General features and structure of fungi.pptx
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MICROBIAL GENETICS AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB COURSE .pdf
I'm delighted to share the PDFs of lab courses in Microbial Physiology and Microbial Genetics. These comprehensive resources cover essential topics in understanding the intricate workings of microbes at a physiological and genetic level. these PDFs provide a detailed roadmap for our laboratory explorations.
microbial physiology notes (microbio).pdf
Microbial physiology is the study of the structure, growth factors, metabolic activities, nutritional requirements, and genetic composition of microorganismsThe microbial cells are extremely complex and in addition to oxygen and hydrogen they contain four other major elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. here are the notes on microbial physiology..Photosynthetic pigments are the molecules responsible for absorbing electromagnetic radiation, transferring the energy of the absorbed photons to the reaction center, and for photochemical conversion in the photosynthetic systems of organisms capable of photosynthesis.
practical protocol.pdf
it is a practical protocol. it is most commonly a predefined procedural method in the design and implementation of an experiment.
PROBABILITY4.pptx
Probability is the branch of mathematics concerning events and numerical descriptions of how likely they are to occur. The probability of an event is a number between 0 and 1; the larger the probability, the more likely an event is to occur.[note 1][1][2] The higher the probability of an event, the more likely it is that the event will occur. A simple example is the tossing of a fair (unbiased) coin. Since the coin is fair, the two outcomes ('heads' and 'tails') are both equally probable; the probability of 'heads' equals the probability of 'tails'; and since no other outcomes are possible, the probability of either 'heads' or 'tails' is 1/2 (which could also be written as 0.5 or 50%).
These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical formalization in probability theory, which is used widely in areas of study such as statistics, mathematics, science, finance, gambling, artificial intelligence, machine learning, computer science, game theory, and philosophy to, for example, draw inferences about the expected frequency of events. Probability theory is also used to describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems.
classification of plasmid and its typed.docx
Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA molecules. They are small, circular and have the ability to replicate autonomously. Replication of plasmid is not under the control of chromosomal DNA. They are mostly found in bacteria. Some of the eukaryotes like yeast and plants also contain plasmids.
Download Complete Chapter Notes of Biotechnology: Principles and Processes
Their ability to replicate independently makes plasmid a cloning vector in the recombinant DNA technology for transferring and manipulating genes.
Many antibiotic-resistant genes in bacteria are present in plasmids.
The size of plasmid varies from a few base pairs to thousands of bp.
Plasmids also get transferred from one bacterial cell to another by the process of conjugation.
Plasmids carrying a specific gene are introduced into bacterial cells, which multiply rapidly and the required DNA fragment is produced in larger quantities.
Plasmids are used to prepare recombinant DNA with the desired gene to transfer genes from one organism to another. This is known as genetic engineering.
Joshua Lederberg coined the term plasmid.
Document mutation.docx
mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes genetic material, usually DNA, in an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level. As many mutations can cause cancer in animals, such mutagens can therefore be carcinogens, although not all necessarily are. All mutagens have characteristic mutational signatures with some chemicals becoming mutagenic through cellular processes.
The process of DNA becoming modified is called mutagenesis. Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: so-called "spontaneous mutations" occur due to spontaneous hydrolysis, errors in DNA replication, repair and recombination.
Discovery
The first mutagens to be identified were carcinogens, substances that were shown to be linked to cancer. Tumors were described more than 2,000 years before the discovery of chromosomes and DNA; in 500 B.C., the Greek physician Hippocrates named tumors resembling a crab karkinos (from which the word "cancer" is derived via Latin), meaning crab.[1] In 1567, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested that an unidentified substance in mined ore (identified as radon gas in modern times) caused a wasting disease in miners,[2] and in England, in 1761, John Hill made the first direct link of cancer to chemical substances by noting that excessive use of snuff may cause nasal cancer.[3] In 1775, Sir Percivall Pott wrote a paper on the high incidence of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps, and suggested chimney soot as the cause of scrotal cancer.[4] In 1915, Yamagawa and Ichikawa showed that repeated application of coal tar to rabbit's ears produced malignant cancer.[5] Subsequently, in the 1930s the carcinogen component in coal tar was identified as a polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), benzo[a]pyrene.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also present in soot, which was suggested to be a causative agent of cancer over 150 years earlier.
GMO.pdf
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination".[1] A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), including animals, plants, and microorganisms.
Genetic modification can include the introduction of new genes or enhancing, altering, or knocking out endogenous genes. In some genetic modifications, genes are transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms.
