Recomendaciones de Choosing Wisely para evitar intervenciones innecesarias en adultos mayores.
Fuente: http://www.americangeriatrics.org/files/documents/choosing_wisely_list2.pdf
Polypharmacy appropriate and inappropriate based on risk and benefit assessment case study, negative consequences of polypharmacy, deprescribing tools,
BRP Pharmaceuticals is a leader in physician dispensing services that provides instant medication to patients located in Burbank, CA. Visit: http://www.brppharma.com/
Recomendaciones de Choosing Wisely para evitar intervenciones innecesarias en adultos mayores.
Fuente: http://www.americangeriatrics.org/files/documents/choosing_wisely_list2.pdf
Polypharmacy appropriate and inappropriate based on risk and benefit assessment case study, negative consequences of polypharmacy, deprescribing tools,
BRP Pharmaceuticals is a leader in physician dispensing services that provides instant medication to patients located in Burbank, CA. Visit: http://www.brppharma.com/
Introduction to adverse drug reactions
Definitions and classification of ADRs
Detection and reporting
Methods in Causality assessment
Severity and seriousness assessment
Predictability and preventability assessment
Management of adverse drug reactions
POINTS TO BE INCLUDED
Definition, scope,
Technical definitions, common terminologies used in clinical
settings
Daily activities of clinical pharmacists
Ward round participation
Treatment Chart Review
Adverse drug reaction monitoring
Interprofessional collaboration
Συχνότερα χρόνια νοσήματα, καταστάσεις υγείας, συχνότερα συμπτώματα στην κοιν...Evangelos Fragkoulis
Σεμινάριο εισαγωγής στην ΠΦΥ- Εκπαιδευτικό πρόγραμμα ειδικευόμενων Γενικών Οικογενειακών Ιατρών σε συνεργασία με το Τμήμα Πολιτικών Δημόσιας Υγείας του Πανεπιστημίου Δυτικής Αττικής
Medication Adherence , setting up directions .. Ahmed Nouri
presenting the terminology of adherence, statistics of non-adherence and its impact, why do patients have difficulty with treatment, how to measure and how to improve the adherence, in addition to the role of the pharmacist in improving adherence.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Introduction to adverse drug reactions
Definitions and classification of ADRs
Detection and reporting
Methods in Causality assessment
Severity and seriousness assessment
Predictability and preventability assessment
Management of adverse drug reactions
POINTS TO BE INCLUDED
Definition, scope,
Technical definitions, common terminologies used in clinical
settings
Daily activities of clinical pharmacists
Ward round participation
Treatment Chart Review
Adverse drug reaction monitoring
Interprofessional collaboration
Συχνότερα χρόνια νοσήματα, καταστάσεις υγείας, συχνότερα συμπτώματα στην κοιν...Evangelos Fragkoulis
Σεμινάριο εισαγωγής στην ΠΦΥ- Εκπαιδευτικό πρόγραμμα ειδικευόμενων Γενικών Οικογενειακών Ιατρών σε συνεργασία με το Τμήμα Πολιτικών Δημόσιας Υγείας του Πανεπιστημίου Δυτικής Αττικής
Medication Adherence , setting up directions .. Ahmed Nouri
presenting the terminology of adherence, statistics of non-adherence and its impact, why do patients have difficulty with treatment, how to measure and how to improve the adherence, in addition to the role of the pharmacist in improving adherence.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. Introduction
• Physical aging is a part of normal biological process involving
physiological degeneration of various organs, and requires no
treatment. As people are living longer, the prevention of disability
forms the basis of healthy aging.
• Geriatric syndromes refer to “multifactorial health conditions that
occur when the accumulated effects of impairments in multiple
systems render (an older) person vulnerable to situational changes”.
3. • A geriatric syndrome usually involves multiple factors and multiple
organ systems, and reporting of unique features of common health
problems in older people
• These syndromes cross organ systems and discipline based
boundaries, along with their multifactorial nature.
4. • Major geriatric syndromes are
1) Falls
2)Polypharmacy
3)Cognitive Impairment : Delirium and Dementia
4)Urinary Incontinence and Overactive Bladder
5)Sleep Disorders
6)Frailty
7) Elder Abuse and Neglect
5. 1)Falls
• Among all geriatric syndromes, falls are probably the most common that internists will
encounter.
