Georgia Competitiveness Initiative Report
Prepared by
Student Name
The Georgia Chamber of Commerce
July 2012
INTRODUCTION: GEORGIA—THE ECONOMIC LEADER OF THE SOUTH……..1
Areas of Focus...........................................................................11
Business Climate.........................................................12
Education & Workforce Development..............14
Innovation.......................................................................16
Infrastructure................................................................18
Global Commerce.....................................................20
Government Efficiency...........................................22
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION: GEORGIA—THE ECONOMIC LEADER OF THE SOUTH
Throughout Georgia’s history, state government and the business community have worked together to grow the economy and create a high quality of life for those who call our state home. As a result of that partnership, Georgia has been the economic leader of the South, one with an enviable logistics system, top tier research universities, world class technical education, a robust agricultural sector, abundant natural resources and a positive global reputation–all of which contribute to our ability to attract, retain and grow both jobs and investment.
To ensure that Georgia’s future is bright, the state must focus not only on what is needed to successfully emerge from the recent recession but also to remain competitive for decades to come. The Georgia Competitiveness Initiative–a partnership between public and private sectors– was created by Governor Nathan Deal to enhance the state’s economic development strategy.
As a result, the Initiative centered on six key areas that, together, have and will continue to form the foundation for long-term economic success. These are also the key areas that site selection consultants use to evaluate locations:
Business Climate
Education and Workforce Development
Innovation
Infrastructure
Global Commerce
Government Efficiency and Effectiveness
Business Climate
Georgia’s reputation as a business-friendly state has been demonstrated through both past economic success and numerous national rankings and accolades. Maintaining that climate – one that supports existing industry, new corporate locations, small business and entrepreneurs – must remain at the heart of any economic development strategy. By modernizing incentives, revising tax provisions, and leveraging our quality of life, Georgia can ensure continued success in the future. “Provide incentives that reward growth and support established industry to increase Georgia’s ability to compete with other states in attracting new companies or expanding existing ones.”
Education & Workforce Development
A supportive business climate, sound economic development strategy, and world-class infrastructure are of little value to business without a dependable pipeline of qua.
The 2011 GeorgiaForward Forum brought together over 200 leaders to create an innovation agenda for Georgia. Participants prioritized two issues: 1) dramatically improving K-12 education, focusing on early childhood education, teacher quality, and producing critical thinkers; and 2) developing a statewide vision for prosperity by leveraging existing strengths and opportunities in emerging fields to increase quality of output and scale good ideas. Overall, the forum explored innovative solutions to Georgia's challenges in areas like economic development, healthcare, education, and transportation.
EY : Baromètre 2013 de l'entrepreneuriat dans les pays du G20 #EY #G20Franck Sebag
Baromètre EY 2013 de l'entrepreneuriat dans les pays du G20
« La règle de trois »
L’entrepreneuriat, moteur de la croissance et de l’emploi
L’entrepreneuriat est clairement identifié dans tous les pays du G20 comme un levier incontournable pour relancer la croissance, ainsi que le montre la 2ème édition du Baromètre EY 2013 de l’entrepreneuriat* :
67% des emplois créés en 2012 dans les pays de l’UE l’ont été par des entrepreneurs ;
74% des entrepreneurs des pays du G20 affirment avoir recruté l’an passé grâce à la croissance qu’ils ont pu générer par l’innovation.
2013 The EY G20 Entrepreneurship Barometer 2013Steve Mondragon
The document is an executive summary of the EY G20 Entrepreneurship Barometer 2013, which analyzes and compares entrepreneurial ecosystems across G20 countries. Some key findings:
- The United States ranks first overall, followed by the United Kingdom and China. Australia, Canada, South Korea, and Germany also rank highly. Argentina and India rank in the bottom quartile.
- The United States leads in access to funding and entrepreneurship culture. Saudi Arabia tops tax and regulation while France leads in education and training. Russia provides the most coordinated support.
- Every G20 country excels in some areas but all need to improve support for entrepreneurs. Adopting other countries' successful policies and
The Effect of Mentoring on Employee Performance of Selected Small and Medium ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study sought to establish the effect of mentoring on employee performance of selected
small and medium scale enterprises in Lagos State, Nigeria. Despite various entrepreneurship programs such as
apprenticeship, coaching, and Employee orientation engaged in by SMEs where an employee or apprentices is
taught on how business processes flow, employees‟ performance among SMEs in Lagos State has been found to
be poor with regards to employee productivity, employee commitment, and organisational citizenship
behaviour. The study was anchored Equity theory. The study used a survey research design. The unit of analysis
was owners/managers of registered SMEs in Lagos State.The target population was all the registered 8,396
SMEs in Lagos State. A sample of 370 owners/managers (respondents) was selected throughsimple random
sampling.An adapted and structured questionnaire was used in collecting primary data. A pilot study was
conducted to ensure the data collection tool is reliable. The collected data was analysed using inferential
statistics with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 26.0. The study found that through
Apprenticeship training, the employeesare able to improve their productivity. Inaddition, the study found
thatCoaching had a significant influence on Employee Commitment. The study also found that through
employee orientation, the employees are able to improve their citizenship behaviour in the organisation. The
paper recommends that the supervising agency of selected oil and gas upstream companies in Nigeria should
develop policy guidelines aimed at expanding and improving efficiency of the companies to facilitate high
organisational outcome through capability divestiture. The studyrecommended that SMEs owners in Nigeria
should encourage mentoring of their employees through apprenticeship, coaching and orientation in relation to
their previous efforts as this has been shown to improve employee performance.
KEYWORDS: Mentoring, Employee Performance, Apprenticeship, Coaching, And Employee Orientation,
SMEs, Lagos State
Strategic Options for Creating Competitive Advantage for Youth Enterprises in...paperpublications3
Abstract: The Youth Enterprises have to survive in the global economic environment through defining the areas in which they can achieve the superior results and on them base their complete business. This article discusses the back ground information regarding youth enterprises in relation to vision 2030 and the global trends on SMES competitiveness as well as regional trends on SMES competitiveness. The research objectives are the effects of collaborative networks, innovation, product diversification and entrepreneurial skills on competitive advantage of youth enterprises. Conceptual framework focuses on both independent and dependent variables, independent variables namely; collaborative networks, innovation, product diversification and entrepreneurial skills; dependent variable namely competitive advantage. The purpose of this article is: to unite and to expand the existing cognitions about the concept of collaborative networks, innovativeness, product diversification, and entrepreneurial skills; propose the universal model for the process of transformation of implementing these concept and to point on the guidelines which should follow these concepts.
Role of business in economic developmentM S Siddiqui
Policy makers need to create structured long term funding schemes with extended moratorium periods to support young entrepreneurs in the start-up stage and smooth run of business under self-regulations with minimum bureaucratic control. The bureaucratic control is expensive and regressive of creation of new business and development of entrepreneurship.
The SME Program at IPA has conducted over 85 studies in 32 countries over the past five years to evaluate programs and interventions aimed at addressing key constraints facing small and medium enterprises. Major findings include:
- In India, delaying loan repayments allowed entrepreneurs to invest more in their businesses but also increased default rates.
- In Colombia, including credit scores in loan applications helped streamline lending to SMEs and reduced costs.
- Training programs have shown mixed results, but intensive consulting services in Mexico and India improved productivity and employment.
- Facilitating market access, such as through government procurement in Brazil, enabled SME growth and job creation. Providing support to exporters also benefited firms
The 2011 GeorgiaForward Forum brought together over 200 leaders to create an innovation agenda for Georgia. Participants prioritized two issues: 1) dramatically improving K-12 education, focusing on early childhood education, teacher quality, and producing critical thinkers; and 2) developing a statewide vision for prosperity by leveraging existing strengths and opportunities in emerging fields to increase quality of output and scale good ideas. Overall, the forum explored innovative solutions to Georgia's challenges in areas like economic development, healthcare, education, and transportation.
EY : Baromètre 2013 de l'entrepreneuriat dans les pays du G20 #EY #G20Franck Sebag
Baromètre EY 2013 de l'entrepreneuriat dans les pays du G20
« La règle de trois »
L’entrepreneuriat, moteur de la croissance et de l’emploi
L’entrepreneuriat est clairement identifié dans tous les pays du G20 comme un levier incontournable pour relancer la croissance, ainsi que le montre la 2ème édition du Baromètre EY 2013 de l’entrepreneuriat* :
67% des emplois créés en 2012 dans les pays de l’UE l’ont été par des entrepreneurs ;
74% des entrepreneurs des pays du G20 affirment avoir recruté l’an passé grâce à la croissance qu’ils ont pu générer par l’innovation.
2013 The EY G20 Entrepreneurship Barometer 2013Steve Mondragon
The document is an executive summary of the EY G20 Entrepreneurship Barometer 2013, which analyzes and compares entrepreneurial ecosystems across G20 countries. Some key findings:
- The United States ranks first overall, followed by the United Kingdom and China. Australia, Canada, South Korea, and Germany also rank highly. Argentina and India rank in the bottom quartile.
- The United States leads in access to funding and entrepreneurship culture. Saudi Arabia tops tax and regulation while France leads in education and training. Russia provides the most coordinated support.
- Every G20 country excels in some areas but all need to improve support for entrepreneurs. Adopting other countries' successful policies and
The Effect of Mentoring on Employee Performance of Selected Small and Medium ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study sought to establish the effect of mentoring on employee performance of selected
small and medium scale enterprises in Lagos State, Nigeria. Despite various entrepreneurship programs such as
apprenticeship, coaching, and Employee orientation engaged in by SMEs where an employee or apprentices is
taught on how business processes flow, employees‟ performance among SMEs in Lagos State has been found to
be poor with regards to employee productivity, employee commitment, and organisational citizenship
behaviour. The study was anchored Equity theory. The study used a survey research design. The unit of analysis
was owners/managers of registered SMEs in Lagos State.The target population was all the registered 8,396
SMEs in Lagos State. A sample of 370 owners/managers (respondents) was selected throughsimple random
sampling.An adapted and structured questionnaire was used in collecting primary data. A pilot study was
conducted to ensure the data collection tool is reliable. The collected data was analysed using inferential
statistics with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 26.0. The study found that through
Apprenticeship training, the employeesare able to improve their productivity. Inaddition, the study found
thatCoaching had a significant influence on Employee Commitment. The study also found that through
employee orientation, the employees are able to improve their citizenship behaviour in the organisation. The
paper recommends that the supervising agency of selected oil and gas upstream companies in Nigeria should
develop policy guidelines aimed at expanding and improving efficiency of the companies to facilitate high
organisational outcome through capability divestiture. The studyrecommended that SMEs owners in Nigeria
should encourage mentoring of their employees through apprenticeship, coaching and orientation in relation to
their previous efforts as this has been shown to improve employee performance.
KEYWORDS: Mentoring, Employee Performance, Apprenticeship, Coaching, And Employee Orientation,
SMEs, Lagos State
Strategic Options for Creating Competitive Advantage for Youth Enterprises in...paperpublications3
Abstract: The Youth Enterprises have to survive in the global economic environment through defining the areas in which they can achieve the superior results and on them base their complete business. This article discusses the back ground information regarding youth enterprises in relation to vision 2030 and the global trends on SMES competitiveness as well as regional trends on SMES competitiveness. The research objectives are the effects of collaborative networks, innovation, product diversification and entrepreneurial skills on competitive advantage of youth enterprises. Conceptual framework focuses on both independent and dependent variables, independent variables namely; collaborative networks, innovation, product diversification and entrepreneurial skills; dependent variable namely competitive advantage. The purpose of this article is: to unite and to expand the existing cognitions about the concept of collaborative networks, innovativeness, product diversification, and entrepreneurial skills; propose the universal model for the process of transformation of implementing these concept and to point on the guidelines which should follow these concepts.
Role of business in economic developmentM S Siddiqui
Policy makers need to create structured long term funding schemes with extended moratorium periods to support young entrepreneurs in the start-up stage and smooth run of business under self-regulations with minimum bureaucratic control. The bureaucratic control is expensive and regressive of creation of new business and development of entrepreneurship.
The SME Program at IPA has conducted over 85 studies in 32 countries over the past five years to evaluate programs and interventions aimed at addressing key constraints facing small and medium enterprises. Major findings include:
- In India, delaying loan repayments allowed entrepreneurs to invest more in their businesses but also increased default rates.
- In Colombia, including credit scores in loan applications helped streamline lending to SMEs and reduced costs.
- Training programs have shown mixed results, but intensive consulting services in Mexico and India improved productivity and employment.
- Facilitating market access, such as through government procurement in Brazil, enabled SME growth and job creation. Providing support to exporters also benefited firms
DETERMINANTS OF SMALL BUSINESS PERFORMANCE IN OYE LOCAL GOVERNMENT, EKITI STA...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This study was design to access the factors determining the performance of small and medium
enterprises (SMEs) in Oye Local Government, Ekiti State, Nigeria. A total of one hundred (100) questionnaires
were administered to respondents of which one hundred fifty (100) were also returned.Descriptive survey design
was used for the study. The population of the study is one thousand two hundred and forty (1, 240), a sample
size of one hundred (100). From the strata, random selection technique was applied in choosing the number that
will represent the sample size. Data were generated using questionnaire. Data collected were presented in tables
and analyzed using descriptive statistical tool was used to analyze the data collected. The results of the analysis
show that both financial and technological determinants are significant while infrastructural determinants were
not. It is recommended that government should improve on the infrastructural facilities in the local government
to improve the performance of the SMEs.
KEYWORDS: SMEs, Determinants, Performances
Impediments and Inducements to Youth Entrepreneurship Development in Sylhet R...IOSRJBM
The purpose of this paper is to explore and identify the key impediments and constraints that obstruct young people from starting and running a new venture and at the same time, inducements and stimuli that trigger youths to entrepreneurial activities. Data were collected from 80 young entrepreneurs of Sylhet, Bangladesh through a questionnaire gleaned from the literature review following a convenience and purposive sampling technique. Findings revealed, insufficient personal savings, high interest rate, and negative attitude of financial institutions to young entrepreneurs due to high default rate are the major impediments to obtaining start-up fund, being their own boss and earning more money are the prime inducements to engage in business. Parents and teachers influenced most to start business while financial risk reported as the most critical demotivator. Managing fund and fierce competition are main problems in running the business successfully. Lack of vocational education and training and inappropriate and inadequate curriculum and study programs are the key educational constraints, unsupportive tax regulations, complex business registration procedure are the leading administrative and regulatory barriers, dearth of information on available business support services and lack of training and business counseling are the major impediments of business support services. The implications of the study bear far-reaching ramifications to the concerned stakeholders for facilitating and encouraging youth entrepreneurship development by addressing the start-up constraints and problems
Fostering Entrepreneurship and Building Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy in Prim...Maurice Dawson
This document discusses introducing entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary levels. It argues that doing so could increase students' entrepreneurial self-efficacy and prepare them for an evolving workforce. Entrepreneurship education builds skills like leadership, creativity and perseverance. It also engages students and improves performance. Introducing these concepts early may particularly benefit women and minorities by helping address barriers to entrepreneurial success. Several existing programs that promote entrepreneurship education for K-12 students are described as examples.
This document provides 10 key recommendations for G20 governments to support youth entrepreneurship based on a diagnostic framework for assessing youth unemployment challenges. The framework segments G20 countries into four quadrants based on their "speed of economic growth" and "quality of jobs for youth". Case studies of best practices from different countries are presented corresponding to the four quadrants. The 10 recommendations aim to address youth unemployment by nurturing young entrepreneurs and include improving access to funding, reducing taxes and regulations, developing entrepreneurship culture, and more.
Avoiding a Lost Generation (Part2): Ten key recommendations to support youth ...EY
Avoiding a lost generation: ten key recommendations to support youth entrepreneurship across the G20, contains both key recommendations and actionable guidance based on best practices adopted by governments across the G20.
It follows on from our previous report, Avoiding a lost generation: young entrepreneurs identify five imperatives for action, where we surveyed 1,000 entrepreneurs on a wide range of possible policy and other initiatives that would boost their activities.
For further information please visit: http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Services/Strategic-Growth-Markets/EY-Supporting-youth-entrepreneurship-across-the-G20
The Conceptual Assessment of Malaysian Entrepreneurshipnabaz4u
This document summarizes a journal article about assessing the concept of entrepreneurship orientation (EO) in Malaysia and its economic contributions. It finds that while the Malaysian government supports entrepreneurship through programs and loans, applying EO dimensions has contributed less to economic growth compared to other countries. Key challenges include low repayment of loans and a lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and skills. For Malaysia to better realize the economic benefits of EO, entrepreneurs need more support to develop their businesses and increase profits to improve loan repayments, while the environment must continue supporting risk-taking and opportunities.