Creating a genetically modified organism is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker. A number of techniques are available for inserting the isolated gene into the host genome. Recent advancements using genome editing techniques, notably CRISPR, have made the production of GMOs much simpler. Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin. The first genetically modified animal, a mouse, was created in 1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch, and the first plant was produced in 1983. In 1994, the Flavr Savr tomato was released, the first commercialized genetically modified food. The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.
nitrogen fixing mo.pptx
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, microorganisms capable of transforming atmospheric nitrogen into fixed nitrogen (inorganic compounds usable by plants). More than 90 percent of all nitrogen fixation is effected by these organisms, which thus play an important role in the nitrogen cycle.
Two kinds of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are recognized. The first kind, the free-living (nonsymbiotic) bacteria, includes the cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) Anabaena and Nostoc and genera such as Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, and Clostridium. The second kind comprises the mutualistic (symbiotic) bacteria; examples include Rhizobium, associated with leguminous plants (e.g., various members of the pea family); Frankia, associated with certain dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal plants); and certain Azospirillum species, associated with cereal grasses.
The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of host plants, where they multiply and stimulate formation of root nodules, enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in intimate association. Within the nodules the bacteria convert free nitrogen to ammonia, which the host plant utilizes for its development. To ensure sufficient nodule formation and optimum growth of legumes (e.g., alfalfa, beans, clovers, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated with commercial cultures of appropriate Rhizobium species, especially in soils poor or lacking in the required bacterium.
Recommended
MICROBIAL GENETICS AND PHYSIOLOGY LAB COURSE .pdf
I'm delighted to share the PDFs of lab courses in Microbial Physiology and Microbial Genetics. These comprehensive resources cover essential topics in understanding the intricate workings of microbes at a physiological and genetic level. these PDFs provide a detailed roadmap for our laboratory explorations.
microbial physiology notes (microbio).pdf
Microbial physiology is the study of the structure, growth factors, metabolic activities, nutritional requirements, and genetic composition of microorganismsThe microbial cells are extremely complex and in addition to oxygen and hydrogen they contain four other major elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. here are the notes on microbial physiology..Photosynthetic pigments are the molecules responsible for absorbing electromagnetic radiation, transferring the energy of the absorbed photons to the reaction center, and for photochemical conversion in the photosynthetic systems of organisms capable of photosynthesis.
practical protocol.pdf
it is a practical protocol. it is most commonly a predefined procedural method in the design and implementation of an experiment.
PROBABILITY4.pptx
Probability is the branch of mathematics concerning events and numerical descriptions of how likely they are to occur. The probability of an event is a number between 0 and 1; the larger the probability, the more likely an event is to occur.[note 1][1][2] The higher the probability of an event, the more likely it is that the event will occur. A simple example is the tossing of a fair (unbiased) coin. Since the coin is fair, the two outcomes ('heads' and 'tails') are both equally probable; the probability of 'heads' equals the probability of 'tails'; and since no other outcomes are possible, the probability of either 'heads' or 'tails' is 1/2 (which could also be written as 0.5 or 50%).
These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical formalization in probability theory, which is used widely in areas of study such as statistics, mathematics, science, finance, gambling, artificial intelligence, machine learning, computer science, game theory, and philosophy to, for example, draw inferences about the expected frequency of events. Probability theory is also used to describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems.
classification of plasmid and its typed.docx
Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA molecules. They are small, circular and have the ability to replicate autonomously. Replication of plasmid is not under the control of chromosomal DNA. They are mostly found in bacteria. Some of the eukaryotes like yeast and plants also contain plasmids.
Download Complete Chapter Notes of Biotechnology: Principles and Processes
Their ability to replicate independently makes plasmid a cloning vector in the recombinant DNA technology for transferring and manipulating genes.
Many antibiotic-resistant genes in bacteria are present in plasmids.
The size of plasmid varies from a few base pairs to thousands of bp.
Plasmids also get transferred from one bacterial cell to another by the process of conjugation.
Plasmids carrying a specific gene are introduced into bacterial cells, which multiply rapidly and the required DNA fragment is produced in larger quantities.
Plasmids are used to prepare recombinant DNA with the desired gene to transfer genes from one organism to another. This is known as genetic engineering.
Joshua Lederberg coined the term plasmid.
Document mutation.docx
mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes genetic material, usually DNA, in an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level. As many mutations can cause cancer in animals, such mutagens can therefore be carcinogens, although not all necessarily are. All mutagens have characteristic mutational signatures with some chemicals becoming mutagenic through cellular processes.
The process of DNA becoming modified is called mutagenesis. Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: so-called "spontaneous mutations" occur due to spontaneous hydrolysis, errors in DNA replication, repair and recombination.