• Falls are responsible for potentially devastating consequences for function and quality of
life, as well as mortality.
• The consequences of falls include fear of falling with adverse effects on quality of life,
painful injures including hip and wrist fractures, subdural hematomas, and death. Falls are
associated with loss of function and death within the year after a fall. For these reasons,
internists should regularly screen older people for falling using questions such as, “Have
you fallen in the past year?” “Are you afraid of falling?”
6. Evaluation
• The risks and causes of falls are multifactorial.
• Most older people at risk for a fall or who have suffered a fall have more than one
potential underlying risk factor or cause. Many falls are labeled as “mechanical” and
attributed to simply tripping or slipping.
• It is essential to recognize, however, that older people who trip or slip may have a variety
of underlying reversible conditions that could have contributed to the event.
• In addition to evaluating the patient who has fallen for injury, it is critical to determine, to
the extent possible, whether the patient had a syncopal episode or a seizure, which
dictates a very different approach to evaluation and management.
7. approach to an older person who reports a history of one or more falls in the past 6 months
8.
9. Management
• Immediately after a fall, injuries and underlying acute illnesses should be identified and treated.
• Because the causes of and risk factors for falls are often multifactorial , management commonly
requires multiple interventions in the same patient.
• Among the most common and effective interventions are physical therapy for strengthening and
balance; Tai Chi has also been shown to be effective in multiple trials.
10.
11. 2)POLYPHARMACY
• Polypharmacy is defined as the prescription of multiple medications using various thresholds (generally
ranging from five up to nine simultaneous drugs) and has been identified as a major challenge in the
geriatric population for decades.
• Polypharmacy is an increasingly complex challenge because of the rising prevalence of multimorbidity, a
plethora of clinical practice guidelines, proliferation of medications that can effectively treat common
geriatric conditions, and rising patient and family demand for medications due in part to television
advertising and information available on the Internet. For example, based on several condition-specific
clinical practice guidelines(which do not account for multimorbidity), an 80-year-old person with
multimorbidity including diabetes, chronic obstructive lung disease, hypertension, osteoporosis, and
degenerative joint disease might be prescribed an extremely complicated nonpharmacologic regimen
and over a dozen medications with the potential for multiple drug -drug and drug-disease interactions.
• Polypharmacy increases the risks associated with age-related changes in the pharmacology of many
drugs and the risk of adverse drug events. Such events cause >100,000 hospitalizations per year; the
main culprits are warfarin and other antiplatelet agents and insulin and other hypoglycemic agents.
Other categories of drugs are also involved, including cardiovascular drugs that can cause electrolyte
and volume disturbances and hypotension, falls, and syncope; central nervous system drugs associated
with altered mental status and falls; and antimicrobials, which cause allergic reactions, diarrhea, and
other adverse drug effects.
12. Evaluation
• All older patients should have careful medication reconciliation at each office or clinic visit and
especially at the time of care transitions, including acute hospitalization, hospital discharge,
admission to a PAC facility or home health program, and discharge from a PAC facility to home.
• At each transition, all medications should be considered in terms of unclear diagnosis or indication,
uncertain dose or route of administration, stop date, hold parameters, lab tests needed for
monitoring, dosages different than the last care setting, medication duplication, medications that
should be restarted, and the potential for drug-drug and drug-disease interactions.
• At each clinic or office visit for community-dwelling older people, possible adverse drug effects,
effectiveness of drug therapy, and adherence should be evaluated.
14. • Because these patients often see multiple specialists, the internist should serve as the
“quarterback” for all prescribing to help ensure adherence and minimize the potential for adverse
drug effects. In hospital, PAC, and LTC settings, clinical pharmacists can be extremely helpful in
achieving these recommendations and goals.
• While undertreatment of certain conditions may occur in older people (such as osteoporosis,
depression, and overactive bladder), more attention is now being paid to “deprescribing.”
Deprescribing must be done carefully, especially at the time of care transitions, when indications for
specific drugs and patient preferences may not be clear.