1) Entrepreneurship plays a crucial role in economic development by spurring innovation, job creation, and productivity.
2) Many factors influence national rates of entrepreneurship, including wealth levels, employment opportunities, cultural acceptance, and policy support such as access to financing and regulations.
3) While developed countries have lower rates due to strong job markets and social safety nets, the US is an exception with a supportive culture and policies that foster a high rate of entrepreneurship and small business creation.
The document provides information about the Business Education & Entrepreneurial Skills Training (BEST) program run by Save the Children in Mongolia. The BEST program aims to empower Mongolian youth through hands-on business and entrepreneurship education. It will introduce an innovative after-school program teaching these skills to 14-17 year olds. The program seeks to address Mongolia's lack of entrepreneurship education and high youth unemployment by developing students' business mindsets and helping them explore career options. It plans to partner with schools, universities, donors and businesses to establish this comprehensive training initiative.
BHMH1101 Fundamentals Of Human Resources Management.docxwrite5
The L&D function at KPMG will need to support changes occurring at the organization in three key ways:
1) Provide cloud-based learning platforms and data analytics to support the development of digital skills among employees and new client-facing business solutions.
2) Expand training programs focused on areas like data science and digital architecture to strengthen client relationships and capitalize on growth opportunities.
3) Develop more agile training programs to help facilitate rapid responses to changes in market demands and organizational needs over the next 1-5 years.
The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) has conducted annual assessments of entrepreneurship in over 100 countries since 1999. The GEM study in Jamaica is conducted by the University of Technology, Jamaica and collects data on entrepreneurial activity, aspirations, and attitudes among Jamaicans. The 2013 Jamaican GEM report found that the total early-stage entrepreneurial activity rate in Jamaica was 13.8%, close to the world average of 14.4% for efficiency-driven economies. The report also examined youth entrepreneurship, well-being, education and training related to entrepreneurship in Jamaica.
The document discusses strategies to increase employability amongst youth in India by boosting their skillsets. It outlines several challenges including a lack of practical and job-ready skills amongst graduates, as well as a mismatch between the skills taught and those required by employers. It then proposes several strategies across five principles - amendments to the vocational course system, educational reforms, tax system reforms, improved training programs, and counseling services. Challenges and opportunities of each strategy are also discussed. The document emphasizes training and counseling to help youth identify their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to develop their skills and career paths.
Manpower training and development is positively related to productivity at Zenith Bank Plc. The study examined the relationship between manpower training costs and profitability at Zenith Bank Plc's Maitama branch in Abuja, Nigeria from 2001-2010. Data was collected through questionnaires and the bank's financial statements, and analyzed using chi-square tests and regression analysis. The results showed a significant positive relationship between the cost of manpower training and the bank's productivity and profitability. The study concluded that manpower training improves employee skills and performance, leading to higher productivity and profits for the bank.
This paper analyses the current scenario of skilled workforce of Indian Economy and future requirement
of skill development. The paper also outlines skill gap in various sectors, the key issues and policy
implications to address those issues and challenges in Skill Development and Productivity arena.
Entrepreneurship education on wholesale considerations on didactics and peda...Alexander Decker
This document discusses entrepreneurship education in Ghana and the problem of graduate unemployment. It presents entrepreneurship education as a way to address graduate unemployment by equipping students with skills needed in the job market. There is debate around whether entrepreneurship education should target all students or select groups. The key factors contributing to graduate unemployment are limited job opportunities, unemployability of graduates due to lacking practical skills valued by employers, and graduates' preference for paid employment over self-employment. The document argues that stakeholders should reach consensus on entrepreneurship education to help graduates develop employability skills and consider entrepreneurial careers to reduce unemployment.
What are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their economic implications...Do My Assignment
It is tough for them to examine and grasp the connections between financial elements and sustainability targets. Assignment help in Economics services is significant in supporting economics students as they struggle with challenging topics like Sustainable Development Objectives. They give them the resources, direction, and aptitude expected to succeed in their coursework.
This document summarizes a research study that examined how characteristics of entrepreneurs and firms affect the business success of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Bangladesh. The study found that entrepreneur characteristics, such as age, gender, education level and experience, significantly impacted business success, while firm characteristics did not. Specifically, SMEs operated longer by entrepreneurs were more successful, and male-owned SMEs performed better than female-owned ones. The document provides background on SMEs' important contributions to the Bangladeshi economy and reviews prior literature on factors influencing business success.
This document discusses a research thesis analyzing the relationship between social and economic development in Pakistan at the district level. It provides background on the concepts of social and economic development. The study uses data from Pakistan's Household Income and Expenditure Survey to examine relationships between economic ranks, literacy rates, and enrollment rates as indicators of development across districts in Punjab, Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces. Descriptive analysis and correlation techniques are employed to analyze the data and relationships between social and economic development indicators.
This document discusses a research thesis analyzing the relationship between social and economic development in Pakistan at the district level. It provides background on the concepts of social and economic development. The thesis uses data from Pakistan's Household Income and Expenditure Survey to examine relationships between economic ranks, literacy rates, and enrollment rates as indicators of social and economic development. It describes the methodology, results for different provinces, and graphical representations of the findings. The conclusion discusses that social and economic development is needed in Pakistan to improve standards of living through education, incomes, skills, and employment.
This study evaluated the extent of inclusion and participation of Women in Human capacity Building of a State in
Nigeria. One hundred female business owners who graduated from skill acquisition centres of Abia state were
randomly sampled to determine access to capacity building programmes, relevance of skills offered in programmes
and type of business operation. Results showed that the 30% women affirmation policy as implemented by Abia
State Government is an important factor in women entrepreneurial development. The Human Capacity building of
Women entrepreneurs are tailored as stop gap. Even as petroleum producing state with strong financial base, her
human capacity building strategies lack depth and are less consistent with entrepreneurial goals of women with
tertiary level education. Irrespective of the state cosmopolitan status the human capacity building strategies are
challenged by male dominated bureaucracy and cultural perception of female roles. A significant number (68% ) of
women endorsed government policies. Seventy (70%) percent of women with tertiary education level viewed the
skills offered in human capacity building as irrelevant to their training needs and entrepreneurial
aspirations.Financial independence and Technology knowledge base influenced choice of business operations. The
service sector was observed as the predominant choice of women.Empowerment support facilitation was suggestive
of gender disparity in capacity building programmes
The document summarizes efforts by the U.S. Department of Labor to expand apprenticeship programs across various industries. Key points include:
1) The Obama administration has invested unprecedented funds to expand apprenticeships, which provide workers skills training and middle-class careers while meeting employer needs.
2) Over 125,000 new apprentices have been added in recent years, with programs now in over 1,000 occupations, including high-growth sectors like healthcare, IT, and advanced manufacturing.
3) National Apprenticeship Week in November celebrates the role of apprenticeships in providing skilled workers and career opportunities.
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Avoiding a Lost Generation (Part2): Ten key recommendations to support youth ...EY
Avoiding a lost generation: ten key recommendations to support youth entrepreneurship across the G20, contains both key recommendations and actionable guidance based on best practices adopted by governments across the G20.
It follows on from our previous report, Avoiding a lost generation: young entrepreneurs identify five imperatives for action, where we surveyed 1,000 entrepreneurs on a wide range of possible policy and other initiatives that would boost their activities.
For further information please visit: http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Services/Strategic-Growth-Markets/EY-Supporting-youth-entrepreneurship-across-the-G20
The Conceptual Assessment of Malaysian Entrepreneurshipnabaz4u
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The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) has conducted annual assessments of entrepreneurship in over 100 countries since 1999. The GEM study in Jamaica is conducted by the University of Technology, Jamaica and collects data on entrepreneurial activity, aspirations, and attitudes among Jamaicans. The 2013 Jamaican GEM report found that the total early-stage entrepreneurial activity rate in Jamaica was 13.8%, close to the world average of 14.4% for efficiency-driven economies. The report also examined youth entrepreneurship, well-being, education and training related to entrepreneurship in Jamaica.
The document discusses strategies to increase employability amongst youth in India by boosting their skillsets. It outlines several challenges including a lack of practical and job-ready skills amongst graduates, as well as a mismatch between the skills taught and those required by employers. It then proposes several strategies across five principles - amendments to the vocational course system, educational reforms, tax system reforms, improved training programs, and counseling services. Challenges and opportunities of each strategy are also discussed. The document emphasizes training and counseling to help youth identify their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to develop their skills and career paths.
Manpower training and development is positively related to productivity at Zenith Bank Plc. The study examined the relationship between manpower training costs and profitability at Zenith Bank Plc's Maitama branch in Abuja, Nigeria from 2001-2010. Data was collected through questionnaires and the bank's financial statements, and analyzed using chi-square tests and regression analysis. The results showed a significant positive relationship between the cost of manpower training and the bank's productivity and profitability. The study concluded that manpower training improves employee skills and performance, leading to higher productivity and profits for the bank.
This paper analyses the current scenario of skilled workforce of Indian Economy and future requirement
of skill development. The paper also outlines skill gap in various sectors, the key issues and policy
implications to address those issues and challenges in Skill Development and Productivity arena.
Entrepreneurship education on wholesale considerations on didactics and peda...Alexander Decker
This document discusses entrepreneurship education in Ghana and the problem of graduate unemployment. It presents entrepreneurship education as a way to address graduate unemployment by equipping students with skills needed in the job market. There is debate around whether entrepreneurship education should target all students or select groups. The key factors contributing to graduate unemployment are limited job opportunities, unemployability of graduates due to lacking practical skills valued by employers, and graduates' preference for paid employment over self-employment. The document argues that stakeholders should reach consensus on entrepreneurship education to help graduates develop employability skills and consider entrepreneurial careers to reduce unemployment.
What are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their economic implications...Do My Assignment
It is tough for them to examine and grasp the connections between financial elements and sustainability targets. Assignment help in Economics services is significant in supporting economics students as they struggle with challenging topics like Sustainable Development Objectives. They give them the resources, direction, and aptitude expected to succeed in their coursework.
This document summarizes a research study that examined how characteristics of entrepreneurs and firms affect the business success of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Bangladesh. The study found that entrepreneur characteristics, such as age, gender, education level and experience, significantly impacted business success, while firm characteristics did not. Specifically, SMEs operated longer by entrepreneurs were more successful, and male-owned SMEs performed better than female-owned ones. The document provides background on SMEs' important contributions to the Bangladeshi economy and reviews prior literature on factors influencing business success.
This document discusses a research thesis analyzing the relationship between social and economic development in Pakistan at the district level. It provides background on the concepts of social and economic development. The study uses data from Pakistan's Household Income and Expenditure Survey to examine relationships between economic ranks, literacy rates, and enrollment rates as indicators of development across districts in Punjab, Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces. Descriptive analysis and correlation techniques are employed to analyze the data and relationships between social and economic development indicators.
This document discusses a research thesis analyzing the relationship between social and economic development in Pakistan at the district level. It provides background on the concepts of social and economic development. The thesis uses data from Pakistan's Household Income and Expenditure Survey to examine relationships between economic ranks, literacy rates, and enrollment rates as indicators of social and economic development. It describes the methodology, results for different provinces, and graphical representations of the findings. The conclusion discusses that social and economic development is needed in Pakistan to improve standards of living through education, incomes, skills, and employment.
This study evaluated the extent of inclusion and participation of Women in Human capacity Building of a State in
Nigeria. One hundred female business owners who graduated from skill acquisition centres of Abia state were
randomly sampled to determine access to capacity building programmes, relevance of skills offered in programmes
and type of business operation. Results showed that the 30% women affirmation policy as implemented by Abia
State Government is an important factor in women entrepreneurial development. The Human Capacity building of
Women entrepreneurs are tailored as stop gap. Even as petroleum producing state with strong financial base, her
human capacity building strategies lack depth and are less consistent with entrepreneurial goals of women with
tertiary level education. Irrespective of the state cosmopolitan status the human capacity building strategies are
challenged by male dominated bureaucracy and cultural perception of female roles. A significant number (68% ) of
women endorsed government policies. Seventy (70%) percent of women with tertiary education level viewed the
skills offered in human capacity building as irrelevant to their training needs and entrepreneurial
aspirations.Financial independence and Technology knowledge base influenced choice of business operations. The
service sector was observed as the predominant choice of women.Empowerment support facilitation was suggestive
of gender disparity in capacity building programmes
The document summarizes efforts by the U.S. Department of Labor to expand apprenticeship programs across various industries. Key points include:
1) The Obama administration has invested unprecedented funds to expand apprenticeships, which provide workers skills training and middle-class careers while meeting employer needs.
2) Over 125,000 new apprentices have been added in recent years, with programs now in over 1,000 occupations, including high-growth sectors like healthcare, IT, and advanced manufacturing.
3) National Apprenticeship Week in November celebrates the role of apprenticeships in providing skilled workers and career opportunities.
Similar to Georgia Competitiveness Initiative Report Prepared by .docx (20)
Analyze and describe how social media could influence each stage of .docxgreg1eden90113
Analyze and describe how social media could influence each stage of the Customer Decision Journey for a customer deciding where to go for a special night out (may include dinner, a special activity, etc.). Please be specific and cover each stage. Use the modified customer decision journey not the traditional journey. Note that this is for social media not other forms of internet sites.
Please note: Grading Criteria and textbook notes for reference are attached.
.
Analyze Delta Airlines, Inc public stock exchange NYSE- company’s pr.docxgreg1eden90113
Analyze Delta Airlines, Inc public stock exchange NYSE- company’s profitability, liquidity, leverage and the common stock as an investment. The length of the paper should be 3 to 5 pages in APA format. Prepare a financial analysis on the company using public information such as the company’s annual report, SEC 10-Q and 10-K.
.
Analyze and Evaluate Human Performance TechnologyNow that you ha.docxgreg1eden90113
Analyze and Evaluate Human Performance Technology
Now that you have a good understanding of human performance technology, explain the most frequently used means of gathering data in the field of human performance technology (HPT). Why is this important to an organization? What can go wrong?
Use scholarly research to back up your thoughts in this assignment. Your work should be a minimum of 2 pages following APA format.
.
Analyze a popular culture reference (e.g., song, tv show, movie) o.docxgreg1eden90113
Analyze a popular culture reference (e.g., song, tv show, movie) or a scholarly source outside psychology (e.g., literary novel, philosopher's theory, artistic movement) for its developmental themes. How does it understand development in comparison and in contrast to developmental psychology?
.
ANALYTICS PLAN TO REDUCE CUSTOMER CHURN AT YORE BLENDS Himabin.docxgreg1eden90113
ANALYTICS PLAN TO REDUCE CUSTOMER CHURN AT YORE BLENDS
Himabindu Aratikatla
University of the Cumberland's
March 22, 2020
Introduction
Yore Blends (YB) is a fictional online company dedicated to selling subscription-based traditional spice blends coupled with additional complementary products.
Yore Blends (YB) aspire to growing through mergers and acquisitions.
To do this, they need a strong customer base and steady revenue.
Yore Blends is concerned with the rate of customer churn.
Company’s Problem
Yore Blends has been in existence for years.
Nonetheless, the company is considering to expand through mergers and acquisition.
However, they are experiencing customer churn.
A considerable percentage of its clients don’t purchase their goods anymore.
As a result, the company needs to reduce customer attrition by at least 16%.
Causes for Customer Churn
Poor customer care service:
The company minimized rather than maximizing client cost
Bad onboarding:
Yore Blends clients failed to get value for the purchased products.
Clients might have lost interest in the company’s products.
Many companies think of customer service as a cost to be minimized, rather than an investment to be maximized. Here’s the issue with that: if you think of support as a cost center, then it will be. That is, if you don’t prioritize support and work to deliver excellent service to your customers, then it’s only going to cost you money…and customers. A disproportionate amount of your customer churn will take place between (1) and (2).
That’s where customers abandon your product because they get lost, don’t understand something, don’t get value from the product, or simply lose interest.
Bad onboarding – the process by which you help a customer go from (1) to (2) – can crush your retention rate, and undo all of that hard work you did to get your customers to convert in the first place.
4
Causes for Customer Churn (Cont.)
Limited customer success:
Lack of updates regarding new products
Extended absence of the company-client communication
Natural Causes:
Customers may have grown out of the products.
May have resulted due to Vendor switches might
While onboarding gets your customer to their initial success, your job isn’t done there. Hundreds of variables – including changing needs, confusion about new features and product updates, extended absences from the product and competitor marketing – could lead your customers away. If your customers stop hearing from you, and you stop helping them get value from your product throughout their entire lifecycle, then you risk making that lifecycle much, much shorter. Furthermore, Not every customer that abandons you does so because you failed. Sometimes, customers go out of business. Sometimes, operational or staff changes lead to vendor switches. Sometimes, they simply outgrow your product or service. (Salloum, 2016)
5
REASONS TO ANALYZE CUSTOMER CHURN
The company will be in a position to understand c.
