They are the
local level organizations with intimate association with the villagers and can understand better the problems of
the people and guide/enthuse them in the implementation of Government schemes/programmes and ensure that
these are implemented well. The main role of the NGOs will be to create awareness among the people of the
special areas and the need to protect them and educate them about the various developmental programmes being
implemented by different heads of departments. It is necessary to adopt a strategy of development, keeping in
view the special features and problems of these areas and formulate area programmes for the socio- economic
development, as also for conservation, protection and preservation of these areas. Preserving the bio-diversity of
ecologically vulnerable hill zone is an important aspect of Darjeeling Himalaya. The need to conserve the
natural resources and their environment particularly to prevent further damage to the eco-system is therefore the
need of the hour here.
VIII. SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Public participation directly and through voluntary organizations and non-government organizations is
essential for utilizing the natural resources for economic development
Arrangements should be made to monitor and evaluate the effects of any major development.
The necessity and importance of soil conservation measured in agricultural and other lands is very
important.
Tea garden area and production are both to be enhanced but these should not be at the cost of forests.
Deforestation is to be checked; otherwise the rainfall of the area will be disturbed.
Attention also needs to be devoted to improving the productivity of local human resources so that these can
effectively serve the new human resource demands created by development.
Planning of infrastructure will have to be reoriented around the functional hierarchy of towns and other
settlements, with due regard to the economic roles played by these settlements vis-a-vis their feeder areas.
Efforts should be taken to educate the people about eco-consciousness and integrate education on eco-
conservation.
Setting up agro-based industry around available natural resources and link support through agricultural and
agro-based industrial loans, supply of improved tools, and other such incentives.
Creation of awareness among the people and educating them on the far-reaching implications of ecological
degradation and securing their active participation for the eco-development schemes.
Biodiversity has also been preserved to a large extent through the reduction in applications of chemical
fertilizer and pesticide on conventional tea estates in accordance with good agricultural practices, while a
significantly greater contribution has been made by the conversion of estates from conventional to organic
production.
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Research and Applied Anthropology, Calcutta.
[4] Chakraborty, S. (Sept. 1976): “The Role of Transportation in the Economy of the Hill Areas of the Darjeeling District”, Indian
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pp. 1-7.
[6] De, Barun (1980): “West Bengal District Gazetteers” (Ed.), Darjiling, Government of West Bengal, Calcutta.
[7] Dobhal, G.L. (2005): “Development of the Hill Areas”, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.
[8] Memoria, C.B. (1933): “Population Growth and Economic Development of India”, Sahitya Bhawan, Agra.
[9] Sarkar, R.L. and Lama, M.P. (1986): “The Eastern Himalayas: Environment and Economy” (Ed.), Atma Ram and Sons, Delhi.
[10] Sarkar, R.L. (1983): “Hill Development Programmes: Plans and Strategies” (Ed.), Mani Printing House, Darjeeling.