• The AGS’s updated Beers criteria includes a comprehensive list of drugs that may be inappropriate
in older people and the rationale for this rating. The Screening Tool of Older Persons’ Prescriptions
(STOPP) criteria are also useful in identifying drugs that should be reconsidered on older people.
15. • Several commonly prescribed drugs should be considered for deprescribing efforts, including (1)
diuretics and hypotensive agents when patients have systolic hypotension or postural hypotension
that can precipitate near-syncope and falls; (2) overreliance on antianxiety and hypnotic
medications, especially benzodiazepines; (3) psychotropic and other drugs with anticholinergic
activity that can cause dry mouth and constipation and increase the long-term risk of cognitive
impairment; (4) PPIs with unclear indications because of numerous reported potential adverse drug
effects, including increased risk of pneumonia, osteoporosis, and dementia; (5) cholinesterase
inhibitors and memantine in patients with severe cognitive impairment who have been on them for
years; (6) hypoglycemic agents in patients with multimorbidity who should not have tightly
controlled blood sugar with increased risk of hypoglycemia; and (7) statins and prophylactic aspirin
in patients with severe chronic illness who are near the end of life.
16. • Careful deprescribing is a critical aspect of person-centered care in the geriatric population. Several
general principles, may assist with deprescribing efforts, including the following: (1) ascertain all
drugs the patient is currently taking and the reasons for each one; (2) consider overall risk of drug-
induced harm in individual patients in determining the required intensity of deprescribing
intervention; (3) assess each drug as to its current or future benefit potential compared with
current or future harm or burden potential; (4) prioritize drugs for discontinuation that have the
lowest benefit harm ratio and lowest likelihood of adverse withdrawal reactions or disease rebound
syndromes; and (5) implement a discontinuation regimen based on the pharmacology of the drug
being discontinued and monitor patients closely for improvement in outcomes or onset of adverse
effects.
17. 3)Cognitive Impairment : Delirium and Dementia
• Delirium occurs in up to 40% of hospitalized older patients and is associated with increased morbidity, length
of hospital stays, need for institutional care, health care utilization, and mortality in this population. While
most episodes of delirium clear within a few days if the underlying cause(s) is identified and treated, delirium
may persist for weeks or, in a few cases, for months after an acute hospitalization.
• Normal aging does not cause impairment of cognitive function of sufficient severity to render an individual
dysfunctional, which is the hallmark of a dementia syndrome. Slowed thinking and reaction time, mild recent
memory loss, and impaired executive function can occur with increasing age and may or may not progress to
dementia.
• Just over 20% of people over age 70 have cognitive impairment without dementia, generally referred to as
mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Up to 15–20% of those diagnosed with MCI will progress to dementia over
the course of a year; thus, most people with MCI will progress to dementia within 5 years. Therapeutic
implications of MCI are subjects of intensive research. No nonpharmacologic or pharmacologic intervention
has been shown to prevent progression to dementia.
18. • The definitions of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias have been updated by the American Psychiatric
Association.
• Alzheimer’s disease - a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by cortical atrophy, neuronal
death, synapse loss, and accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, causing dementia and a
significant decline in functioning.
• Early features include deficits in memory (e.g., rapid forgetting of new information, impaired recall and
recognition), anomia, executive dysfunction, depressive symptoms, and subtle personality changes such as
decreased energy, social withdrawal, indifference, and impulsivity. As the disease progresses, there is global
deterioration of cognitive capacities with intellectual decline, aphasia, agnosia, and apraxia as well as
behavioral features, including apathy, emotional blunting, mood-dependent delusions, decreased sleep and
appetite, and increased motor activity (e.g., restlessness, wandering). Major risk factors for Alzheimer’s
disease include advanced age (it typically occurs after age 70), a family history of the disease, and genetic
factors, particularly the presence of the ApoE4 allele (see apolipoprotein E) on chromosome 19. In a small
minority (<10%) of cases, referred to as having early-onset Alzheimer’s disease, a diagnosis is made between
the ages of 30 and 65 and is usually attributed to genetic causes.
19. • Vascular Dementia - severe loss of cognitive functioning as a result of cerebrovascular disease. It can be due
to repeated strokes, a single large stroke, or chronic cerebral ischemia. It is one of the most common types of
dementia. Also called multi-infarct dementia.