Analytics, Data Science, and Artificial Intelligence, 11th Editi.docxgreg1eden90113
Analytics, Data Science, and Artificial Intelligence, 11th Edition.pdf
ANALYTICS, DATA SCIENCE, &
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
SYSTEMS FOR DECISION SUPPORT
E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N
Ramesh Sharda
Oklahoma State University
Dursun Delen
Oklahoma State University
Efraim Turban
University of Hawaii
Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers make no representations about the suitability of the information
contained in the documents and related graphics published as part of the services for any purpose. All such
documents and related graphics are provided “as is” without warranty of any kind. Microsoft and/or its respective
suppliers hereby disclaim all warranties and conditions with regard to this information, including all warranties
and conditions of merchantability, whether express, implied or statutory, fitness for a particular purpose, title and
non-infringement. In no event shall Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers be liable for any special, indirect
or consequential damages or any damages whatsoever resulting from loss of use, data or profits, whether in an
action of contract, negligence or other tortious action, arising out of or in connection with the use or performance
of information available from the services. The documents and related graphics contained herein could include
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described herein at any time. Partial screen shots may be viewed in full within the software version specified.
Microsoft® Windows® and Microsoft Office® are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the U.S.A. and
other countries. This book is not sponsored or endorsed by or affiliated with the Microsoft Corporation.
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Analytical Essay One, due Sunday, February 24th at 1100 pmTopic.docxgreg1eden90113
Analytical Essay One, due Sunday, February 24th at 11:00 pm
Topic A
In Unit 4, we claimed that empire-builders in the ancient world needed to "craft a type of multi-ethnic cohesion" – ways for people from different backgrounds to coexist under the umbrella of the empire – in order for their state to function (Video 4.1). On the other hand, we consider evidence discussed in Units 3 and 4 that the foundation of empire was the willingness of leaders to use violence to overwhelm their enemies.
In an essay of 600 to 1200 words, explore such evidence to make an argument about some of the ways people balanced political solutions to problems with war. In the end, you should persuade your reader, through your thoughtful analysis of the historical evidence, that empire-building in the ancient world transformed the ways that humans understood the role of violence in politics.
When organizing your ideas and drafting your essay, follow these guidelines:
1. Build your analysis using the course materials. The basis of your essay should be the primary source material found at the end of Unit 4 under “Unit 4 Resources.” By all means, take the ideas and evidence offered in the videos (and please note that we have provided transcripts of the videos as well.) This information will provide context for the primary resources.
*DO NOT base your observations on other evidence that you locate on the web or elsewhere. Remember, a big part of this essay is showing your mastery of the course material as assigned.*
2. After reviewing the material from Week 4, choose the two -- four examples from the primary sources that best allow you to make a persuasive case about the role of empire in the ancient world. While you want to show that you understand the larger trends in the material, take the time to explore in depth these specific examples.
3. When you refer to specific historical evidence (which should be something you do frequently throughout the essay), indicate, in parentheses, the location in the course materials of the evidence. An example of this is in the first sentence above.
4. Do not simply copy what we (or anyone else) have said. If you do, use quotation marks to indicate that the words were written by someone else and be sure to indicate your source for the quotation in parentheses. Plagiarism is a serious violation of GSU policy that leads to severe penalties!
5. To qualify for a grade in the C range, your essay must be at least 600 words (which is approximately 2 double-spaced pages, depending on the formatting of your document). B-range essays must be at least 900 words, and A-range essays must be at least 1200 words. However, meeting the word requirement does not mean that you will necessary receive a certain grade.
We will grade the essay out of 100 possible points according to these criteria:
Up to 30 points for the student's grasp of the larger historical context covered in the units
Up to 25 points for the appropriateness of the student's choi.
Analytical Essay Two, due Sunday, March 31st at 1100 pmTopi.docxgreg1eden90113
Analytical Essay Two, due Sunday, March 31st at 11:00 pm
Topic A
In Unit 9, we described some of the ways that the Silk Road facilitated both the spread of religion and the dispersal of commodities.
In an essay of 600 to 1200 words, explore the videos and the primary source evidence to make an argument about some of the ways the Silk Road created a form of (near) globalization. In the end, you should persuade your reader, through your thoughtful analysis of the historical evidence that succeeded in creating aspects of a common culture in throughout Eurasia.
When organizing your ideas and drafting your essay, follow these guidelines:
1. Build your analysis using the course materials. The basis of your essay should be the primary source material found at the end of Unit 9 under “Unit 9 Resources.” By all means, take the ideas and evidence offered in the videos (and please note that we have provided transcripts of the videos as well.) This information will provide context for the primary resources.
*DO NOT base your observations on other evidence that you locate on the web or elsewhere. Remember, a big part of this essay is showing us your mastery of the course material we have assigned.*
2. After reviewing the material from Week 9, use both primary sources to make a persuasive case about the role of the Silk Roads in creating a new form of globalization. While you want to show that you understand the larger trends in the material, take the time to explore in depth these specific sources.
3. When you refer to specific historical evidence (which should be something you do frequently throughout the essay), indicate, in parentheses, the location in the course materials of the evidence.
4. Do not simply copy what we (or anyone else) have said. If you do, use quotation marks to indicate that the words were written by someone else and be sure to indicate your source for the quotation in parentheses. Plagiarism is a serious violation of GSU policy that leads to severe penalties!
5. To qualify for a grade in the C range, your essay must be at least 600 words (which is approximately 2 double-spaced pages, depending on the formatting of your document). B-range essays must be at least 900 words, and A-range essays must be at least 1200 words. However, meeting the word requirement does not mean that you will necessary receive a certain grade.
We will grade the essay out of 100 possible points according to these criteria:
Up to 30 points for the student's grasp of the larger historical context covered in the units
Up to 25 points for the appropriateness of the student's choice of examples to analyze in depth and proper citation of these sources
Up to 25 points for the quality of the student's analysis of those examples
Up to 20 points for appropriate grammar and graceful expression
Topic B
Friar John of Pian de Carpine and William of Rubruck each provide a description of a Mongol court. In an essay of 600 to 1200 words, explore their descriptio.
analytic 1000 word essay about the Matrix 1 Simple english .docxgreg1eden90113
The Matrix uses religious concepts in its narrative by depicting Neo as a savior figure who is resurrected and gains special powers to defeat evil machines and free humanity from an artificial reality. Key religious themes include the concept of a simulated reality versus the real world, Neo's role as a messianic figure, and machines representing forces of evil. The essay should be 1000 words and cite sources accessible online using APA style references.
ANALYSIS PAPER GUIDELINES and FORMAT What is the problem or is.docxgreg1eden90113
ANALYSIS PAPER: GUIDELINES and FORMAT:
What is the problem or issue to be solved?
ABSTRACT:
State the problem and best course of action (i.e. solution) in the absolute fewest words possible. YOU MUST BEGIN YOUR PAPER WITH A ONE PARAGRAPH SUMMATIVE “ABSTRACT” DEFINING YOUR POSITION/THESIS.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Restate the problem and proposals/solutions CLEARLY. Provide any necessary background information. Explain/Summarize why your proposed course(s) of action are worthwhile/best, etc. Explain key terms needed to understand the problem.
2. BODY (Part One):
What are the causes of the problem?
Why/How did it happen?
For whom is this a problem?
What are the effects of the problem?
Why is it a problem?
The better you, the writer, understands the problem/issue and all its implications, the better solutions you will find.
Properly document/support your arguments/findings, etc.
3. BODY (Part Two):
Discuss and examine each solution, course of action, etc. Why is it feasible. Why is this the best course of action. What are the advantages over other courses of action or solutions.
What resources are available or will be necessary?
Use logic and critical thinking in your discussion.
Apply learned or researched theories and/or principles.
Fully and properly DOCUMENT your work/paper.
Discuss and consider all sides/arguments and look for repercussions. What could go wrong; what might not work; what might not be supported?
4. BODY (Part Three/Conclusion):
Discuss which/why your proposed course of action/solution is the
most feasible and why you chose it, developed it, etc.
Make sure your justification of the “value” of the chosen solution is fully supported/rationalized.
When you done, make sure you did the following:
Are all your arguments/reasoning logical and supported?
Are your transitions and connections clear and do they flow together?.
Are all your ideas, arguments, sources moving the reader further from one idea to the next?
Is there a constant “nexus” between what you are writing and your abstract?
Are you using correct words?
Short sentences?
Short paragraphs?
Complete sentences?
Punctuation, capitalization, spelling, word-choice, word usage?
Length: (7) FULL pages (double-spaced, one inch margins, 11 point type)
NOTE:
**Your paper should be balanced between ( background, general research, and your PERSONAL insight and analysis.)
** Use reliable sources.
DUE : IN April 2nd.
Indirect Trauma in the Field Practicum:
Secondary Traumatic Stress, Vicarious Trauma,
and Compassion Fatigue Among Social Work Students
and Their Field Instructors
Carolyn Knight
A sample of BSW students and their field instructors was assessed for the presence
of indirect trauma, including secondary traumatic stress, vicarious trauma, and
compassion fatigue. Results indicated that students were at greater risk of experi-
encing vicarious trauma than their field instructors and research participants in
previous studies. Risk factors for stud.
Analysis on the Demand of Top Talent Introduction in Big Dat.docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis on the Demand of Top Talent Introduction
in Big Data and Cloud Computing Field in China
Based on 3-F Method
Zhao Linjia, Huang Yuanxi, Wang Yinqiu, Liu Jia
National Academy of Innovation Strategy, China Association for Science and Technology, Beijing, P.R.China
Abstract—Big data and cloud computing, which can help
China to implement innovation-driven development strategy and
promote industrial transformation and upgrading, is a new and
emerging industrial field in China. Educated, productive and
healthy workforces are necessary factor to develop big data and
cloud computing industry, especially top talents are essential.
Therefore, a three-step method named 3-F has been introduced
to help describing the distribution of top talents globally and
making decision whether they are needed in China. The 3-F
method relies on calculating the brain gain index to analysis the
top talent introduction demand of a country. Firstly, Focus on the
high-frequency keywords of a specific field by retrieving the
highly cited papers. Secondly, using those keywords to Find out
the top talents of this specific field in the Web of Science. Finally,
Figure out the brain gain index to estimate whether a country
need to introduce top talents of a specific field abroad. The result
showed that the brain gain index value of China's big data and
cloud computing field was 2.61, which means China need to
introduce top talents abroad. Besides P. R. China, those top
talents mainly distributed in the United States, the United
Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands and France.
I. INTRODUCTION
Big data and cloud computing is a new and emerging
industrial field[1], and increasing widely used in China[2-4].
Talents’ experience is a source of technological mastery[5],
essentially for developing and using big data technologies.
Most European states consider the immigration of foreign
workers as an important factor to decelerate the decline of
national workforces[6]. Lots of universities and research
institutes have set up undergraduate and/or postgraduate
courses on data analytics for cultivating talents[7]. EMC
corporation think that vision, talent, and technology are
necessary elements to providing solutions to big data
management and analysis, insuring the big data success[8].
Bibliometrics research has appeared as early as 1917[9],
and has been proved an effective method for assessing or
identifying talents. Based on analyses of publication volume,
journals and their impact factors, most cited articles and
authors, preferred methods, and represented countries,
Gallardo-Gallardo et. al[10] assess whether talent management
should be approached as an embryonic, growth, or mature
phenomenon.
In this paper, we intend to analysis whether China need to
introduce top talents in the field of big data and cloud
computing by using bibliometrics. In section 2, the 3-F method
for top talent introduction demand analysis will be dis.
AnalysisLet s embrace ourdual identitiesCOMMUNITY COHE.docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis
Let s embrace our
dual identities
COMMUNITY COHESION Absorbing British values does not
mean ignoring our different heritages, says Alan Riddell
Local heritage: many Britons retain distinctive cultural ana reiigious characteristics
Minorities and faith issues stir strong
emotions. The Archbishop of Canter-
bury's mistake in raising the issue of
how the (J K should accommodate the
needs of one of its larger minorities
was to mention Sharia law. with all the
fears it raises about executions, cut-
ting off hands, and lack of rights for
women. It's not surprising that politi-
cians were brisk to condemn him.
Questions involving the Muslim
community are complicated by the
tendency to use "Islam" and "terror-
ism"in thesame breath. An example of
such muddled thinking was the Royal
United Services Institute's warning
last month that "misplaced deference
to multiculturalism has failed to lay
down the line to immigrant communi-
ties", undermining the fight against
extremism (R&R, 29 February. pl6).
But while the treatment, real or per-
ceived, of parts of our Muslim commu-
nity may exacerbate problems in this
country, the origins of violent extrem-
ism are not domestic - and they cannot
be cured by "laying down the line".
Accommodating diverse cultures
and faiths will always be difficult: there
could be no meeting of minds between
the Hindu monks in Hertfordshire
who believed that the natural death of
their sacred eow should not have been
hastened, and the Royal Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
who were equally adamant that the
animal should be put down humanely.
When minorities are small, it is easy
forthe majority to ignore iheir customs.
The Orthodox Jewish communities in
north London have been accepted for
years. But their plans to create an 11
mile symbolic boundary.or Eruv.incor-
porating the Jewish community in
Golders Green met a decade of resist-
ance from people who felt that shared
space was beingcolonised.even though
the visible impact was minimal.
But we cannot ignore the increasing
diversity of our population. There has
been a steady increase in immigration
over the last 20 years and recent im-
migrants tend to be younger and so
have more children than the resident
population. Coupled with natural pop-
ulation growth, the proportion of our
population with a relatively recent
overseas heritage will continue to rise.
And the number of ethnically-mixed
neighbourhoods will grow with it.
There are areas where minorities
will soon be majorities, such as Birm-
ingham and several London boroughs.
But the internal migration patterns of
our minority population are similar to
those of the majorityionc in five neigh-
bourhoods in England are projected to
be ethnically mixed by 2011.
Of course, most of our diverse pop-
ulation will absorb the broad values
of British society, and there will be
many more children from mixed race
relationships. But it would be a mis-
take to ignore different heritages. We
cannot choos.
Analysis of the Marketing outlook of Ferrari4MARK001W Mark.docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis of the Marketing outlook of Ferrari
4MARK001W Marketing
Principles: Report
Analysis of the Marketing outlook of Ferrari
Company Coursework 1: Apple Inc.
Company Coursework 2: Ferrari S.p.A.
Module Leader: Norman Peng
Seminar Tutor: Norman Peng
Student: Paolo Savio Foderaro W1616642
Marketing Report �1
Norman
Highlight
Analysis of the Marketing outlook of Ferrari
I. Introduction 3
II. PEST Analysis 4
III. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis 6
IV. SWOT and Positioning Strategy Analysis 8
V. Ansoff Matrix 10
VI. Ferrari’s Social Responsibility 11
VII.Referencing List 12
Marketing Report �2
Analysis of the Marketing outlook of Ferrari
Ferrari S.p.A
(Ferrari Corporate)
“Give a kid a paper sheet and some colours and ask him to
draw a car, for certain the car will be red” (Enzo Ferrari)
I. Introduction
A prancing black horse on a yellow background is not something that could pass unnoticed.
Destined to become an icon of style, luxury and speed, the first Ferrari made its appearance to the
public in 1947, eight years after the foundation by the Italian entrepreneur Enzo Ferrari of Auto
Avio Costruzioni, what would come to be, later on, the well-known brand Ferrari.
Throughout the history the company divided itself into the developing and production of
racing cars, becoming one of the most successful racing team in the world, and of luxury cars
distinguishing itself for the excellence of the Italian manufacture. As a matter of fact Ferrari’s cars
are build following the ideal of perfection in terms of design, power and elegance conveyed by the
Marketing Report �3
Analysis of the Marketing outlook of Ferrari
founder, Enzo Ferrari, who was used to say: “The best Ferrari is the next one” (Enzo Ferrari, no
date).
From its foundation till today Ferrari’s mission statement has been to build unique sport
cars, symbols of Italian excellence both on the road and on track. At the end of 2015 the Italian
sport car manufacturer can praise more than 7500 cars sold with a presence in 62 worldwide
markets and a net revenues of 2,854 millions of euros (Ferrari, Annual Report 2015).
Herein, the purpose of the report will be to analyse in the first part the external factors that
influence the company’s business. Then I will take into account the industry within which the
company operates in. After that, I will examine the strategic position of the company in the market
and the marketing strategy utilised for its products, namely sport cars. Finally I will conclude taking
into consideration sustainability and ethic-related issues that the company is dealing with.
(Ferrari Corporate)
II. PEST Analysis
The first concern for a company’s business is to understand and deal with all the external
factors that could affect the company’s future performance. It is worth saying that all possible
external factors are not under control of.