Discovery
The first mutagens to be identified were carcinogens, substances that were shown to be linked to cancer. Tumors were described more than 2,000 years before the discovery of chromosomes and DNA; in 500 B.C., the Greek physician Hippocrates named tumors resembling a crab karkinos (from which the word "cancer" is derived via Latin), meaning crab.[1] In 1567, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested that an unidentified substance in mined ore (identified as radon gas in modern times) caused a wasting disease in miners,[2] and in England, in 1761, John Hill made the first direct link of cancer to chemical substances by noting that excessive use of snuff may cause nasal cancer.[3] In 1775, Sir Percivall Pott wrote a paper on the high incidence of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps, and suggested chimney soot as the cause of scrotal cancer.[4] In 1915, Yamagawa and Ichikawa showed that repeated application of coal tar to rabbit's ears produced malignant cancer.[5] Subsequently, in the 1930s the carcinogen component in coal tar was identified as a polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), benzo[a]pyrene.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also present in soot, which was suggested to be a causative agent of cancer over 150 years earlier.
GMO.pdf
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination".[1] A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), including animals, plants, and microorganisms.
Genetic modification can include the introduction of new genes or enhancing, altering, or knocking out endogenous genes. In some genetic modifications, genes are transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms.
Creating a genetically modified organism is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker. A number of techniques are available for inserting the isolated gene into the host genome. Recent advancements using genome editing techniques, notably CRISPR, have made the production of GMOs much simpler. Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin. The first genetically modified animal, a mouse, was created in 1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch, and the first plant was produced in 1983. In 1994, the Flavr Savr tomato was released, the first commercialized genetically modified food. The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.
nitrogen fixing mo.pptx
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, microorganisms capable of transforming atmospheric nitrogen into fixed nitrogen (inorganic compounds usable by plants). More than 90 percent of all nitrogen fixation is effected by these organisms, which thus play an important role in the nitrogen cycle.
Two kinds of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are recognized. The first kind, the free-living (nonsymbiotic) bacteria, includes the cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae) Anabaena and Nostoc and genera such as Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, and Clostridium. The second kind comprises the mutualistic (symbiotic) bacteria; examples include Rhizobium, associated with leguminous plants (e.g., various members of the pea family); Frankia, associated with certain dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal plants); and certain Azospirillum species, associated with cereal grasses.
The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of host plants, where they multiply and stimulate formation of root nodules, enlargements of plant cells and bacteria in intimate association. Within the nodules the bacteria convert free nitrogen to ammonia, which the host plant utilizes for its development. To ensure sufficient nodule formation and optimum growth of legumes (e.g., alfalfa, beans, clovers, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated with commercial cultures of appropriate Rhizobium species, especially in soils poor or lacking in the required bacterium.
unit 2 environment-1.pdf
Ecosystems can be as large as a desert or as small as a puddle.
They contain biotic
or living parts, as well as abiotic factors
, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms.
Nonliving materials include water, rocks, soil, and sand.
Ecosystems are a chain of interactions between organisms and their environment.
Each organism has a "job" to do in the ecosystem. For example, plants have chloroplasts that enable them to harvest light energy. Then, they take carbon dioxide and water from their environment to convert them into sugar.
Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation
, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species
and invasive species
.
An ecosystem includes all the living things (plants, animals and organisms) in a given area, interacting with each other, and with their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate, atmosphere). In an ecosystem, each organism has its own niche or role to play.
Amino acid - L-lysine.pptx
L-Lysine is an essential amino acid that's produced by fermentation. The fermentation process uses selected strains of microorganisms that grow in a solution of glucose or molasses, ammonium compounds, inorganic salts, and other substances.
Industrial lysine fermentation is usually performed using large-scale tank fermenters. In production plants, lysine accumulates to a final titer of 170 g/L after 45 hours.
Lysine and other amino acids are commonly produced by fermentation using strains of heterotrophic bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Corynebacterium glutamicum. C. glutamicum has been engineered to produce lysine with a yield of 0.31 g lysine/g sugar.
Lysine is involved in the production of hormones and energy. It's also important for calcium and immune function.
Amino acid synthesis-1.pptx
Amino acids are small molecules that are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins serve as structural support inside the cell and they perform many vital chemical reactions. Each protein is a molecule made up of different combinations of 20 types of smaller, simpler amino acids.The pathways of amino acid synthesis comprise a significant fraction of a bacterium's metabolic activity during its growth in a minimal medium. Two amino acids, glutamine and glutamate, are the immediate products of ammonia assimilation and essential nitrogen donors for the synthesis of other intermediates.
nutritional types.pptx
Nutrition is substances used in biosynthesis and energy production and therefore are required for all living things.
Bacteria, like all living cells, require energy and nutrients to build proteins and structural membranes and drive biochemical processes.
Bacteria require sources of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and a large number of other molecules.
Carbon, nitrogen, and water are used in the highest quantities.
The nutritional requirements for bacteria can be grouped according to the carbon source and the energy source.
Some types of bacteria must consume pre-formed organic molecules to obtain energy, while other bacteria can generate their own energy from inorganic sources.