• Lewy body Dementia - a specific type of dementia associated with the presence of abnormal proteins
called Lewy bodies in the brain. It is characterized by hallucinations and delusions occurring early in the
disease process, marked day-to-day fluctuations in cognition, and spontaneous parkinsonism.
• The prevalence of dementia increases with age; by age 85, between 30% and 40% have a dementia syndrome.
Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia, which often occur together based on pathologic studies, account
for most dementias in older people. Dementia with Lewy bodies accounts for up to 25% of dementia and is
characterized by Parkinsonian features early in the disease (as opposed to dementia in Parkinson’s disease,
which generally occurs years after the onset of Parkinson’s), personality changes, alterations in alertness and
attention, and visual hallucinations that can cause paranoia.
20. Evaluation
• Regardless of setting, the new onset of delirium should be treated as a medical emergency
because it can be the manifestation of an underlying critical illness.
21. • The most validated evaluation for delirium is the Confusion Assessment Method, which requires an acute
onset and fluctuating course and inattention and disorganized thinking or altered level of consciousness.
Because the causes and risk factors for delirium are multifactorial, evaluation requires a careful history,
physical examination, and selected laboratory studies based on the findings.
• Older patients in outpatient settings with complaints (or family reports of) early signs of cognitive impairment
benefit from neuropsychological testing, which can help differentiate between MCI and dementia and identify
concomitant factors such as depression and anxiety. The Mini-Cog is a sensitive screening tool for cognitive
impairment, and consists of a three-item recall test and clock drawing. Further evaluation of dementia
includes a comprehensive history and physical examination, functional status assessment (since the diagnosis
depends on impaired function), a brain imaging study, and selected laboratory tests, including a complete
blood count, comprehensive metabolic panel, thyroid function tests, vitamin B12 level, and, if suspected, tests
for syphilis and human immunodeficiency virus antibodies.
22. Management
• lists pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic management strategies for various underlying risk
factors and causes of delirium.
23. • Every attempt should be made to avoid or discontinue any medication that may be worsening cognitive
function in a delirious geriatric patient. This may not be possible, and in some patients, psychotropic drugs
may be needed to treat delirium if the patient is a danger to themselves or others.
• Low-dose haloperidol (0.25–0.5 mg) is generally recommended; more sedating antipsychotics and
benzodiazepines should be avoided unless the goal is to put the patient to sleep for a short time. If a
benzodiazepine is used, it should be short-acting and in a low dose. Overall, multifactorial proactive
interventions and geriatric consultation have been associated with decreased incidence and duration of
delirium in the hospital setting.
24. • Four basic approaches to the pharmacologic treatment of dementia are employed:
• (1) avoidance of drugs that can worsen cognitive function, mainly those with strong anticholinergic activity;
• (2) use of agents that enhance cognition and function;
• (3) drug treatment of coexisting depression, which is common throughout the course of dementia; and
• (4) pharmacologic treatment of complications such as paranoia, delusions, psychosis, and behavioral
symptoms such as agitation (verbal and physical).
• The use of antipsychotics to treat the neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia is controversial. Most experts
and guidelines recommend avoiding these drugs and using nonpharmacologic strategies unless patients are a
danger to themselves and others or if nonpharmacologic interventions have failed. Patients with new or
worsening behavioral symptoms associated with dementia should have a medical evaluation to identify
potentially treatable precipitating conditions. Pain may be especially hard to detect, and if suspected, a
therapeutic trial of acetaminophen should be considered.
25.
26. 4)Urinary Incontinence and Overactive Bladder
• Urinary incontinence is curable or controllable in many geriatric patients, especially those who have adequate
mobility and mental functioning. Even when it is not curable, incontinence can be managed in a manner that
keeps people comfortable, makes life easier for caregivers, and minimizes the costs of caring for the condition
and its complications.
• The prevalence is as high as 60–80% in many nursing homes, where residents often have both urinary and
stool incontinence.