Analysis of the Monetary Systems and International Finance with .docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis of the Monetary Systems and International Finance with Focus on China and Singapore
Name
Institutional Affiliation
Analysis of the Monetary Systems and International Finance with Focus on China and Singapore
Regional Economic Integration and Economic Cooperation
The Asian region is among the leading international economic powerhouses due to its economic potential and size with countries such as China and Singapore dominating the region. Nonetheless, the capacity constraints in various Asian nations and the diversity of the continent complicate the efforts to create a unified market in the Far East. Achieving success in Asia's regional economic integration requires high commitment levels among the member countries in addition to the effective implementation of various initiatives to facilitate economic cooperation (Rillo & Cruz, 2016). I consider China and Singapore as significant players in the global and Asian economies due to their volumes of traded goods and investments in their local and foreign markets. For instance, China leads in the Asian continent, and its economy is the second largest in the world based on its nominal gross domestic product as an indicator of market performance. On the other hand, Singapore's highly developed economy is among the most rapidly growing in the world, and this has allowed the country from a third-world nation into a developed country in about five decades. I also observe that variations scope and breadth exist in regional economic integration, and the economic integration in the East Asia region initially assumed a market-oriented cooperation process before transforming into an economic integration drive.
My understanding is that a trade bloc refers to a form of an agreement between different governments that reduce or eliminate trade barriers to increase trade volumes among the member states. I have also learned that the trade blocs can exist as independent agreements between specific countries or form components of regional organizations. The trade blocs can further be categorized as monetary and economic unions, common markets, customs unions, free trade areas, and preferential trading areas. In Asia, the intergovernmental agreements have resulted in some regional trade agreements as well as the formation of the ASEAN trading bloc. I noted that China and Singapore are currently members of the Association of South-East Nations trading block alongside eight other countries in Southeast Asia. The primary objectives of ASEAN include the facilitation of sociocultural, educational, military, political, and economic integration as well as promoting intergovernmental cooperation in the region (Berman & Haque, 2015). The first stated aim of ASEAN is enhancing the competitiveness of the region in the international market as a production base by eliminating non-tariff and tariff barriers within the member states. The second aim of ASEAN is increasing the volume of FDI's to the Southeast Asia .
Analysis of the Barrios Gomez, Agustin, et al. Mexico-US A New .docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis of the B
arrios Gomez, Agustin, et al.
Mexico-US: A New Beginning
. COMEXI, 2020.
Write a summary and included the relevance to globalization, trade, finance, and immigration for international economics.
1-2 pages double-spaced; include footnotes/reference sources.
.
Analysis of Literature ReviewFailure to develop key competencie.docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis of Literature Review
Failure to develop key competencies and behaviors has been researched before through studying the workplace conflicts. In essence, workplace conflicts are inevitable mainly when employees are people from various backgrounds and different work styles that are brought together for the sake of shared business objectives. The history of organizations failing to develop competencies is quite long, and only a few studies have shown that about 30% of organizations have initiatives to improve behaviors among employees (Sperry, 2011). Previous have depicted several progressive organizations that use a leadership competency model to assist in outlining key skills and behaviors wanted by managers, supervisors, and executives.
Several questions remain unanswered about this subject, and they exist in some ways. First, the question is about the guilty of facilitation of workshops with management. It happens because organizations fail to identify and specify the essential competencies that apply to particular issues in the organization. Ideally, organizations need to shuffle and prioritize on the generic competencies as well as behaviors that would require management leaders to help in solving problems that may arise in the workplace (Sperry, 2011). Second, there is no proof of the competencies that matter to organizations. Indeed, there is must empirical data about the key behaviors that have the most significant effect on the engagement of employees, attraction, customer levels, and productivity of the employees in several organizations (Frisk & Larson, 2011).
The current best practices in dealing with this particular type of organization conflict are many and precisely based on the supervisors, managers, and executives. Develop towering strengths that would help in overshadowing weaknesses in the organization. Ideally, good leadership development always tries to magnify small natural strengths to highly energized strengths that would result in double improvement (Halász & Michel, 2011). The current best practice is the application of the competency models to assist leaders in improving their effectiveness, especially when dealing with employee behaviors in the organization.
Design Proposal and Outline
Topic of Training
The topic of training is using competency models for development and building of key competencies and behaviors in an organization.
Reason for the Choice
The topic is chosen because the primary purpose of the competency model is to assist leaders in the improvement of their effectiveness in developing key competencies and behaviors in an organization. The strengths cross-training is a common thing in an organization since it is closely associated with competency and behavior improvement (Sperry, 2011).
Subsequently, the topic is narrow enough to address in two-hour training since it is quite specific. The topic is based on enhancing the competency framework at the workplace which is indeed critical i.
Analysis Of Electronic Health Records System1C.docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis Of Electronic Health Records System
1
Chyterria Daniels
Capella University
May 3, 2020
Introduction
Merit-founded Incentive Payment System (MIPS) is a platform for value-founded settlement under the Quality Payment Program (QPP). The system aims at fostering the current innovation and improvement in clinical operations. MIPS mean that the organization should rationalize Physician Quality Reporting System (PQRS) (Meeks & Singh, 2019). Meaningful use guidelines are certain facets of an HER system that providers will be needed to use in their organization.
2
MIPS denote Merit-founded Incentive Payment System.
It is a platform for value-founded settlement under the Quality Payment Program (QPP)
It aims at fostering the current innovation and improvement in clinical operations
MIPS means that the organization should rationalize Physician Quality Reporting System (PQRS)
Meaningful use guidelines are certain compliance facets of an HER system that providers will be needed to use in their organization.
It means that the organization should have its set meaningful use guidelines
Current State of Compliance
The organization has set technology in the ICU
EHR not integrated to accommodate patient’s needs
Application of computers to draw guidance and instructions on conditions
Availability of lab information system
No replacement of diagnosing equipments
Independence Medical Center’s Electronic Health Records (HER) system has complied with some set guidelines. For instance, the healthcare organization has set technology system in its intensive care units. In addition, there is use of computers to draw guidance and instructions regarding several conditions on patients. However, the organization has not obeyed some guidelines like the replacement of outdated diagnosing equipment and lack of integrating EHR to accommodate all patients’ needs (Boonstra & Vos, 2018).
3
Current EHR Used in the Organization
Laboratory Information System (LIS)
Computerized Physician Order Entry (CPOE)
Central Supply System
Pharmacy system
Picture Archiving and Communication System (PACS)
Independence Medical Center’s Electronic has set up various EHR systems for use in different departments to deliver healthcare services to patients. For instance, the organization has implemented PACS, which is a health check imaging technology which offers reasonable storage and expedient admission to images from numerous modalities (Data & Komorowski, 2017).
4
Evaluation of EHR
The electronic health record system used in the ambulatory system lacks integration to accommodate patient’s needs. The system does not alert physician on drug interactions and other warning. On another point, each department has its exclusive system making it hard to share information between staff members in various units (Boonstra & Vos, 2018). An effective EHR system should be in a position to enable information transmission to all staff.
Analysis of element, when we perform this skill we break up a whole .docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis of element, when we perform this skill we break up a whole into its constituent parts. It is the identification and separation of the prts or components that constitute a communicatio. we look at the communivation in details so as to determine its natura. The elements ir parts are then classified or labeled into categoties.
There are a total of 5 text. I need to make an outline of each text. The last 2 pages is an example of how it should be done. If there are any questions please let me know.
.
Analysis of a Career in Surgery
Student Name
Professor Williams
English 122 02H
Date Due
Outline
Thesis: This analysis will explore the education, training, and career of a Surgeon.
· Introduction
· Definition of Surgeon
· Qualities of a Surgeon
· Thesis, Purpose, and Audience
· Source and Scope of Research
· Career Analysis
· Education
· Undergraduate Degree
· Application Requirements
· Medical School
· Residency & Fellowship
· Life of a Surgeon
· Duties and Responsibilities
· Surgery
· Teaching
· Research
· Work/Life Balance
· Employment Prospects
· Career Growth
· Advancement Opportunities
· Pros and Cons
· Conclusion
· Summary of Findings
· Interpretation of Findings
· Recommendations
Analysis of a Career in Surgery
INTRODUCTION
A career as a surgeon is long, incredibly difficult, competitive, costly, and one of the most rewarding pursuits you can have in your life. Something not typically mentioned to aspiring pre-medical students is the complicated nature of applying to medical school and residency. Much more is required than just a set of good grades. Volunteer work in the community, leadership and research experience, writing and interviewing skills, are all necessary for a successful application to medical school. All of those things are required yet again, when applying to surgical residency.
Before digging into all those things, let’s look at the definition of a surgeon. The United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statisticsdescribes the surgical profession in the Occupational Outlook Handbook as the following: “Using a variety of instruments, a surgeon corrects physical deformities, repairs bone and tissue after injuries, or performs preventive or elective surgeries on patients.” This is a strict definition however; a more useful outlook would be to focus on what traits lend themselves to becoming a successful surgeon.
There is a useful list created by the American College of Surgeons (ACS), titled, “So You Want to Be A Surgeon: An Online Guide to Selecting and Matching with the Best Surgery Residency,” which aims at current medical students. The guide says that a surgeon should work well as a member of a team; enjoy quick patient outcomes; welcome increasing responsibility; excel at solving problems with quick thinking; be inspired by challenges; and love to learn new skills (American College of Surgeons). The ACS recommends looking into a surgical career if you believe some or all of those traits apply to you. However, there is no such thing as a “standard surgical resident” and the ACS points out that “surgeons are trained, not born.…Becoming a good surgeon is a lifelong process.”
For students interested in pursuing a surgical career, this analysis will explore the education, training, and career of a Surgeon. Information for objective analysis will be taken from multiple sources including article databases, government sources, a personal interview with an orthopedic surgeon, the American College of Sur.
Analysis Assignment -Major Artist ResearchInstructionsYo.docxgreg1eden90113
Analysis Assignment -
Major Artist Research
Instructions
You will select one of the major, heard-of artist mentioned in the textbook as a subject for your research paper.
Step 1: Research the artist and a theme within their work
This paper should be more than just being "about" the artist. More than a biography.
Identify a theme or central idea about the artist or his/her artwork (your thesis) as it relates to a theme explored in Module 4 (Part 4 of the textbook) and then build the paper around that idea.
Select an artist from the list below:
Ana Mendieta
Chuck Close
Robert Mapplethorpe
Faith Ringgold
Kehinde Wiley
Carrie Mae Weems
Judy Chicago
Cindy Sherman
Yasumasa Morimura
Shirin Neshat
The expectation is that the research should represent information from several sources (
at least four -- websites will only count as sources if they are online versions of print material
) and that any direct borrowing of wording from these sources will be indicated by quotation marks and listed on the works cited page.
Step 2: Write the analysis
Draft your thesis (remember, this is not a biography paper so your thesis needs to be about the art)
Research information about the artist and their background
Identify a common theme within the artist works
What is the context of their work? Cultural? Spiritual? Political? Historical?
Step 3: Before you submit... make sure that you have the following:
The analysis length should be a minimum of 3 pages. (Not including the Works Cited page)
The paper should meet normal standards for documentation (citations and works cited such as found in the Modern Language Association, 8th ed.).
Use MLA format (Times New Roman 12-point size font, double-spaced, appropriate in-text citations, Works Cited page, etc...)
At least four sources -- websites will only count as sources if they are online versions of print material
Similarity Report must within 0-10%
.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Georgia Competitiveness Initiative Report Prepared by .docx
1. Georgia Competitiveness Initiative Report
Prepared by
Student Name
The Georgia Chamber of Commerce
July 2012
INTRODUCTION: GEORGIA—THE ECONOMIC LEADER OF
THE SOUTH……..1
Areas of
Focus...........................................................................11
Business Climate.........................................................12
Education & Workforce Development..............14
Innovation.......................................................................16
Infrastructure................................................................18
Global Commerce.....................................................20
Government Efficiency...........................................22
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION: GEORGIA—THE ECONOMIC LEADER OF
THE SOUTH
Throughout Georgia’s history, state government and the
business community have worked together to grow the economy
and create a high quality of life for those who call our state
home. As a result of that partnership, Georgia has been the
economic leader of the South, one with an enviable logistics
system, top tier research universities, world class technical
education, a robust agricultural sector, abundant natural
resources and a positive global reputation–all of which
contribute to our ability to attract, retain and grow both jobs
2. and investment.
To ensure that Georgia’s future is bright, the state must focus
not only on what is needed to successfully emerge from the
recent recession but also to remain competitive for decades to
come. The Georgia Competitiveness Initiative–a partnership
between public and private sectors– was created by Governor
Nathan Deal to enhance the state’s economic development
strategy.
As a result, the Initiative centered on six key areas that,
together, have and will continue to form the foundation for
long-term economic success. These are also the key areas that
site selection consultants use to evaluate locations:
Business Climate
Education and Workforce Development
Innovation
Infrastructure
Global Commerce
Government Efficiency and Effectiveness
Business Climate
Georgia’s reputation as a business-friendly state has been
demonstrated through both past economic success and numerous
national rankings and accolades. Maintaining that climate – one
that supports existing industry, new corporate locations, small
business and entrepreneurs – must remain at the heart of any
economic development strategy. By modernizing incentives,
revising tax provisions, and leveraging our quality of life,
Georgia can ensure continued success in the future. “Provide
incentives that reward growth and support established industry
to increase Georgia’s ability to compete with other states in
attracting new companies or expanding existing ones.”
3. Education & Workforce Development
A supportive business climate, sound economic development
strategy, and world-class infrastructure are of little value to
business without a dependable pipeline of qualified workers.
Insisting on excellence, promoting post-secondary options for
learning, and ensuring that Georgia’s curriculum is adequately
preparing future employees are all critical components to
creating a workforce that will attract quality jobs. “Focus on
adaptability and flexibility within the pre-K through 12 system
so that students are prepared to work or be trained to work upon
graduation.”
Innovation
Innovation plays an important strategic role in both the growth
of traditional industries and the continued diversification of the
state’s economy. Georgia is fortunate to have multiple
incubators for cutting-edge research and start-up companies but
lacks the infrastructure needed to fully leverage these
opportunities. Georgia can grow into a more attractive and
permanent home for entrepreneurs and new industries through
an increased focus on providing support, an infusion of
available capital, as well as the creation of an environment
where entrepreneurs and new industries can thrive. “Stop brain
drain. Students take Georgia investments out of our state. We
need to coordinate programs to keep them in Georgia.”
Infrastructure
For half a century, Georgia’s transportation assets, affordable
energy, expansive telecommunications networks, and abundant
natural resources were highlights of successful economic
recruitment efforts. As other states and nations made
investments in their own infrastructure in order to compete,
Georgia maintained the status quo and that advantage is
diminishing. Reinvestment in and expansion of these assets,
including long-term planning, is critical to the state’s economic
4. future.
Global Commerce
The 1996 Olympics placed Georgia on a global stage that,
combined with world-class logistics assets such as the ports and
international airport, has resulted in increased exports, foreign
direct investment, and companies doing business globally.
Ensuring that Georgia companies are ready to maximize
international opportunities for growth, identifying emerging
markets, and promoting the state as a great place for tourism are
all key to continued growth.
Government Efficiency
Businesses depend on state government to operate in an
efficient manner, providing services and support in a way that
does not impede growth. Georgia has been fortunate to have
been recognized for such efficiency in the past, consistently
receiving AAA bond ratings and accolades from national
business and government experts. Retaining and enhancing that
reputation is key to attracting new investment and job creation.
“Reduce red tape or bureaucratic issues that impede progress of
economic development.”
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Despite a state government that is consistently recognized for
its efficiency and pro-business environment, Georgia was hit
particularly hard by the recent economic recession. Multiple
signs point toward recovery. State revenues have trended
upward since mid-2010. Traffic to the ports continues to
increase. The Georgia Department of Economic Development
(GDEcD) has announced numerous location and expansion
projects throughout the past year. However, business still faces
challenges.
To ensure that Georgia’s future is bright, the state must focus
not only on what is needed to successfully emerge from the
5. recent recession but also to remain competitive for decades to
come. The Georgia Competitiveness Initiative–a partnership
between public and private sectors– was created by Governor
Nathan Deal to enhance the state’s economic development
strategy.
REFERENCES
Allen, I., & Seaman, J. (2010, November). Class difference$:
online education in the united states, 2010. Retrieved from
http://sloanconsortium.org/ publications/
survey/class_differences.
Bocchi, J., & Eastman, J. K. (2004). Retaining the online
learner: Profile of students in an online MBA program and
implications for teaching them. Journal of Education for
Business, 79(4), 245-245-253. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/202820993?accountid=1296
2.