Loculoascomycetes^.^.pptx
Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species.The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus" (from Ancient Greek ἀσκός (askós) 'sac, wineskin'), a microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores, are formed. However, some species of the Ascomycota are asexual, meaning that they do not have a sexual cycle and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewers' and bakers' yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens (loosely termed "ascolichens") such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota.
Ascomycota is a monophyletic group (it contains all descendants of one common ancestor). Previously placed in the Deuteromycota along with asexual species from other fungal taxa, asexual (or anamorphic) ascomycetes are now identified and classified based on morphological or physiological similarities to ascus-bearing taxa, and by phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences.
fungi.pptx
A fungus or funguses is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from the other eukaryotic kingdoms, which, by one traditional classification, includes Plantae, Animalia, Protozoa, and Chromista.
A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on
Economic importance of Basidiomycotina.pptx
Basidiomycetes
Also known as club fungi.
The reproductive structure is basidium.
Spores that are produced are called basidiospores.
The vegetative structure is made up of primary or secondary mycelium.
Vegetative reproduction is done by fragmentation.
Sexual reproduction is done by the two vegetative or somatic cells creating a basidium.
Basidiospores are produced in the basidium by the development of fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
Examples – Agaricus (found in mushrooms), Puccinia.
Basidiomycetes include these groups: mushrooms, puffballs, jelly fungi, boletes, chanterelles, earth stars, smuts, rusts, mirror yeasts, and Cryptococcus, the human pathogenic yeast.
lipids.pptx
Lipid metabolism is the synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells, involving the breakdown and storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of structural and functional lipids, such as those involved in the construction of cell membranes. In animals, these fats are obtained from food and are synthesized by the liver. Lipogenesis is the process of synthesizing these fats. The majority of lipids found in the human body from ingesting food are triglycerides and cholesterol.[4] Other types of lipids found in the body are fatty acids and membrane lipids. Lipid metabolism is often considered as the digestion and absorption process of dietary fat; however, there are two sources of fats that organisms can use to obtain energy: from consumed dietary fats and from stored fat.[5] Vertebrates (including humans) use both sources of fat to produce energy for organs such as the heart to function. Since lipids are hydrophobic molecules, they need to be solubilized before their metabolism can begin. Lipid metabolism often begins with hydrolysis, which occurs with the help of various enzymes in the digestive system.Lipid metabolism also occurs in plants, though the processes differ in some ways when compared to animals.[8] The second step after the hydrolysis is the absorption of the fatty acids into the epithelial cells of the intestinal wall.[6] In the epithelial cells, fatty acids are packaged and transported to the rest of the body.[9]
Metabolic processes include lipid digestion, lipid absorption, lipid transportation, lipid storage, lipid catabolism, and lipid biosynthesis. Lipid catabolism is accomplished by a process known as beta oxidation which takes place in the mitochondria and peroxisome cell organelles.
polymerase
A DNA polymerase is a member of a family of enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of DNA molecules from nucleoside triphosphates, the molecular precursors of DNA. These enzymes are essential for DNA replication and usually work in groups to create two identical DNA duplexes from a single original DNA duplex. During this process, DNA polymerase "reads" the existing DNA strands to create two new strands that match the existing ones.[1][2][3][4][5][6] These enzymes catalyze the chemical reaction
deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn ⇌ pyrophosphate + DNAn+1.
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the three prime (3')-end of a DNA strand, one nucleotide at a time. Every time a cell divides, DNA polymerases are required to duplicate the cell's DNA, so that a copy of the original DNA molecule can be passed to each daughter cell. In this way, genetic information is passed down from generation to generation.
Before replication can take place, an enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA molecule from its tightly woven form, in the process breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide bases. This opens up or "unzips" the double-stranded DNA to give two single strands of DNA that can be used as templates for replication in the above reaction.
nmr spectrscopy.pptx
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy or magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), is a spectroscopic technique to observe local magnetic fields around atomic nuclei. This spectroscopy is based on the measurement of absorption of electromagnetic radiations in the radio frequency region from roughly 4 to 900 MHz. Absorption of radio waves in the presence of magnetic field is accompanied by a special type of nuclear transition, and for this reason, such type of spectroscopy is known as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy.[1] The sample is placed in a magnetic field and the NMR signal is produced by excitation of the nuclei sample with radio waves into nuclear magnetic resonance, which is detected with sensitive radio receivers. The intramolecular magnetic field around an atom in a molecule changes the resonance frequency, thus giving access to details of the electronic structure of a molecule and its individual functional groups. As the fields are unique or highly characteristic to individual compounds, in modern organic chemistry practice, NMR spectroscopy is the definitive method to identify monomolecular organic compounds.
The principle of NMR usually involves three sequential steps:
The alignment (polarization) of the magnetic nuclear spins in an applied, constant magnetic field B0.