• Many older people (~40%) suffer from “overactive bladder,” which may or may not include symptoms of
incontinence. Symptoms of overactive bladder include urinary urgency (with or without incontinence), urinary
frequency (voiding every 2 h or more often), and nocturia (awakening at night to void). If nocturia alone is the
predominant symptom, the patient should be asked about sleep disorders (see next section). The
pathophysiology, evaluation, and management of overactive bladder are essentially the same as for urge
urinary incontinence.
27. • Incontinence is associated with social isolation and depression and can be a precipitating factor in the
decision to seek nursing home care when it cannot be managed in a manner that maintains hygiene and
safety.
• In addition to predisposing to skin irritation and pressure ulcers, the most important potential complications
of urinary incontinence and overactive bladder are falls and resultant injuries related to rushing to get to a
toilet.
• Older people with gait disorders, especially those who have multiple episodes of nocturia or nocturnal
incontinence, are at especially high risk for injurious. In addition to the bother of the condition to the older
person or a caregiver, fall risk is a compelling reason for undertaking a diagnostic evaluation and specific
treatment for incontinence and overactive bladder in the geriatric population.
28. Evaluation
• Among older women, the most common symptoms are a mixture of urge and stress incontinence ; urge is
usually the more bothersome. Stress incontinence can often be objectively observed during a physical
examination with a comfortably full bladder by having the patient cough in the standing position; leakage of
urine simultaneously with coughing indicates that stress incontinence is present.
• Older men commonly have symptoms associated with overactive bladder and/or symptoms of voiding
difficulty (hesitancy, poor or intermittent urinary stream, postvoid dribbling); the overactive bladder
symptoms are usually more bothersome. These symptoms overlap with those of both benign and malignant
disorders of the prostate, and many internists may choose to consult a urologist for further management
because a urinary flow rate and postvoid residual determination, and further evaluation if malignancy is
suspected, are helpful in determining therapy.
• There is no specific cutoff for an abnormal postvoid residual; the test must be done with a full bladder, and
straining during the test can alter the results. In older patients, a postvoid residual between 0 mL and 100 mL
is normal, a residual between 100 and 200 mL must be interpreted based on symptoms, and a value >200 mL
is abnormal and usually influences treatment.
29.
30. Management
• Potentially reversible conditions should be addressed, including the many types of medications that
can affect bladder function, which should be eliminated if possible.
• Pharmacologic treatment of incontinence and overactive bladder is dictated by the innervation of
the lower urinary tract.
• α-Adrenergic stimulation increases tone in the smooth muscle of the urethra; thus, α agonists have
been used to treat stress incontinence in women , and alpha blockers are used to decrease urethral
tone in men with overactive bladder associated with prostate enlargement.
• Anticholinergic/antimuscarinic agents and β-3 stimulation inhibit bladder contraction and are used
for overactive bladder and urge incontinence. In men with overactive bladder and normal postvoid
residual who do not respond to an alpha blocker (with or without a 5α-reductase inhibitor), adding
an antimuscarinic or β-3-adrenergic agent may improve symptoms with a very low risk of causing
urinary retention. Patients with severe cognitive impairment and/or immobility can generally be
managed effectively by prompted voiding and/or incontinence undergarments, as long comfort,
dignity, and safety are maintained.
31.
32. 5)Sleep disorder
• Aging is associated with multiple changes in sleep architecture as well as multiple diseases and disorders that
can disrupt sleep. Thus, complaints of sleep difficulty are common in older adults. Consequences of sleep
difficulty include lower health-related quality of life, increased medication use, more cognitive decline, and
greater health care utilization.
• Four types of primary sleep disorders are common in the geriatric population: insomnia, sleep-disordered
breathing due to obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), restless leg syndrome (RLS), and periodic leg movements in
sleep (PLMS).
• Complaints of bothersome insomnia—the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep despite a conducive
environment—increase with age and occur in close to 30% of people older than 65. Insomnia is commonly
associated with depression, anxiety, alcohol intake, and ingestion of caffeinated beverages later in the day.
33. • OSA occurs in ~10% of older adults but is probably underreported and underdiagnosed. It is associated with
medical comorbidities, such as obesity and congestive heart failure.