Hegarty, N. (2010). Application of the academic motivation
scale to graduate school students. The Journal of Human
Resource and Adult Learning, 6(2), 48-48-55. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/867401296?
accountid=12962.
Irani, T., Telg, R., Scherler, C., & Harrington, M. (2003).
Personality type and its relationship to distance education
students' course perceptions and performance. Quarterly Review
of Distance Education, 4(4), 445-445-453. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/231214590?accountid=1296
2.
6. Mupinga, D. M., Nora, R. T., & Yaw, D. C. (2006). The
learning styles, expectations, and needs of online students.
College Teaching, 54(1), 185-185-189. Retrieved from
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2.
Relationships of gender, family
responsibility and ¯exible work hours
to organizational commitment and
job satisfaction
TERRI A. SCANDURA
Department of Management, University of Miami, Coral Gables,
FL 33124-9145, U.S.A.
AND
MELENIE J. LANKAU
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A.
Summary Psychological contract theory (Rousseau, 1995)
suggests that women and those with
family responsibilities may negotiate new psychological
contracts that include family-
responsive bene®ts such as ¯exible work hours. Relationships
of gender, family
responsibility, and ¯exible work hours to organizational
commitment and job satis-
7. faction were examined among 160 matched male and female
managers in a cross-
organizational study. Results revealed that women who
perceived their organizations
o�ered ¯exible work hours reported higher levels of
organizational commitment and
job satisfaction than women who did not. Also, ¯exible work
hours were related to
higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction for those
having family
responsibilities. Implications of these results for future research
and organizational
policy are discussed. # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
J. Organiz. Behav. 18: 377±391 (1997)
No. of Figures: 0 No. of Tables: 3 No. of References: 65
Introduction
Organizational responses to work±family con¯ict is an
increasing priority for management
(Ornstein and Isabella, 1993). In recent years, organizations
have introduced a number of family-
responsive policies and bene®ts, in large part, due to the
increasing number of women in the
workplace (Milliken, Dutton and Beyer, 1991; Rousseau, 1995;
Schwartz, 1989). Current data
indicate that 52 percent of women with children under age 6
work today as compared with
11 percent in 1960 (Lee, 1991). The increase in dual-career
families has also given rise to more
favorable attitudes of men toward `family-friendly' policies
since both partners must now be
CCC 0894±3796/97/040377±15$17.50 Received 13 June 1995
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 14 April 1996
8. JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, VOL. 18,
377±391 (1997)
Addressee for correspondence: Terri A. Scandura, Associate
Professor, Department of Management, 414 Jenkins
Building, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124-9145,
U.S.A., tel: (305) 284-5846 (o�ce), (305) 663-6547 (home
o�ce), e-mail: [email protected] (internet).
¯exible to meet child-care or dependent-elderly care demands
(Lee, 1991). Scharlach and Boyd
(1989) reported a sizable percentage of workers were providing
assistance to elderly family
members and that formal organizational supportive programs
were considered extremely helpful
in managing caregiving and work responsibility con¯icts.
O�ering of such programs may a�ect
work attitudes of employees, including organizational
commitment and job satisfaction. Such
policies may be related to employee loyalty to the organization
because the organization is
perceived to be a `family friendly' environment to work in.
Reasons cited by organization decision-makers for
implementing ¯exible work hours are to
improve motivation and morale and to enable employees to
better balance work and family
(Kush and Stroh, 1994). Ultimately this ¯exibility may relate to
improved productivity as well.
Osterman (1995) found strong support for the link between the
implementation of work±family
policies and direct e�orts on the part of employers to improve
employee commitment.
9. Literature Review and Research Hypotheses
Flexible work hours as a family-responsive policy
Higgins, Duxbury and Irving (1992) found that con¯ict between
work and family roles diminish
employees' perceptions of quality of work life and the quality of
family life which, in turn, can
impact organizational outcomes such as productivity,
absenteeism and turnover. They suggest
that organizations could possibly reduce work±family con¯icts
by o�ering alternative work
arrangements. This research indicated `that the structure of
work has a strong in¯uence on
family life and suggests that there should be recognition on the
part of employers that the family
consequences of work environment decisions are real and that
they need to be considered' (p. 71).
Organizational policy-makers are beginning to realize the e�ect
of the changing demographics
of their workers and are responding with the implementation of
family-oriented programs
(Galen, Palmer, Cuneo and Maremont, 1993). In a 1991 study of
188 of the largest companies in
30 industries, 100 percent of the companies reported that they
o�ered maternity leave, 88 percent
o�ered part-time work, 77 percent o�ered ¯exible work hours,
and 48 percent of the companies
reported that they had a job-sharing program (Galinsky,
Friedman and Hernandez, 1991). These
types of programs are designed to help employees manage their
work and family responsibilities.
Research has shown family-responsive policies to be associated
with the job-related attitudes and
10. personal well-being of employees (Greenberger, Goldberg,
Hamill, O'Neil and Payne, 1989;
Solomon, 1994). One of these policies is ¯exible work hours
(abbreviated to FWH and sometimes
referred to as `¯ex-time'). Under ¯exible work hour systems,
employees may choose when they
come to work and when they leave, as long as they work during
certain hours referred to as `core
hours'.
Advantages and disadvantages of ¯exible work hours have been
discussed (Christensen and
Staines, 1990; Glueck, 1979; Golembiewski and Proehl, 1978;
Kopelman, 1986; Kush and Stroh,
1994; Narayana and Nath, 1982; Pierce and Newstrom, 1983;
Rainey and Wolf, 1982). Major
advantages claimed include lowered stress, increased job
enrichment and autonomy, reduced
tardiness and absenteeism, and improved job satisfaction and
productivity. Major disadvantages
identi®ed include increased costs, problems with scheduling
and work coordination, di�culties
with supervising all employees on ¯exible work hours, and
changes in the organizational culture.
Golembiewski and Proehl's (1978) review of the literature on
¯exible work hours indicated that,
in sum, the positive bene®ts of ¯ex-time systems outweigh the
costs and that the applications
378 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
11. generated few negative work behaviors. According to a 1993
survey of 80 top U.S. corporations
conducted by Work/Family Directions, ¯exible work hours was
the most frequently utilized
program (24 percent of employees used ¯ex-time) over
telecommuting, job sharing and part-time
schedule programs (Solomon, 1994).
Organizational commitment and job satisfaction
Organizational commitment and job satisfaction represent
possible bene®ts that may be associ-
ated with ¯exible work hours. Organizational commitment
represents an individual's identi®-
cation with the goals of the organization, how much the
individual values membership in the
organization and the degree to which they intend to work to
attain organizational goals
(Mowday, Steers and Porter, 1979). Job satisfaction is the
overall summary evaluation a person
makes regarding his/her work environment (Weiss, Dawis,
England and Lofquist, 1967). A broad
range of personal characteristics, job characteristics,
group±leader relations, organizational
characteristics and role states have been examined in the
literature as antecedents to organ-
izational commitment (cf. Mathieu and Zajac, 1990, for a meta-
analysis of antecedents, corre-
lates and consequences of organizational commitment). Job
satisfaction has been positively
correlated with organizational commitment (Mowday et al.,
1979) and recent research has
indicated a causal relationship between these two constructs
(Vandenberg and Lance, 1992). For
example, Williams and Hazer (1986) report that job satisfaction
is an antecedent to organiza-
12. tional commitment in an investigation employing structural
equation methodology.
With respect to individual and organizational outcomes,
research has shown that organiza-
tional commitment is positively related to performance (Aranya,
Kushnir and Valency, 1986)
and negatively related to turnover (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990;
Porter, Steers and Mowday, 1974)
and turnover intentions (Williams and Hazer, 1986). In addition,
organizational commitment
has been shown to be positively related to participation, power,
teamwork and professionalism
(Welsch and LaVan, 1981).
Psychological Contracts
Flexible work hours as a part of the
psychological contract
Rousseau (1995) suggests that psychological contracts (both
written and unwritten) are
pervasive in organizations. She de®nes a `psychological
contract' as a set of `. . . individual
beliefs, shaped by the organization, regarding terms of an
exchange agreement between indivi-
duals and their organization' (p. 9). Rousseau also notes that
human resource (HR) practices,
such as recruitment, performance appraisal and compensation,
play an important role in the
psychological contracting process between employees and
employers. Although a number of
variables have been investigated as possible aspects of
psychological contracts in organizations,
the relationship between ¯exible work hours and employee
responses (organizational commit-
13. ment and job satisfaction) has not been examined. Perceptions
of ¯exible work hours in the
workplace may increase employee loyalty and satisfaction due
to positive feelings associated with
working for an organization that visibly cares about the well-
being of its employees. Since
psychological contracts `. . . refer to beliefs that individuals
hold regarding promises made,
accepted, and relied upon between themselves and another'
(Rousseau andWade-Benzoni, 1994)
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 379
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377±391 (1997)
(p. 466), it is the perception of whether the person has ¯exible
work hours that drives the
psychological contracting process.
Perceptions of ¯exible work hours may result in increased
attachment to the organization and
overall satisfaction for several reasons. First, the individual
may perceive the organization's
o�ering of ¯exible work hours as representing the
organization's concern for work and family.
Employees may see this as an aspect of the psychological
contract since their ability to balance
multiple responsibilities is congruent with individual values
about work and family (i.e. `this
organization cares about people'). Second, ¯exible work hours
allows individuals to feel
increased control over their lives due to the opportunity to work
during times more suited to
14. personal needs (e.g. child-care or elderly-care obligations) or
personal biological clocks
(not everyone is most productive from 9.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.).
Third, having ¯exible work hours
available improves employees' perceptions about their employer
and increases employees'
overall positive feeling toward the employer which impacts
organizational commitment and job
satisfaction. Fourth employees often engage in social
comparison processes (Adams, 1965) and
may compare their situation to peers in other jobs and/or
organizations that do not o�er ¯exible
work programs. Such comparisons should increase the value of
the employees' psychological
contract with their organization. Crooker and Grover (1993)
noted that providing family
bene®ts to employees positively in¯uences their attachment to
work through the symbolic action
of the employer providing policies that are responsive to
employees' needs. In response to the
o�ering of ¯exible work hours, employees may reciprocate with
greater loyalty to the employer
and better morale. Based upon the idea that ¯exible work hours
represent an aspect of the
contract between employees and employers and the previous
literature, we expect the perception
of ¯exible work hours to be related to organizational
commitment (loyalty to the employer) and
job satisfaction (morale). Hence, the following hypothesis is
proposed.
H1: Individuals that perceive ¯exible work hours will report
higher levels of (a) organ-
izational commitment and (b) job satisfaction than individuals
who do not.
15. Gender and the psychological contract
There has been scant research on possible gender di�erences in
responses to psychological
contracts in organizations (Rousseau, 1995). An examination of
research on gender di�erences in
organizational commitment is not conclusive, however (Mathieu
and Zajac, 1990). Some studies
report that women are more committed than men (Angle and
Perry, 1981; Baugh, 1990; Gould,
1975; Grusky, 1966; Hrebiniak and Alutto, 1972) and others
suggest that women are less
committed than men (Aranya et al., 1986; Chusmir, 1982;
Euchs, 1971; Graddick and Farr,
1983). Still others report no gender di�erences in
organizational commitment (Fry and Grenfeld,
1980; Cromie, 1981; Stevens, Beyer and Trice, 1978; Bruning
and Snyder, 1983). One of the
criticisms of research that has previously examined gender-
related di�erences in the study of
job attitudes has been the lack of control for the e�ects of
demographic variables such as age and
level of education (Lefkowitz, 1994). In a study of a
heterogeneous group of 832 men and
women, Lefkowitz (1994) found that many gender-related
di�erences in job reaction and
dispositional variables such as job satisfaction disappear when
di�erences in perceived job
characteristics, age, tenure, education, income, and occupational
level were controlled. He con-
cludes that studies involving the examination of gender
di�erences should control statistically or
procedurally for the e�ects of demographic variables. We agree
with this noted limitation of
research on gender-related di�erences, and follow the
suggestion of Sekaran (1990), that
16. matched samples are an e�ective research design for
researching such di�erences.
380 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
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377±391 (1997)
Mathieu and Zajac (1990) suggest that gender may impact
employee's perceptions of the
workplace and their attitudinal reactions to the organization.
They also suggest that gender may
impact whether individuals become more committed to
organizations that o�er various kinds of
opportunities such as ¯exible work hours. Family-oriented
programs may be more salient to
women who must balance work and family demands and
consequently, face more work±family
con¯icts than men (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose,
Rabinowitz and Beutell, 1989). Gender
theory suggests that most women are socialized to view their
primary role as within the family
(Baugh, 1990). Also, women's experiences in the workplace
such as discrimination and sex-role
stereotyping may reinforce the relative importance of the family
role over the work role (Kanter,
1977; Terborg, 1977). Thus, women are expected to have
di�erent responses to work than men in
terms of organizational commitment and job satisfaction when
family-responsive policies are
o�ered.
Women may develop di�erent psychological contracts with
organizations than men. They
17. may be more committed and satis®ed with work when they
perceive that their organization o�ers
policies that are consonant with the family role, in comparison
to men. Flexible work hours may
enable women to better balance the con¯icting demands between
work and family roles (Frone,
Russell and Cooper, 1992). Research has indicated that women
have retained primary respons-
ibility for home and family duties, in addition to being
employed full-time (Hoschild, 1989;
Bielby and Bielby, 1988). Hence, the perception that the
organization supports them in their need
to manage both their career and their family may increase their
feelings of organizational
commitment and morale (Rousseau, 1995). As more women
have entered the workforce, the
nature of bene®ts o�ered to employees have changed. Today,
on-site day-care centers, parental
leave and ¯exible work hours are often part of the psychological
contracts o�ered to employees.
In response to such contract `packages' (Rousseau, 1995),
employees may be more satis®ed and
connected to the organization. Flexible work hour bene®ts may
be an important element in an
individual's decision to work for a particular organization. Sims
(1994) notes that human
resource personnel will have to o�er innovative employment
options to attract and retain
younger employees. Maximizing employees' sense of control
over their lives and their changing
needs is a goal addressed by ¯exible work hour systems.
Therefore, we expect interaction e�ects for gender and ¯exible
work hour policies with respect
to organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Women
should be more likely to report
18. higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction
than men when they perceive
that a family-responsive policy is present in their organization
than when it is not. We hope to ®ll
a gap in the current research on women in management by
examining the di�erential e�ects of a
family-responsive policy (i.e. ¯exible work hours) on the
organizational commitment and job
satisfaction of females and males using a matched sample
design (Sekaran, 1990). Hence, the
following hypothesis is proposed.
H2: The relationship between the perception of ¯exible work
hours and (a) organizational
commitment and (b) job satisfaction will be stronger for women
than for men.
Family responsibility and the psychological contract
Attitudes have changed regarding employees' willingness to
sacri®ce family for work (Rodgers,
1992). Today's employees often look for signals that the
organization provides for balance
between work and family (Osterman, 1995). Guzzo and Noonan
(1994) suggest that human
resource practices, such as ¯exible work hours communicate
that the organization is concerned
about employee well-being. Such practices have been
considered part of the psychological
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 381
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377±391 (1997)
19. contract o�ered to employees. Flexible work hours may be
o�ered as part of the human resource
bene®t `package' o�ered to employees or negotiated one-on-
one with one's supervisor. In either
event, the employee may reciprocate with increased loyalty and
work performance. Also, the
perception of having ¯exible work hours may enhance the
employer±employee `bond' and
increase job satisfaction. Rousseau (1995) suggests that a recent
trend in psychological con-
tracting is increased negotiation regarding work and family
issues for both women and men. As
more women have entered the U.S. workforce creating an
increase in dual-career families, the
expectations that employers will assist or be ¯exible regarding
work±family con¯icts has also
increased. Thus, ¯exible work hours may be viewed as part of
the psychological contract for
employees that have family responsibilities.
Employees who stand to bene®t from family responsive
programs may hold more positive
attitudes toward the organization (Crooker and Grover, 1993).
Therefore, employees who have
children and are confronted with work and family demands may
prefer having a choice of
work hours associated with ¯exible work hour programs and
may feel more attached to the
organization for o�ering these policies. This attachment should
be re¯ected in feelings of
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Beauvais and
Kowalski (1993) found that
`. . . the more salient one's family role, the more likely one
would engage in family-supportive
behaviors' (p. 10). Thus, having children at home represents a
20. level of family responsibility and
the following hypothesis is proposed.
H3: The relationship between perceptions of ¯exible work hours
and (a) organizational
commitment and (b) job satisfaction will be stronger for
individuals with family respons-
ibilities than those without.