The perturbation of this alignment of the nuclear spins by a weak oscillating magnetic field, usually referred to as a radio-frequency (RF) pulse.
Detection and analysis of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the nuclei of the sample as a result of this perturbation.
Similarly, biochemists use NMR to identify proteins and other complex molecules. Besides identification, NMR spectroscopy provides detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. The most common types of NMR are proton and carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy, but it is applicable to any kind of sample that contains nuclei possessing spin.
NMR spectra are unique, well-resolved, analytically tractable and often highly predictable for small molecules. Different functional groups are obviously distinguishable, and identical functional groups with differing neighboring substituents still give distinguishable signals. NMR has largely replaced traditional wet chemistry tests such as color reagents or typical chromatography for identification. A disadvantage is that a relatively large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required, although it may be recovered through a workup. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated magic angle spinning machine and may not give equally well-resolved spectra. The timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum. Although large amounts of impurities do show on an NMR spectrum, better methods exist for detecting impurities.
Lyophilizationn.pdf
Lyophilization or freeze drying is a process in which water is removed from a product after it is frozen and placed under a vacuum, allowing the ice to change directly from solid to vapor without passing through a liquid phase. The process consists of three separate, unique, and interdependent processes; freezing, primary drying (sublimation), and secondary drying (desorption).
The advantages of lyophilization include:
Ease of processing a liquid, which simplifies aseptic handling
Enhanced stability of a dry powder
Removal of water without excessive heating of the product
Enhanced product stability in a dry state
Rapid and easy dissolution of reconstituted product
Disadvantages of lyophilization include:
Increased handling and processing time
Need for sterile diluent upon reconstitution
Cost and complexity of equipment
The lyophilization process generally includes the following steps:
Dissolving the drug and excipients in a suitable solvent, generally water for injection (WFI).
Sterilizing the bulk solution by passing it through a 0.22 micron bacteria-retentive filter.
Filling into individual sterile containers and partially stoppering the containers under aseptic conditions.
Transporting the partially stoppered containers to the lyophilizer and loading into the chamber under aseptic conditions.
Freezing the solution by placing the partially stoppered containers on cooled shelves in a freeze-drying chamber or pre-freezing in another chamber.
Applying a vacuum to the chamber and heating the shelves in order to evaporate the water from the frozen state.
Complete stoppering of the vials usually by hydraulic or screw rod stoppering mechanisms installed in the lyophilizers.
There are many new parenteral products, including anti-infectives, biotechnology derived products, and in-vitro diagnostics which are manufactured as lyophilized products. Additionally, inspections have disclosed potency, sterility and stability problems associated with the manufacture and control of lyophilized products. In order to provide guidance and information to investigators, some industry procedures and deficiencies associated with lyophilized products are identified in this Inspection Guide.
It is recognized that there is complex technology associated with the manufacture and control of a lyophilized pharmaceutical dosage form. Some of the important aspects of these operations include: the formulation of solutions; filling of vials and validation of the filling operation; sterilization and engineering aspects of the lyophilizer; scale-up and validation of the lyophilization cycle; and testing of the end product. This discussion will address some of the problems associated with the manufacture and control of a lyophilized dosage form.
PAPER ELECTROPHORESIS.pptx
Electrophoresis is a scientific laboratory technique that is used to separate DNA, RNA, or protein molecules based on their size and electrical charge. An electric current is passed through the molecules to move them so that they can be separated via a gel. The pores present in the gel work like a sieve, allowing smaller molecules to pass through more quickly and easily than the larger molecules. According to the way conditions are adjusted during electrophoresis, the molecules can be separated in the desired size range.
What is electrophoresis and what are its uses?
Electrophoresis is a very broadly used technique that, fundamentally, applies electric current to biological molecules – they’re usually DNA, but they can be protein or RNA, too – and separates these fragments into pieces that are larger or smaller in size.
The phenomenon of electrophoresis was first observed by Russian professors Peter Ivanovich Strakhov and Ferdinand Frederic Reuss in 1807 at Moscow University. A constant application of electric field caused the particles of clay dispersed in water to migrate, showing an electrokinetic phenomenon.
Electrophoresis can be defined as an electrokinetic process that separates charged particles in a fluid using an electrical field of charge. Electrophoresis of cations or positively charged ions is sometimes referred to as cataphoresis (or cataphoretic electrophoresis). In contrast, sometimes, the electrophoresis of anions or negatively charged ions is referred to as anaphoresis (or anaphoric electrophoresis).
It’s used in a variety of applications. Though it is most often used in life sciences to separate protein molecules or DNA, it can be achieved through several different techniques and methods depending upon the type and size of the molecules.
The methods differ in some ways, but all we need is a source for the electrical charge, a support medium and a buffer solution. Electrophoresis is also used in laboratories for the separation of molecules based on their size, density and purity.