• RLS occurs in 5–10% of adults, and its prevalence increases in those older than 70. It is almost twice as
common in women than men; family history, iron deficiency, and intake of antihistamines and most
antidepressants are risk factors. PLMS can be found in up to 45% of older people but is often of unknown
clinical consequence and remains undiagnosed.
34. Evaluation
• Older people should be screened for sleep difficulty with questions such as, “Do you often feel sleepy during
the day?” and “Do you have difficulty falling asleep at night?”
• Patients with significant sleep complaints should be asked about conditions that can interrupt sleep, such as
nocturia, gastroesophageal reflux, chronic pain, and caffeine and alcohol intake. Specific questions
characterizing the complaints should include inquiring about loud snoring (for OSA), the urge to move legs
associated with uncomfortable sensations (RLS), and leg movements during sleep (PLMS; which may result in
kicking a bed partner).
35. Management
• Patients suspected of having OSA, RLS, or PLMS should be referred for formal sleep evaluation.
• While hypnotics are among the most commonly prescribed drugs in the geriatric population,
nonpharmacologic management of sleep should be the initial and primary approach, as many patients can
benefit from properly taught and adhered to interventions .
• Benzodiazepine hypnotics should be avoided whenever feasible because they are associated with next-day
hangover effects, which may manifest as cognitive impairment and can precipitate falls and car crashes and
rebound insomnia. Patients with sleep-onset insomnia may respond to melatonin or low-dose trazadone,
both of which are safer than using a benzodiazepine chronically.
36.
37. 6)Frailty
• Frailty is a state of increased vulnerability characterized by a decline in physiologic reserve and function across
multiple systems. Many different definitions and tools to define frailty exist.
• Fried criteria based on the Cardiovascular Health Study have been used to screen for frailty in clinical settings
38. • The importance of screening for frailty is to mitigate disability and adverse health outcomes as well as for the
assessment of benefits and risks of treatment decisions.
• Frailty is a three-dimensional process that involves changes at the cellular, physiologic, and phenotypical
levels.
• At the cellular level, frailty manifests as changes in mitochondrial function, the development of oxidative
stress and DNA damage, and telomere shortening and stem cell exhaustion. These changes at the cellular
level result in physiologic alterations including inflammation, cell mediator dysfunction such as low production
of nitric oxide by the endothelium, sarcopenia(loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength as a result of ageing),
and energy unbalance.
• Fried and colleagues conceptualize frailty as a vicious circle of declining energetics and reserve, whose
elements represent both the diagnostic criteria for the syndrome identification and the core elements of its
pathophysiology. The process manifests phenotypically as overall decline in physical function and cognitive
impairment. In particular, the phenotype of frailty has been defined by Fried and colleagues by the five
following characteristics: unintentional weight loss, weakness, exhaustion, slowness, and low activity
39. Management
• Although there is conflicting evidence regarding the effectiveness of specific interventions to treat or prevent
frailty, person centered physical activity programs and nutritional supplementation appear to improve
components of frailty such as muscle strength, gait speed, and overall mobility. In addition, optimizing the
management of chronic conditions, medication management including mitigation of polypharmacy, and
identifying the individual’s priorities could lead to reversing or slowing progression of frailty.
40. 7)Elder Abuse and Neglect
• The incidence of elder abuse and neglect and self-neglect are unknown because they are often unrecognized.
• The best data suggest that the incidence over 12 months is at least 8–10%. Abuse and neglect can result in
physical injuries and related pain, worsening of chronic medical conditions, dehydration and pressure ulcers,
emotional distress, and loss of income and savings.
• Because abuse and neglect are underreported, are unsuspected, and have such devastating consequences,
older adults should be screened (without the presence of caregivers) with questions such as, “Do you ever
feel unsafe where you live?” “Has anyone ever threatened or hurt you?” “Has anyone been taking your money
without your permission?” Table outlines the definitions, symptoms and signs, and key aspects of evaluating
suspected abuse and neglect.
41.
42. Management
• In addition to treating the physical, medical, and emotional consequences, patients suspected of elder abuse
or neglect should be reported to the appropriate local or state agency to investigate and ensure the patient’s
safety.
• The reader is referred to two reviews of this topic for further information on specific aspects of management.