Method
Sample and procedure
Despite investigations of antecedents of organizational
commitment using a variety of ®eld
samples (Hrebiniak, 1974; Lee, 1971; Steers, 1977; Koch and
Steers, 1976; Porter et al., 1974;
Mowday et al., 1979; Graddick and Farr, 1983; Welsch and
LaVan, 1981), research has yet to
examine organizational commitment using matched samples of
male and female managers. Yet,
the development of psychological contracts of managers is
important because of their ability to
in¯uence key decisions in the overall human resource strategy
of the organization and processes
of recruitment, hiring and promotions (Rousseau and Wade-
Benzoni, 1994). In addition,
Milliken et al. (1991) note that the attitudes of the `top
management team' (p. 101) regarding
work±family issues could be crucial in determining
implementation of family-responsive
policies.
To obtain a sample of women in management positions,
potential participants were obtained
from mailing lists, provided by the American List Council, of
21. women with job titles of general
manager, vice president or president/CEO. A random sample of
1200 potential participants were
screened for their willingness to take part in the survey and
ability to identify a male peer at their
level. Four hundred and forty-three women indicated their
willingness to participate in the study
and were mailed two copies of the survey and postage-paid
return envelopes. A total of 275
(176 from women and 99 from men) usable surveys were
returned for a response rate of
39.7 percent for the women, and the matching strategy resulted
in a ®nal sample of N � 160,
382 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
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377±391 (1997)
constituted by N � 80 matched pairs1. Ninety-three di�erent
organizations were represented in
the sample (67 women identi®ed peers in the same organization
and 13 identi®ed peers in
di�erent organizations).
While the initial female executive sample was randomly drawn,
it is still possible that some
di�erences existed between respondents and non-respondents.
To address the issue of possible
non-response bias, a preliminary step in the data collection
process included a postage-paid
business reply postcard which asked the female respondents to
designate whether or not they
wanted to participate in the study. Information regarding the
22. number of levels between the female
respondent's job and the top level of the organization, the
number of persons they supervise, and
the type of organization (government, service, manufacturing,
small business or other) was
collected via the postcard. Non-response bias was evaluated by
comparing the postcard responses
of those who completed the survey (N � 176) with those who
indicated they did not wish to
participate (N � 534). No statistically signi®cant di�erences
were found between these two
groups for the number of levels between their position and the
top level in the organization
(t value � 1:64; p � 0:102), the number of persons they
supervised (t value � 1:12; p � 0:228), or
type of organization (�2� 7:17; p � 0:127). In addition, the
geographic location of the employing
organization (South, Northeast, Midwest and West) was
examined for respondents and non-
respondents and no signi®cant di�erences were found (�2�
3:15; p � 0:370).
A demographic pro®le of respondents is shown in Table 1. The
majority of respondents were
married, employed full time, and Caucasian; approximately 74
percent of the women and
87 percent of the men had at least a bachelor's degree; and 80.7
percent of the women and
87.5 percent of the men were employed by small- or medium-
sized organizations (500 employees
or less). Since the literature has demonstrated various personal
characteristics to be related to
organizational commitment and di�erences between males and
females to confound studies of
gender di�erences in reactions to work (Mathieu and Zajac,
1990; Lefkowitz, 1994), analyses
23. were conducted on all demographic variables to determine
whether the matched sample
procedure was e�ective in procedurally controlling for
di�erences in the personal characteristics
of respondents. t-tests, chi-square tests, and Del tests (Drazin
and Kazanjian, 1993) indicated no
signi®cant gender di�erences for age, ethnicity, education,
years of experience, salary, size of
budget, number of persons supervised, weekly hours of work,
size of employer or type of
industry, supporting the e�ectiveness of the matching strategy.
The only di�erences in the sample
were that women were more likely to be single than men (Del �
0:16; p < 0:05) and more males
reported having children under 18 living at home than women
(Del � 0:2; p < 0:05). For this
analysis, the Del technique was used in conjunction with the
chi-square test (cf. Drazin and
Kazanjian, 1993), because we hypothesized that men would be
more likely to have children than
women, given results of previous research utilizing dependent
children as a variable in the
examination of careers of men and women (Lobel and St. Clair,
1992).
Measures2
Organizational commitment
Mowday et al.'s (1979) 15-item Organizational Commitment
Questionnaire (OCQ) was used and
respondents indicated their level of agreement with these items
using a 5-point scale ranging from
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 383
1 Response rates among executives typically are under 25
24. percent (cf. Hall, 1992; Powell, 1992).
2 Data on ¯exible work hours and organizational commitment
were collected as part of a larger survey on careers of
women in management.
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
1 � strongly disagree to 5 � strongly agree. Representative
items in this measure included `For
me, this is the best of all possible organizations for which to
work' and `I ®nd that my values and
the organization's values are very similar'. The coe�cient alpha
reliability computed for the
OCQ in this sample was 0.90.
Job satisfaction
Overall Job Satisfaction was measured using the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
(Weiss et al., 1967). Respondents indicated their satisfaction
with 20 aspects of their jobs using a
5-point scale ranging from 1 � very dissatis®ed to 5 � very
satis®ed. Representative items in this
measure included `Being able to keep busy at all times' and `My
pay and the amount of work I
do'. The coe�cient alpha reliability computed for the MSQ in
this sample was 0.90.
384 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
Table 1. Demographic characteristics: female and male
managers
Characteristic Female Male Characteristic Female Male
25. (N � 80) (N � 80) (N � 80) (N � 80)
Age (years)
Mean 44.2 42.5
Standard deviation 10.3 10.3
Ethnicity (%)
White 95.0 97.5
Afro-American 0.6 1.2
Hispanic 1.7 0.0
All other 2.7 1.2
Education (%)
Bachelor 43.2 55.0
Post-Bachelor 16.9 15.0
Masters 12.5 15.0
Doctorate 1.7 2.5
Marital status (%)*
Single 9.7 6.3
Married 77.2 85.0
Divorced 7.4 8.7
Widowed 3.2 0.0
Children under 18 (%){ 43.8 63.8
Employment status (%)
Full time 95.5 96.2
Part time 4.0 2.5
Years of respondent experience in current type of
work (years)
Mean 12.7 13.1
Standard deviation 9.1 10.8
Respondent's current salary ($)
26. Mean 61000 60200
Standard deviation 51590 39000
Size of budget over which respondent exercises
authority ($)
Mean 2554000 2931000
Standard deviation 3361000 3712000
Number of months since respondent's last promo-
tion (%)
1±12 42.0 36.2
12±24 13.6 20.0
24±36 15.3 15.0
More than 36 12.6 20.5
Number of persons directly reporting to respondent
Mean 36.8 42.4
Standard deviation 98.2 46.6
Weekly hours of work
Mean 47.5 50.3
Standard deviation 10.0 11.1
Size of respondent's current employer (%)
(number of employees)
1±10 44.3 53.7
11±50 30.1 27.0
51±100 4.0 4.1
101±500 2.3 2.7
Over 500 12.5 8.1
Industry of respondent's current employer (%)
Service 46.3 53.9
Manufacturing 26.3 25.0
Government 5.0 2.0
Retailing 2.5 2.5
27. Small business 13.8 7.5
t-tests and chi-square tests indicated no signi®cant di�erences
between female and male respondents (excluding children
under 18 variable and marital status variable).
*�2 � 8:51; p4 0:05; Del � 0:16; p4 0:05.
{�2� 6:44; p4 0:05; Del � 0:2; p4 0:05.
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
Gender, family responsibility,
and ¯exible work hours
Respondents were asked to indicate whether they were male or
female and whether they had
children under 18 living with them at home (age 18 was chosen
since parents still have respon-
sibilities and obligations for high school age children). To
assess the status of the organization's
family-responsive policies, survey respondents indicated
whether their organization o�ered a
¯exible work hours program. Respondents were asked to circle
yes or no if they perceived that
the organization o�ered ¯exible hours3. These variables were
dummy-coded as no � 0 and
yes � 1.
Analyses
To test hypotheses H1(a,b), H2(a,b) and H3(a,b), a 26262
multivariate analyses of variance
(MANOVA) procedure was performed for the dependent
variables, organizational commitment
and job satisfaction: gender (male/female) by family
28. responsibility (no/yes) by perception of
¯exible work hours in organization (no/yes).
Results
Results from the MANOVA revealed a signi®cant multivariate
e�ect for the perceptions of
¯exible work hours (Wilks' lambda � 0:956, F�2; 151� �
3:44; p � 0:035). Results for the uni-
variate F-tests (shown in Table 2)4 indicated signi®cant e�ects
for both organizational commit-
ment and job satisfaction. Hypotheses 1a and 1b were supported
(F � 5:48 and F � 6:07
respectively) for the main e�ect of perception of ¯exible work
hours in the organization.
Individuals who perceived their organizations o�ered a ¯exible
work hours program (N � 86)
reported a signi®cantly higher level of organizational
commitment (mean � 60:33) than individ-
uals who perceived that their organizations did not o�er such a
policy (N � 74; mean � 55:58).
Also, those who perceived that they had ¯exible work hours
were more satis®ed (mean � 82:63)
than those who did not (mean � 77:38).
The MANOVA showed a signi®cant interaction e�ect for
gender and ¯exible work hours
(Wilks lambda � 0:956; F�2; 151� � 3:46; p � 0:034).
Univariate F-tests (shown in Table 2)
revealed signi®cant e�ects for both organizational commitment
(F � 5:57) and job satisfaction
(F � 6:07). Thus, hypotheses 2a and 2b were supported. A
summary of means is shown in
Table 3. Planned comparison tests of the signi®cance of these
mean di�erences indicated that
female managers who perceived that their organizations o�ered
29. ¯exible work hours
(mean � 62:49) reported signi®cantly higher levels of
commitment than females who did not
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 385
3 Information was collected on other family-responsive policies
as part of this investigation. Day-care programs
(community-based, on-site and vouchers) were not signi®cantly
related to organizational commitment nor job satisfac-
tion (however, only 13 per cent of respondents reported that
they perceived having these). Part-time jobs and paternal
leave had signi®cant main e�ects on organizational
commitment and job satisfaction. Dependent care had a
signi®cant
main e�ect on job satisfaction. No interaction e�ects for
gender or family responsibility were found.
4 Additional analyses were also conducted: (a) with marital
status as a covariate since respondents di�ered in this
demographic variable; the results indicated that marital status
was not a signi®cant covariate and ANCOVA was not
necessary; (b) with salary as a covariate, results indicated that
salary was not signi®cant as a covariate; and (c) a three-
way ANOVA examining age, family responsibility and ¯exible
work hours system, since younger persons may have
younger children, and thus more responsibility. The three-way
interaction was not signi®cant.
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
perceive the availability of ¯exible work hours in their
organizations (mean � 54:60). Males
reported similar levels of organizational commitment regardless
30. of whether they perceived
¯exible work hours to exist or not in their organizations (means
� 58:69 and 56:94, respectively).
A signi®cant planned comparison among the means was also
found for job satisfaction. Females
who perceived ¯exible work hours in their organization reported
higher levels of job satisfaction
(mean � 85:00) when compared to women who did not perceive
¯exible work hours to exist in
their organizations (mean � 76:14). Again, males that perceived
¯exible work hours reported
similar levels of job satisfaction (means � 80:84) as males who
believed their organizations did
not o�er a policy (mean � 79:10).
Results of the MANOVA also indicated a signi®cant
multivariate e�ect for the inter-
action term of family responsibility and ¯exible working hours
(Wilks' lambda � 0:947;
F�2; 151� � 4:20; p � 0:017). The univariate F-tests were
signi®cant for both dependent variables
(F � 5:70 for organizational commitment and F � 8:04 for job
satisfaction) providing support
for hypotheses 3a and 3b. Planned comparisons of the means
(shown in Table 3) revealed that
respondents with family responsibility (children under 18 living
at home) who perceived their
organizations had a ¯exible work hours policy reported higher
levels of organizational
commitment and job satisfaction than those individuals with
family responsibility who perceived
no availability of ¯exible work hours. Those individuals without
family responsibility reported
similar levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction
regardless of whether they
perceived ¯exible work hours to be present or not in their
31. organizations.
386 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
Table 2. Summary of univariate analysis of variance: gender by
family responsibility by ¯exible work hours
Source Organizational Job
commitment satisfaction
F F
Gender 0.15 0.10
Family responsibility 0.89 1.80
Flexible work hours 5.48* 6.07*
Gender by family responsibility 1.48 2.17
Gender by ¯exible work hours 5.57* 6.07*
Family responsibility by ¯exible work hours 5.70* 8.04*
Gender by family responsibility by ¯exible work hours 2.78
0.60
* p < 0:05.
Table 3. Summary of means
Flexible work hours Respondent gender Family responsibility
Male Female No Yes
Organizational commitment
No 56.94 54.60 58.28 53.52
N � 31 N � 43 N � 32 N � 42
Yes 58.69 62.49 59.45 61.16
N � 49 N � 37 N � 42 N � 44
32. Job satisfaction
No 79.10 76.14 81.34 74.36
N � 31 N � 43 N � 32 N � 42
Yes 80.84 85.00 81.71 83.50
N � 49 N � 37 N � 42 N � 44
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
Discussion
Results of this study of ¯exible work hours and employee
attitudes among women and men
indicate that family-responsive policies o�ered by employers
may a�ect work-related attitudes of
employees. Speci®cally, the existence of ¯exible work hour
programs was shown to be
signi®cantly related to organizational commitment and job
satisfaction of female managers.
Female managers reported higher levels of organizational
commitment and job satisfaction if
they were working for an organization that they believed
included ¯exible work hours in their
psychological contract. The o�ering of such family-responsive
policies may represent an organ-
izational culture which is supportive of families and shows
sensitivity to career±family demands.
Our results are in agreement with those of Beauvais and
Kowalski (1993) who found that
individuals who perceived their organizational culture to be
supportive of employees' involve-
ment in the family domain experienced lower levels of
33. work±family con¯ict. Thus, organizations
may be able to play a more active role in reducing work±family
con¯ict and improving employee
attitudes by creating a family-friendly environment. Further
research on the e�ects of family-
responsive policies and organizational culture appears to be a
fruitful area for future research.
It is also noteworthy that the perceptions of existence of the
policy was signi®cantly associated
with higher organizational commitment, regardless of whether
or not the employee had actually
utilized the program. Approximately 60 percent of employees
who reported that ¯exible work
hour systems existed in their employing organizations actually
reported utilizing the program.
Additional analyses examining organizational commitment and
job satisfaction between those
who used the program and those who had not showed no
signi®cant di�erences5. Perhaps the
perception of the presence of the program in the company, not
the actual impact on the individual,
may be a critical factor in that the presence of a ¯exible work
hours policy suggests that the
organization is willing to adapt to employee needs.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that
employees may be reluctant to use the policy when o�ered, due
to the perception that use of FWH
would be perceived by others in their organization as lack of
career commitment (Solomon, 1994;
Beauvais and Kowalski, 1993). Rodgers (1992) found `than
when employees request the very set
of ¯exibility solutions that make it possible to balance these
(work and family) responsibilities,
they are likely to be penalized as not being serious about their
jobs' (p. 190). Future research
34. should examine the barriers to the utilization of family-
responsive policies, and the usage patterns
of family-responsive policies longitudinally to determine how
and why ¯exible work hours are
utilized and the impact of such usage on job-related attitudes
and career outcomes.
The results of this study indicate that women may be more
sensitive to the attitudinal e�ects of
their organization o�ering family-responsive policies such as
¯exible work hours. The existence
of a ¯exible work hours system did not have a di�erential
impact on the attitudes of men. These
results suggest that women may have a greater appreciation for
the availability of family-
responsive policies due to the often con¯icting roles of
manager, spouse and parent, which is
suggested in the literature on women in management (Hoschild,
1989; Hunsaker, 1985). Future
research could examine outcomes associated with other family-
responsive policies, such as day
care, elder care, reduced work weeks, and working from the
home.
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 387
5 A 26262 multivariate analysis of variance was performed with
organizational commitment and job satisfaction as the
dependent variables and gender, family responsibility and
utilization of ¯exible work hours (yes/no) as independent
variables. The main e�ect for utilization of ¯exible work hours
nor any of the interactions involving utilization were
signi®cant.
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
35. The analysis for respondents who reported having children
under 18 indicated that having
dependent children signi®cantly moderated the relationship
between ¯exible work hours and
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. As expected,
the existence of the FWH policy
was related to higher organizational commitment and job
satisfaction when the respondent had
children under 18. This supports previous theory and research
that suggests that family-
responsive policies will be more salient when children are
present (Beauvais and Kowalski, 1993;
Crooker and Grover, 1993; Hoschild, 1989; Hunsaker, 1985).