The method used to separate macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, or protein molecules is known as gel electrophoresis.
It is used in forensics for –
Nucleic acid molecule sizing
DNA fragmentation for southern blotting
RNA fragmentation for northern blotting
Protein fragmentation for western blotting
Separation of PCR products analysis
Detection and analysis of variations or mutations in the sequence
Its clinical applications involve –
Serum protein electrophoresis
Lipoprotein analysis
Diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies and hemoglobin A1c.
The fundamental principle of electrophoresis is the existence of charge separation between the surface of a particle and the fluid immediately surrounding it. An applied electric field acts on the resulting charge density, causing the particle to migrate and the fluid around the particle to flow.
It is the process of separation or purification of protein molecules, DNA, or RNA that differ in charge, size.
NITROGEN ASSIMILATION
Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrate (NO3−) and ammonium (NH4+). In aerobic soils where nitrification can occur, nitrate is usually the predominant form of available nitrogen that is absorbed. However this is not always the case as ammonia can predominate in grasslands and in flooded, anaerobic soils like rice paddies.[4] Plant roots themselves can affect the abundance of various forms of nitrogen by changing the pH and secreting organic compounds or oxygen. This influences microbial activities like the inter-conversion of various nitrogen species, the release of ammonia from organic matter in the soil and the fixation of nitrogen by non-nodule-forming bacteria.
Ammonium ions are absorbed by the plant via ammonia transporters. Nitrate is taken up by several nitrate transporters that use a proton gradient to power the transport.Nitrogen is transported from the root to the shoot via the xylem in the form of nitrate, dissolved ammonia and amino acids. Usually (but not always most of the nitrate reduction is carried out in the shoots while the roots reduce only a small fraction of the absorbed nitrate to ammonia. Ammonia (both absorbed and synthesized) is incorporated into amino acids via the glutamine synthetase-glutamate synthase (GS-GOGAT) pathway. While nearly all the ammonia in the root is usually incorporated into amino acids at the root itself, plants may transport significant amounts of ammonium ions in the xylem to be fixed in the shoots.This may help avoid the transport of organic compounds down to the roots just to carry the nitrogen back as amino acids.
Nitrate reduction is carried out in two steps. Nitrate is first reduced to nitrite (NO2−) in the cytosol by nitrate reductase using NADH or NADPH. Nitrite is then reduced to ammonia in the chloroplasts (plastids in roots) by a ferredoxin dependent nitrite reductase. In photosynthesizing tissues, it uses an isoform of ferredoxin (Fd1) that is reduced by PSI while in the root it uses a form of ferredoxin (Fd3) that has a less negative midpoint potential and can be reduced easily by NADPH. In non photosynthesizing tissues, NADPH is generated by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway.
In the chloroplasts,glutamine synthetase incorporates this ammonia as the amide group of glutamine using glutamate as a substrate. Glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT and NADH-GOGAT) transfer the amide group onto a 2-oxoglutarate molecule producing two glutamates. Further transaminations are carried out make other amino acids (most commonly asparagine) from glutamine. While the enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) does not play a direct role in the assimilation, it protects the mitochondrial functions during periods of high nitrogen metabolism and takes part in nitrogen remobilization.
replication and cell cycle
Cellular replication is an essential process by which a single-celled organism develops into a multicelluar being. Replication also allows the body to renew itself. The cellular cycle of eukaryotic cells consists of four phases: G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase and M phase. Cells increase in size during G1 phase, which is followed by DNA replication in S phase. Protein synthesis and the production of microtubules occurs during G2 phase, which is then followed by mitosis. Mitosis is the briefest phase of the cell cycle, however is extremely important. During this period, nuclear and cytoplasmic division occurs, concluding with cyotkenesis. When cells are not actively dividing they are considered to be in a state of quiescence, known as the G0 phase. The passage of a cell through the cell cycle is controlled by various cytoplasmic proteins in order to assure quality control.
Eukaryotic DNA replication is regulated to ensure all chromosomes replicate once and only once per cell cycle. Replication begins at many origins scattered along each chromosome. Except for budding yeast, origins are not defined DNA sequences and probably are inherited by epigenetic mechanisms. Initiation at origins occurs throughout the S phase according to a temporal program that is important in regulating gene expression during development. Most replication proteins are conserved in evolution in eukaryotes and archaea, but not in bacteria. However, the mechanism of initiation is conserved and consists of origin recognition, assembly of pre-replication (pre-RC) initiative complexes, helicase activation, and replisome loading. Cell cycle regulation by protein phosphorylation ensures that pre-RC assembly can only occur in G1 phase, whereas helicase activation and loading can only occur in S phase. Checkpoint regulation maintains high fidelity by stabilizing replication forks and preventing cell cycle progression during replication stress or damage.