Study limitations
This study assessed whether employees perceived that they had
¯exible work hours and not
whether the program was actually o�ered. However, consistent
with psychological contract
theory (Rousseau, 1995), it is the beliefs regarding aspects of
contracts that drive related attitudes
such as loyalty and morale. Thus, it is our suggestion that future
research not only rely on reports
from the human resources department regarding whether or not
¯exible work hours are o�ered,
but also include reports from respondents. Respondents may
negotiate this with their super-
visors, regardless of the existence of a formal policy. In our
sample there was 67 percent agree-
ment between respondents from the same organizations,
suggesting that di�erent contracts were
perceived within the same organization regarding ¯exible work
36. hours. An interesting area for
future research would be to compare employees' perceptions of
¯exible work hours with whether
or not the policy is actually o�ered as a human resource
practice as viewed by representatives
from the human resource department.
The analyses in this study do not permit causal explanations and
further study into why these
di�erences exist seem warranted. An additional limitation of
this study is potential bias in the
information collected since only self-report measures were
utilized for all variables, however,
categorical variables such as gender are less susceptible to bias
(Nunnally, 1978) and existence of
¯exible work hour systems and whether the respondent had
children under 18 are based on facts
rather than judgments or perceptions.
Another limitation of the current study concerns the matched
sample research design.
Although the design resulted in very few di�erences in
demographic and organizational vari-
ables, the sample of male and female managers may have
di�ered on other variables not studied,
such as perceived personal competence which has been shown
as an antecedent to organizational
commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). Future research should
attempt to incorporate as many
of the variables shown in the literature to be antecedents of job
attitudes so that alternative
explanations for results are minimized. Additionally, the
participants in this study were
employed in small- or medium-sized organizations and were in
managerial positions which limits
the generalizability of the study's ®ndings. Future research
37. should explore the relationships of
gender, family responsibility, ¯exible work hour systems and
organizational commitment and
job satisfaction among men and women in di�erent
organizational ranks, larger organizations,
and in di�erent occupations such as male-dominated in
comparison with female-dominated.
Implications of the study
The results of this study have practical implications for
organizations interested in implementing
family-responsive policies. Given the literature demonstrating
the outcomes associated with high
levels of organizational commitment (Mowday et al., 1979),
family-responsive policies such as
388 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
¯exible work hours may also reduce absenteeism and turnover
(Kush and Stroh, 1994). Our
results suggest that these policies may increase levels of
commitment and overall satisfaction for
both men and women, but that women may be more a�ected by
¯exible work hours as well as
individuals with child-related responsibilities and multiple
commitments. It is hoped that these
results encourage further investigations and applications of
family-responsive policies in organ-
izations, especially in light of the increasing trend of women in
the workplace and the challenge
38. facing organizations to retain talented, hard-working and
committed employees.
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Relationships of gender, family
responsibility and ¯exible work hours
to organizational commitment and
job satisfaction
TERRI A. SCANDURA
Department of Management, University of Miami, Coral Gables,
FL 33124-9145, U.S.A.
AND
MELENIE J. LANKAU
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A.
Summary Psychological contract theory (Rousseau, 1995)
47. suggests that women and those with
family responsibilities may negotiate new psychological
contracts that include family-
responsive bene®ts such as ¯exible work hours. Relationships
of gender, family
responsibility, and ¯exible work hours to organizational
commitment and job satis-
faction were examined among 160 matched male and female
managers in a cross-
organizational study. Results revealed that women who
perceived their organizations
o�ered ¯exible work hours reported higher levels of
organizational commitment and
job satisfaction than women who did not. Also, ¯exible work
hours were related to
higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction for those
having family
responsibilities. Implications of these results for future research
and organizational
policy are discussed. # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
J. Organiz. Behav. 18: 377±391 (1997)
No. of Figures: 0 No. of Tables: 3 No. of References: 65
Introduction
Organizational responses to work±family con¯ict is an
increasing priority for management
(Ornstein and Isabella, 1993). In recent years, organizations
have introduced a number of family-
responsive policies and bene®ts, in large part, due to the
increasing number of women in the
workplace (Milliken, Dutton and Beyer, 1991; Rousseau, 1995;
Schwartz, 1989). Current data
indicate that 52 percent of women with children under age 6
work today as compared with
48. 11 percent in 1960 (Lee, 1991). The increase in dual-career
families has also given rise to more
favorable attitudes of men toward `family-friendly' policies
since both partners must now be
CCC 0894±3796/97/040377±15$17.50 Received 13 June 1995
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 14 April 1996
JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, VOL. 18,
377±391 (1997)
Addressee for correspondence: Terri A. Scandura, Associate
Professor, Department of Management, 414 Jenkins
Building, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124-9145,
U.S.A., tel: (305) 284-5846 (o�ce), (305) 663-6547 (home
o�ce), e-mail: [email protected] (internet).
¯exible to meet child-care or dependent-elderly care demands
(Lee, 1991). Scharlach and Boyd
(1989) reported a sizable percentage of workers were providing
assistance to elderly family
members and that formal organizational supportive programs
were considered extremely helpful
in managing caregiving and work responsibility con¯icts.
O�ering of such programs may a�ect
work attitudes of employees, including organizational
commitment and job satisfaction. Such
policies may be related to employee loyalty to the organization
because the organization is
perceived to be a `family friendly' environment to work in.
Reasons cited by organization decision-makers for
implementing ¯exible work hours are to
improve motivation and morale and to enable employees to
49. better balance work and family
(Kush and Stroh, 1994). Ultimately this ¯exibility may relate to
improved productivity as well.
Osterman (1995) found strong support for the link between the
implementation of work±family
policies and direct e�orts on the part of employers to improve
employee commitment.
Literature Review and Research Hypotheses
Flexible work hours as a family-responsive policy
Higgins, Duxbury and Irving (1992) found that con¯ict between
work and family roles diminish
employees' perceptions of quality of work life and the quality of
family life which, in turn, can
impact organizational outcomes such as productivity,
absenteeism and turnover. They suggest
that organizations could possibly reduce work±family con¯icts
by o�ering alternative work
arrangements. This research indicated `that the structure of
work has a strong in¯uence on
family life and suggests that there should be recognition on the
part of employers that the family
consequences of work environment decisions are real and that
they need to be considered' (p. 71).
Organizational policy-makers are beginning to realize the e�ect
of the changing demographics
of their workers and are responding with the implementation of
family-oriented programs
(Galen, Palmer, Cuneo and Maremont, 1993). In a 1991 study of
188 of the largest companies in
30 industries, 100 percent of the companies reported that they
o�ered maternity leave, 88 percent
o�ered part-time work, 77 percent o�ered ¯exible work hours,
50. and 48 percent of the companies
reported that they had a job-sharing program (Galinsky,
Friedman and Hernandez, 1991). These
types of programs are designed to help employees manage their
work and family responsibilities.
Research has shown family-responsive policies to be associated
with the job-related attitudes and
personal well-being of employees (Greenberger, Goldberg,
Hamill, O'Neil and Payne, 1989;
Solomon, 1994). One of these policies is ¯exible work hours
(abbreviated to FWH and sometimes
referred to as `¯ex-time'). Under ¯exible work hour systems,
employees may choose when they
come to work and when they leave, as long as they work during
certain hours referred to as `core
hours'.
Advantages and disadvantages of ¯exible work hours have been
discussed (Christensen and
Staines, 1990; Glueck, 1979; Golembiewski and Proehl, 1978;
Kopelman, 1986; Kush and Stroh,
1994; Narayana and Nath, 1982; Pierce and Newstrom, 1983;
Rainey and Wolf, 1982). Major
advantages claimed include lowered stress, increased job
enrichment and autonomy, reduced
tardiness and absenteeism, and improved job satisfaction and
productivity. Major disadvantages
identi®ed include increased costs, problems with scheduling
and work coordination, di�culties
with supervising all employees on ¯exible work hours, and
changes in the organizational culture.
Golembiewski and Proehl's (1978) review of the literature on
¯exible work hours indicated that,
in sum, the positive bene®ts of ¯ex-time systems outweigh the
costs and that the applications
51. 378 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
generated few negative work behaviors. According to a 1993
survey of 80 top U.S. corporations
conducted by Work/Family Directions, ¯exible work hours was
the most frequently utilized
program (24 percent of employees used ¯ex-time) over
telecommuting, job sharing and part-time
schedule programs (Solomon, 1994).
Organizational commitment and job satisfaction
Organizational commitment and job satisfaction represent
possible bene®ts that may be associ-
ated with ¯exible work hours. Organizational commitment
represents an individual's identi®-
cation with the goals of the organization, how much the
individual values membership in the
organization and the degree to which they intend to work to
attain organizational goals
(Mowday, Steers and Porter, 1979). Job satisfaction is the
overall summary evaluation a person
makes regarding his/her work environment (Weiss, Dawis,
England and Lofquist, 1967). A broad
range of personal characteristics, job characteristics,
group±leader relations, organizational
characteristics and role states have been examined in the
literature as antecedents to organ-
izational commitment (cf. Mathieu and Zajac, 1990, for a meta-
analysis of antecedents, corre-
lates and consequences of organizational commitment). Job
52. satisfaction has been positively
correlated with organizational commitment (Mowday et al.,
1979) and recent research has
indicated a causal relationship between these two constructs
(Vandenberg and Lance, 1992). For
example, Williams and Hazer (1986) report that job satisfaction
is an antecedent to organiza-
tional commitment in an investigation employing structural
equation methodology.
With respect to individual and organizational outcomes,
research has shown that organiza-
tional commitment is positively related to performance (Aranya,
Kushnir and Valency, 1986)
and negatively related to turnover (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990;
Porter, Steers and Mowday, 1974)
and turnover intentions (Williams and Hazer, 1986). In addition,
organizational commitment
has been shown to be positively related to participation, power,
teamwork and professionalism
(Welsch and LaVan, 1981).
Psychological Contracts
Flexible work hours as a part of the
psychological contract
Rousseau (1995) suggests that psychological contracts (both
written and unwritten) are
pervasive in organizations. She de®nes a `psychological
contract' as a set of `. . . individual
beliefs, shaped by the organization, regarding terms of an
exchange agreement between indivi-
duals and their organization' (p. 9). Rousseau also notes that
human resource (HR) practices,
such as recruitment, performance appraisal and compensation,
53. play an important role in the
psychological contracting process between employees and
employers. Although a number of
variables have been investigated as possible aspects of
psychological contracts in organizations,
the relationship between ¯exible work hours and employee
responses (organizational commit-
ment and job satisfaction) has not been examined. Perceptions
of ¯exible work hours in the
workplace may increase employee loyalty and satisfaction due
to positive feelings associated with
working for an organization that visibly cares about the well-
being of its employees. Since
psychological contracts `. . . refer to beliefs that individuals
hold regarding promises made,
accepted, and relied upon between themselves and another'
(Rousseau andWade-Benzoni, 1994)
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 379
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
(p. 466), it is the perception of whether the person has ¯exible
work hours that drives the
psychological contracting process.
Perceptions of ¯exible work hours may result in increased
attachment to the organization and
overall satisfaction for several reasons. First, the individual
may perceive the organization's
o�ering of ¯exible work hours as representing the
organization's concern for work and family.
Employees may see this as an aspect of the psychological
54. contract since their ability to balance
multiple responsibilities is congruent with individual values
about work and family (i.e. `this
organization cares about people'). Second, ¯exible work hours
allows individuals to feel
increased control over their lives due to the opportunity to work
during times more suited to
personal needs (e.g. child-care or elderly-care obligations) or
personal biological clocks
(not everyone is most productive from 9.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.).
Third, having ¯exible work hours
available improves employees' perceptions about their employer
and increases employees'
overall positive feeling toward the employer which impacts
organizational commitment and job
satisfaction. Fourth employees often engage in social
comparison processes (Adams, 1965) and
may compare their situation to peers in other jobs and/or
organizations that do not o�er ¯exible
work programs. Such comparisons should increase the value of
the employees' psychological
contract with their organization. Crooker and Grover (1993)
noted that providing family
bene®ts to employees positively in¯uences their attachment to
work through the symbolic action
of the employer providing policies that are responsive to
employees' needs. In response to the
o�ering of ¯exible work hours, employees may reciprocate with
greater loyalty to the employer
and better morale. Based upon the idea that ¯exible work hours
represent an aspect of the
contract between employees and employers and the previous
literature, we expect the perception
of ¯exible work hours to be related to organizational
commitment (loyalty to the employer) and
job satisfaction (morale). Hence, the following hypothesis is
55. proposed.
H1: Individuals that perceive ¯exible work hours will report
higher levels of (a) organ-
izational commitment and (b) job satisfaction than individuals
who do not.
Gender and the psychological contract
There has been scant research on possible gender di�erences in
responses to psychological
contracts in organizations (Rousseau, 1995). An examination of
research on gender di�erences in
organizational commitment is not conclusive, however (Mathieu
and Zajac, 1990). Some studies
report that women are more committed than men (Angle and
Perry, 1981; Baugh, 1990; Gould,
1975; Grusky, 1966; Hrebiniak and Alutto, 1972) and others
suggest that women are less
committed than men (Aranya et al., 1986; Chusmir, 1982;
Euchs, 1971; Graddick and Farr,
1983). Still others report no gender di�erences in
organizational commitment (Fry and Grenfeld,
1980; Cromie, 1981; Stevens, Beyer and Trice, 1978; Bruning
and Snyder, 1983). One of the
criticisms of research that has previously examined gender-
related di�erences in the study of
job attitudes has been the lack of control for the e�ects of
demographic variables such as age and
level of education (Lefkowitz, 1994). In a study of a
heterogeneous group of 832 men and
women, Lefkowitz (1994) found that many gender-related
di�erences in job reaction and
dispositional variables such as job satisfaction disappear when
di�erences in perceived job
characteristics, age, tenure, education, income, and occupational
56. level were controlled. He con-
cludes that studies involving the examination of gender
di�erences should control statistically or
procedurally for the e�ects of demographic variables. We agree
with this noted limitation of
research on gender-related di�erences, and follow the
suggestion of Sekaran (1990), that
matched samples are an e�ective research design for
researching such di�erences.
380 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
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377±391 (1997)
Mathieu and Zajac (1990) suggest that gender may impact
employee's perceptions of the
workplace and their attitudinal reactions to the organization.
They also suggest that gender may
impact whether individuals become more committed to
organizations that o�er various kinds of
opportunities such as ¯exible work hours. Family-oriented
programs may be more salient to
women who must balance work and family demands and
consequently, face more work±family
con¯icts than men (Greenhaus, Parasuraman, Granrose,
Rabinowitz and Beutell, 1989). Gender
theory suggests that most women are socialized to view their
primary role as within the family
(Baugh, 1990). Also, women's experiences in the workplace
such as discrimination and sex-role
stereotyping may reinforce the relative importance of the family
role over the work role (Kanter,
1977; Terborg, 1977). Thus, women are expected to have
57. di�erent responses to work than men in
terms of organizational commitment and job satisfaction when
family-responsive policies are
o�ered.
Women may develop di�erent psychological contracts with
organizations than men. They
may be more committed and satis®ed with work when they
perceive that their organization o�ers
policies that are consonant with the family role, in comparison
to men. Flexible work hours may
enable women to better balance the con¯icting demands between
work and family roles (Frone,
Russell and Cooper, 1992). Research has indicated that women
have retained primary respons-
ibility for home and family duties, in addition to being
employed full-time (Hoschild, 1989;
Bielby and Bielby, 1988). Hence, the perception that the
organization supports them in their need
to manage both their career and their family may increase their
feelings of organizational
commitment and morale (Rousseau, 1995). As more women
have entered the workforce, the
nature of bene®ts o�ered to employees have changed. Today,
on-site day-care centers, parental
leave and ¯exible work hours are often part of the psychological
contracts o�ered to employees.
In response to such contract `packages' (Rousseau, 1995),
employees may be more satis®ed and
connected to the organization. Flexible work hour bene®ts may
be an important element in an
individual's decision to work for a particular organization. Sims
(1994) notes that human
resource personnel will have to o�er innovative employment
options to attract and retain
younger employees. Maximizing employees' sense of control
58. over their lives and their changing
needs is a goal addressed by ¯exible work hour systems.
Therefore, we expect interaction e�ects for gender and ¯exible
work hour policies with respect
to organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Women
should be more likely to report
higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction
than men when they perceive
that a family-responsive policy is present in their organization
than when it is not. We hope to ®ll
a gap in the current research on women in management by
examining the di�erential e�ects of a
family-responsive policy (i.e. ¯exible work hours) on the
organizational commitment and job
satisfaction of females and males using a matched sample
design (Sekaran, 1990). Hence, the
following hypothesis is proposed.
H2: The relationship between the perception of ¯exible work
hours and (a) organizational
commitment and (b) job satisfaction will be stronger for women
than for men.