In all cells studied, DNA replication is regulated by recruiting the replication machinery or “replisome” to sites called origins on the chromosome. The replisome is a molecular machine that replicates the DNA bidirectionally from origins in a semiconservative fashion. The recruitment process is called initiation, whereas subsequent replication of the DNA by the replisome is called elongation. It is initiation and hence the recruitment process that is the site of regulation. When a change in replication rate is needed, adjustments are made to initiation. For example, the rate of DNA replication is almost two orders of magnitude faster in embryos than in somatic cells because more origins are used, resulting in more initiations. This review focuses on the important molecules used in the initiation process in the context of the cell cycle.
STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL2.pdf
statistical quality control, the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and maintaining of the quality of products and services. One method, referred to as acceptance sampling, can be used when a decision must be made to accept or reject a group of parts or items based on the quality found in a sample. A second method, referred to as statistical process control, uses graphical displays known as control charts to determine whether a process should be continued or should be adjusted to achieve the desired quality.Statistical process control (SPC) or statistical quality control (SQC) is the application of statistical methods to monitor and control the quality of a production process. This helps to ensure that the process operates efficiently, producing more specification-conforming products with less waste scrap. SPC can be applied to any process where the "conforming product" (product meeting specifications) output can be measured. Key tools used in SPC include run charts, control charts, a focus on continuous improvement, and the design of experiments. An example of a process where SPC is applied is manufacturing lines.
SPC must be practiced in two phases: The first phase is the initial establishment of the process, and the second phase is the regular production use of the process. In the second phase, a decision of the period to be examined must be made, depending upon the change in 5M&E conditions (Man, Machine, Material, Method, Movement, Environment) and wear rate of parts used in the manufacturing process (machine parts, jigs, and fixtures).
An advantage of SPC over other methods of quality control, such as "inspection," is that it emphasizes early detection and prevention of problems, rather than the correction of problems after they have occurred.
In addition to reducing waste, SPC can lead to a reduction in the time required to produce the product. SPC makes it less likely the finished product will need to be reworked or scrapped.
Statistical process control was pioneered by Walter A. Shewhart at Bell Laboratories in the early 1920s. Shewhart developed the control chart in 1924 and the concept of a state of statistical control. Statistical control is equivalent to the concept of exchangeability.
Statistical process control is appropriate to support any repetitive process, and has been implemented in many settings where for example ISO 9000 quality management systems are used, including financial auditing and accounting, IT operations, health care processes, and clerical processes such as loan arrangement and administration, customer billing etc. Despite criticism of its use in design and development, it is well-placed to manage semi-automated data governance of high-volume data processing operations, for example in an enterprise data warehouse, or an enterprise data quality management system.In manufacturing, quality is defined as conformance to specification. However, no two products or characteristics are ever exactly the same.
GC MASS SPECTROMETERY
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is an analytical method that combines the features of gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample.[1] Applications of GC-MS include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis, explosives investigation, food and flavor analysis, and identification of unknown samples, including that of material samples obtained from planet Mars during probe missions as early as the 1970s. GC-MS can also be used in airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, it can identify trace elements in materials that were previously thought to have disintegrated beyond identification. Like liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, it allows analysis and detection even of tiny amounts of a substance.[2]
GC-MS has been regarded as a "gold standard" for forensic substance identification because it is used to perform a 100% specific test, which positively identifies the presence of a particular substance. A nonspecific test merely indicates that any of several in a category of substances is present. Although a nonspecific test could statistically suggest the identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification. However, the high temperatures (300°C) used in the GC-MS injection port (and oven) can result in thermal degradation of injected molecules,[3] thus resulting in the measurement of degradation products instead of the actual molecule(s) of interest.The first on-line coupling of gas chromatography to a mass spectrometer was reported in the late 1950s.[4][5] An interest in coupling the methods had been suggested as early as December 1954.
IDENTIFICATION OF PROTEIN BINDING SITE.docx
• It is a technique that predicts the interaction between a macromolecules and a chemical molecule.
• Most of the existing efforts to identify the binding sites in protein-protein interaction are based on analyzing the differences between interface residues and non-interface residues, often through the use of machine learning or statistical methods.
• Its major application is to Identify the protein ligand binding sites is an important process in drug discovery and structure based drug design.
• Earlier, detecting protein ligand binding site is expensive and time consuming by traditional experimental method. Hence, computational approches provide many effective strategies to deal with this issue.
SOLID SCINTILLATION WRITE UP.docx
A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and detecting the resultant light pulses or it can be defined as it is used to detect gamma rays and the presence of a particle. It can also measure the radiation in the scintillating medium, the energy loss, or the energy gain. The medium can be solid and liquid.