Family responsibility and the psychological contract
Attitudes have changed regarding employees' willingness to
sacri®ce family for work (Rodgers,
1992). Today's employees often look for signals that the
organization provides for balance
between work and family (Osterman, 1995). Guzzo and Noonan
(1994) suggest that human
resource practices, such as ¯exible work hours communicate
that the organization is concerned
about employee well-being. Such practices have been
considered part of the psychological
59. FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 381
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377±391 (1997)
contract o�ered to employees. Flexible work hours may be
o�ered as part of the human resource
bene®t `package' o�ered to employees or negotiated one-on-
one with one's supervisor. In either
event, the employee may reciprocate with increased loyalty and
work performance. Also, the
perception of having ¯exible work hours may enhance the
employer±employee `bond' and
increase job satisfaction. Rousseau (1995) suggests that a recent
trend in psychological con-
tracting is increased negotiation regarding work and family
issues for both women and men. As
more women have entered the U.S. workforce creating an
increase in dual-career families, the
expectations that employers will assist or be ¯exible regarding
work±family con¯icts has also
increased. Thus, ¯exible work hours may be viewed as part of
the psychological contract for
employees that have family responsibilities.
Employees who stand to bene®t from family responsive
programs may hold more positive
attitudes toward the organization (Crooker and Grover, 1993).
Therefore, employees who have
children and are confronted with work and family demands may
prefer having a choice of
work hours associated with ¯exible work hour programs and
may feel more attached to the
60. organization for o�ering these policies. This attachment should
be re¯ected in feelings of
organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Beauvais and
Kowalski (1993) found that
`. . . the more salient one's family role, the more likely one
would engage in family-supportive
behaviors' (p. 10). Thus, having children at home represents a
level of family responsibility and
the following hypothesis is proposed.
H3: The relationship between perceptions of ¯exible work hours
and (a) organizational
commitment and (b) job satisfaction will be stronger for
individuals with family respons-
ibilities than those without.
Method
Sample and procedure
Despite investigations of antecedents of organizational
commitment using a variety of ®eld
samples (Hrebiniak, 1974; Lee, 1971; Steers, 1977; Koch and
Steers, 1976; Porter et al., 1974;
Mowday et al., 1979; Graddick and Farr, 1983; Welsch and
LaVan, 1981), research has yet to
examine organizational commitment using matched samples of
male and female managers. Yet,
the development of psychological contracts of managers is
important because of their ability to
in¯uence key decisions in the overall human resource strategy
of the organization and processes
of recruitment, hiring and promotions (Rousseau and Wade-
Benzoni, 1994). In addition,
Milliken et al. (1991) note that the attitudes of the `top
management team' (p. 101) regarding
61. work±family issues could be crucial in determining
implementation of family-responsive
policies.
To obtain a sample of women in management positions,
potential participants were obtained
from mailing lists, provided by the American List Council, of
women with job titles of general
manager, vice president or president/CEO. A random sample of
1200 potential participants were
screened for their willingness to take part in the survey and
ability to identify a male peer at their
level. Four hundred and forty-three women indicated their
willingness to participate in the study
and were mailed two copies of the survey and postage-paid
return envelopes. A total of 275
(176 from women and 99 from men) usable surveys were
returned for a response rate of
39.7 percent for the women, and the matching strategy resulted
in a ®nal sample of N � 160,
382 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
constituted by N � 80 matched pairs1. Ninety-three di�erent
organizations were represented in
the sample (67 women identi®ed peers in the same organization
and 13 identi®ed peers in
di�erent organizations).
While the initial female executive sample was randomly drawn,
it is still possible that some
62. di�erences existed between respondents and non-respondents.
To address the issue of possible
non-response bias, a preliminary step in the data collection
process included a postage-paid
business reply postcard which asked the female respondents to
designate whether or not they
wanted to participate in the study. Information regarding the
number of levels between the female
respondent's job and the top level of the organization, the
number of persons they supervise, and
the type of organization (government, service, manufacturing,
small business or other) was
collected via the postcard. Non-response bias was evaluated by
comparing the postcard responses
of those who completed the survey (N � 176) with those who
indicated they did not wish to
participate (N � 534). No statistically signi®cant di�erences
were found between these two
groups for the number of levels between their position and the
top level in the organization
(t value � 1:64; p � 0:102), the number of persons they
supervised (t value � 1:12; p � 0:228), or
type of organization (�2� 7:17; p � 0:127). In addition, the
geographic location of the employing
organization (South, Northeast, Midwest and West) was
examined for respondents and non-
respondents and no signi®cant di�erences were found (�2�
3:15; p � 0:370).
A demographic pro®le of respondents is shown in Table 1. The
majority of respondents were
married, employed full time, and Caucasian; approximately 74
percent of the women and
87 percent of the men had at least a bachelor's degree; and 80.7
percent of the women and
87.5 percent of the men were employed by small- or medium-
63. sized organizations (500 employees
or less). Since the literature has demonstrated various personal
characteristics to be related to
organizational commitment and di�erences between males and
females to confound studies of
gender di�erences in reactions to work (Mathieu and Zajac,
1990; Lefkowitz, 1994), analyses
were conducted on all demographic variables to determine
whether the matched sample
procedure was e�ective in procedurally controlling for
di�erences in the personal characteristics
of respondents. t-tests, chi-square tests, and Del tests (Drazin
and Kazanjian, 1993) indicated no
signi®cant gender di�erences for age, ethnicity, education,
years of experience, salary, size of
budget, number of persons supervised, weekly hours of work,
size of employer or type of
industry, supporting the e�ectiveness of the matching strategy.
The only di�erences in the sample
were that women were more likely to be single than men (Del �
0:16; p < 0:05) and more males
reported having children under 18 living at home than women
(Del � 0:2; p < 0:05). For this
analysis, the Del technique was used in conjunction with the
chi-square test (cf. Drazin and
Kazanjian, 1993), because we hypothesized that men would be
more likely to have children than
women, given results of previous research utilizing dependent
children as a variable in the
examination of careers of men and women (Lobel and St. Clair,
1992).
Measures2
Organizational commitment
Mowday et al.'s (1979) 15-item Organizational Commitment
64. Questionnaire (OCQ) was used and
respondents indicated their level of agreement with these items
using a 5-point scale ranging from
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 383
1 Response rates among executives typically are under 25
percent (cf. Hall, 1992; Powell, 1992).
2 Data on ¯exible work hours and organizational commitment
were collected as part of a larger survey on careers of
women in management.
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
1 � strongly disagree to 5 � strongly agree. Representative
items in this measure included `For
me, this is the best of all possible organizations for which to
work' and `I ®nd that my values and
the organization's values are very similar'. The coe�cient alpha
reliability computed for the
OCQ in this sample was 0.90.
Job satisfaction
Overall Job Satisfaction was measured using the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
(Weiss et al., 1967). Respondents indicated their satisfaction
with 20 aspects of their jobs using a
5-point scale ranging from 1 � very dissatis®ed to 5 � very
satis®ed. Representative items in this
measure included `Being able to keep busy at all times' and `My
pay and the amount of work I
do'. The coe�cient alpha reliability computed for the MSQ in
this sample was 0.90.
65. 384 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
Table 1. Demographic characteristics: female and male
managers
Characteristic Female Male Characteristic Female Male
(N � 80) (N � 80) (N � 80) (N � 80)
Age (years)
Mean 44.2 42.5
Standard deviation 10.3 10.3
Ethnicity (%)
White 95.0 97.5
Afro-American 0.6 1.2
Hispanic 1.7 0.0
All other 2.7 1.2
Education (%)
Bachelor 43.2 55.0
Post-Bachelor 16.9 15.0
Masters 12.5 15.0
Doctorate 1.7 2.5
Marital status (%)*
Single 9.7 6.3
Married 77.2 85.0
Divorced 7.4 8.7
Widowed 3.2 0.0
Children under 18 (%){ 43.8 63.8
Employment status (%)
Full time 95.5 96.2
Part time 4.0 2.5
66. Years of respondent experience in current type of
work (years)
Mean 12.7 13.1
Standard deviation 9.1 10.8
Respondent's current salary ($)
Mean 61000 60200
Standard deviation 51590 39000
Size of budget over which respondent exercises
authority ($)
Mean 2554000 2931000
Standard deviation 3361000 3712000
Number of months since respondent's last promo-
tion (%)
1±12 42.0 36.2
12±24 13.6 20.0
24±36 15.3 15.0
More than 36 12.6 20.5
Number of persons directly reporting to respondent
Mean 36.8 42.4
Standard deviation 98.2 46.6
Weekly hours of work
Mean 47.5 50.3
Standard deviation 10.0 11.1
Size of respondent's current employer (%)
(number of employees)
1±10 44.3 53.7
11±50 30.1 27.0
51±100 4.0 4.1
101±500 2.3 2.7
67. Over 500 12.5 8.1
Industry of respondent's current employer (%)
Service 46.3 53.9
Manufacturing 26.3 25.0
Government 5.0 2.0
Retailing 2.5 2.5
Small business 13.8 7.5
t-tests and chi-square tests indicated no signi®cant di�erences
between female and male respondents (excluding children
under 18 variable and marital status variable).
*�2 � 8:51; p4 0:05; Del � 0:16; p4 0:05.
{�2� 6:44; p4 0:05; Del � 0:2; p4 0:05.
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
Gender, family responsibility,
and ¯exible work hours
Respondents were asked to indicate whether they were male or
female and whether they had
children under 18 living with them at home (age 18 was chosen
since parents still have respon-
sibilities and obligations for high school age children). To
assess the status of the organization's
family-responsive policies, survey respondents indicated
whether their organization o�ered a
¯exible work hours program. Respondents were asked to circle
yes or no if they perceived that
the organization o�ered ¯exible hours3. These variables were
dummy-coded as no � 0 and
yes � 1.
68. Analyses
To test hypotheses H1(a,b), H2(a,b) and H3(a,b), a 26262
multivariate analyses of variance
(MANOVA) procedure was performed for the dependent
variables, organizational commitment
and job satisfaction: gender (male/female) by family
responsibility (no/yes) by perception of
¯exible work hours in organization (no/yes).
Results
Results from the MANOVA revealed a signi®cant multivariate
e�ect for the perceptions of
¯exible work hours (Wilks' lambda � 0:956, F�2; 151� �
3:44; p � 0:035). Results for the uni-
variate F-tests (shown in Table 2)4 indicated signi®cant e�ects
for both organizational commit-
ment and job satisfaction. Hypotheses 1a and 1b were supported
(F � 5:48 and F � 6:07
respectively) for the main e�ect of perception of ¯exible work
hours in the organization.
Individuals who perceived their organizations o�ered a ¯exible
work hours program (N � 86)
reported a signi®cantly higher level of organizational
commitment (mean � 60:33) than individ-
uals who perceived that their organizations did not o�er such a
policy (N � 74; mean � 55:58).
Also, those who perceived that they had ¯exible work hours
were more satis®ed (mean � 82:63)
than those who did not (mean � 77:38).
The MANOVA showed a signi®cant interaction e�ect for
gender and ¯exible work hours
(Wilks lambda � 0:956; F�2; 151� � 3:46; p � 0:034).
Univariate F-tests (shown in Table 2)
69. revealed signi®cant e�ects for both organizational commitment
(F � 5:57) and job satisfaction
(F � 6:07). Thus, hypotheses 2a and 2b were supported. A
summary of means is shown in
Table 3. Planned comparison tests of the signi®cance of these
mean di�erences indicated that
female managers who perceived that their organizations o�ered
¯exible work hours
(mean � 62:49) reported signi®cantly higher levels of
commitment than females who did not
FLEXIBLE WORK HOURS 385
3 Information was collected on other family-responsive policies
as part of this investigation. Day-care programs
(community-based, on-site and vouchers) were not signi®cantly
related to organizational commitment nor job satisfac-
tion (however, only 13 per cent of respondents reported that
they perceived having these). Part-time jobs and paternal
leave had signi®cant main e�ects on organizational
commitment and job satisfaction. Dependent care had a
signi®cant
main e�ect on job satisfaction. No interaction e�ects for
gender or family responsibility were found.
4 Additional analyses were also conducted: (a) with marital
status as a covariate since respondents di�ered in this
demographic variable; the results indicated that marital status
was not a signi®cant covariate and ANCOVA was not
necessary; (b) with salary as a covariate, results indicated that
salary was not signi®cant as a covariate; and (c) a three-
way ANOVA examining age, family responsibility and ¯exible
work hours system, since younger persons may have
younger children, and thus more responsibility. The three-way
interaction was not signi®cant.
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
70. 377±391 (1997)
perceive the availability of ¯exible work hours in their
organizations (mean � 54:60). Males
reported similar levels of organizational commitment regardless
of whether they perceived
¯exible work hours to exist or not in their organizations (means
� 58:69 and 56:94, respectively).
A signi®cant planned comparison among the means was also
found for job satisfaction. Females
who perceived ¯exible work hours in their organization reported
higher levels of job satisfaction
(mean � 85:00) when compared to women who did not perceive
¯exible work hours to exist in
their organizations (mean � 76:14). Again, males that perceived
¯exible work hours reported
similar levels of job satisfaction (means � 80:84) as males who
believed their organizations did
not o�er a policy (mean � 79:10).
Results of the MANOVA also indicated a signi®cant
multivariate e�ect for the inter-
action term of family responsibility and ¯exible working hours
(Wilks' lambda � 0:947;
F�2; 151� � 4:20; p � 0:017). The univariate F-tests were
signi®cant for both dependent variables
(F � 5:70 for organizational commitment and F � 8:04 for job
satisfaction) providing support
for hypotheses 3a and 3b. Planned comparisons of the means
(shown in Table 3) revealed that
respondents with family responsibility (children under 18 living
at home) who perceived their
organizations had a ¯exible work hours policy reported higher
levels of organizational
71. commitment and job satisfaction than those individuals with
family responsibility who perceived
no availability of ¯exible work hours. Those individuals without
family responsibility reported
similar levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction
regardless of whether they
perceived ¯exible work hours to be present or not in their
organizations.
386 T. A. SCANDURA AND M. J. LANKAU
Table 2. Summary of univariate analysis of variance: gender by
family responsibility by ¯exible work hours
Source Organizational Job
commitment satisfaction
F F
Gender 0.15 0.10
Family responsibility 0.89 1.80
Flexible work hours 5.48* 6.07*
Gender by family responsibility 1.48 2.17
Gender by ¯exible work hours 5.57* 6.07*
Family responsibility by ¯exible work hours 5.70* 8.04*
Gender by family responsibility by ¯exible work hours 2.78
0.60
* p < 0:05.
Table 3. Summary of means
Flexible work hours Respondent gender Family responsibility
Male Female No Yes
Organizational commitment
72. No 56.94 54.60 58.28 53.52
N � 31 N � 43 N � 32 N � 42
Yes 58.69 62.49 59.45 61.16
N � 49 N � 37 N � 42 N � 44
Job satisfaction
No 79.10 76.14 81.34 74.36
N � 31 N � 43 N � 32 N � 42
Yes 80.84 85.00 81.71 83.50
N � 49 N � 37 N � 42 N � 44
# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 18:
377±391 (1997)
Discussion
Results of this study of ¯exible work hours and employee
attitudes among women and men
indicate that family-responsive policies o�ered by employers
may a�ect work-related attitudes of
employees. Speci®cally, the existence of ¯exible work hour
programs was shown to be
signi®cantly related to organizational commitment and job
satisfaction of female managers.
Female managers reported higher levels of organizational
commitment and job satisfaction if
they were working for an organization that they believed
included ¯exible work hours in their
psychological contract. The o�ering of such family-responsive
policies may represent an organ-
73. izational culture which is supportive of families and shows
sensitivity to career±family demands.
Our results are in agreement with those of Beauvais and
Kowalski (1993) who found that
individuals who perceived their organizational culture to be
supportive of employees' involve-
ment in the family domain experienced lower levels of
work±family con¯ict. Thus, organizations
may be able to play a more active role in reducing work±family
con¯ict and improving employee
attitudes by creating a family-friendly environment. Further
research on the e�ects of family-
responsive policies and organizational culture appears to be a
fruitful area for future research.
It is also noteworthy that the perceptions of existence of the
policy was signi®cantly associated
with higher organizational commitment, regardless of whether
or not the employee had actually
utilized the program. Approximately 60 percent of employees
who reported that ¯exible work
hour systems existed in their employing organizations actually
reported utilizing the program.
Additional analyses examining organizational commitment and
job satisfaction between those
who used the program and those who had not showed no
signi®cant di�erences5. Perhaps the
perception of the presence of the program in the company, not
the actual impact on the individual,
may be a critical factor in that the presence of a ¯exible work
hours policy suggests that the
organization is willing to adapt to employee needs.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that
employees may be reluctant to use the policy when o�ered, due
to the perception that use of FWH
would be perceived by others in their organization as lack of