The phenomenon in which the nucleus of the atom of an element undergoes spontaneous and uncontrollable disintegration or decay and emit alpha, beta, or gamma rays
It is the property of some unstable atoms to spontaneously emit nuclear radiation to gain stability.
The heavy elements are called radioactive elements and rays emitted these elements are called radioactive rays.
The phenomenon of radioactivity is discovered by HENRI BACQUEREL IN 1896.
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay (α-decay), beta decay (β-decay), and gamma decay (γ-decay), all of which involve emitting one or more particles.
DEGRADATION OF PURINE WRITE UP.docx
Purine nucleotide degradation refers to a regulated series of reactions by which human purine ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides are degraded to uric acid in humans. Two major types of disorders occur in this pathway. A block of degradation occurs with syndromes involving immune deficiency, myopathy or renal calculi. Increased degradation of nucleotides occurs with syndromes characterized by hyperuricemia and gout, renal calculi, anemia or acute hypoxia. Management of disorders of purine nucleotide degradation is dependent upon modifying the specific molecular pathology underlying each disease state.
The end products of purine catabolism in various animals differ from those found in plants. Xanthine is the starting material of purine degradation and end products in plants are ammonia, carbon dioxide, and glyoxylate. In some plant species, there is a transient accumulation of allantoin and allantoate, intermediates of purine catabolism, which function as storage reserves or as transporters of nitrogen. Allantoin and allantoate, intermediates of the oxidative catabolic pathway of purines, were labelled transiently. Ammonia released by bacteroids in the nodules is assimilated and used to generate purines, which are then partially degraded to allantoin and allantoate. The product of urate oxidase, 5-hydroxyisourate, is relatively unstable and decomposes in vitro to yield allantoin. However, this spontaneous reaction is unlikely to be physiologically relevant, since spontaneous decomposition yields racemic allantoin, whereas organisms contain mostly the (S)-(+)-allantoin enantiomer.
ANOVA SNEHA.docx
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is an analysis tool used in statistics that splits an observed aggregate variability found inside a data set into two parts: systematic factors and random factors. The systematic factors have a statistical influence on the given data set, while the random factors do not.
Analysts use the ANOVA test to determine the influence that independent variables have on the dependent variable in a regression study.
The t- and z-test methods developed in the 20th century were used for statistical analysis until 1918, when Ronald Fisher created the analysis of variance method.
ANOVA is also called the Fisher analysis of variance, and it is the extension of the t- and z-tests. The term became well-known in 1925, after appearing in Fisher's book, "Statistical Methods for Research Workers."
It was employed in experimental psychology and later expanded to subjects that were more complex.ANOVA (Analysis Of Variance) is a collection of statistical models used to assess the differences between the means of two independent groups by separating the variability into systematic and random factors. It helps to determine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Here are the three important ANOVA assumptions:
1. Normally distributed population derives different group samples.
2. The sample or distribution has a homogenous variance
3. Analysts draw all the data in a sample independently.
ANOVA test has other secondary assumptions as well, they are:
1. The observations must be independent of each other and randomly sampled.
2. There are additive effects for the factors.
3. The sample size must always be greater than 10.
4. The sample population must be uni-modal as well as symmetrical.
TYPES OF ANOVA
1. One way ANOVA analysis of variance is commonly called a one-factor test in relation to the dependent subject and independent variable. Statisticians utilize it while comparing the means of groups independent of each other using the Analysis of Variance coefficient formula. A single independent variable with at least two levels. The one way Analysis of Variance is quite similar to the t-test.
2 TWO WAY ANOVA
The pre-requisite for conducting a two-way anova test is the presence of two independent variables; one can perform it in two ways –
Two way ANOVA with replication or repeated measures analysis of variance – is done when the two independent groups with dependent variables do different tasks.
Two way ANOVA sans replication – is done when one has a single group that they have to double test like one tests a player before and after a football game
Operation Blue Star - Saka Neela Tara
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
More Related Content
More from SNEHA AGRAWAL GUPTA
unit 2 environment-1.pdf
Ecosystems can be as large as a desert or as small as a puddle.
They contain biotic
or living parts, as well as abiotic factors
, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms.
Nonliving materials include water, rocks, soil, and sand.
Ecosystems are a chain of interactions between organisms and their environment.
Each organism has a "job" to do in the ecosystem. For example, plants have chloroplasts that enable them to harvest light energy. Then, they take carbon dioxide and water from their environment to convert them into sugar.
Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation
, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species
and invasive species
.
An ecosystem includes all the living things (plants, animals and organisms) in a given area, interacting with each other, and with their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate, atmosphere). In an ecosystem, each organism has its own niche or role to play.
Amino acid - L-lysine.pptx
L-Lysine is an essential amino acid that's produced by fermentation. The fermentation process uses selected strains of microorganisms that grow in a solution of glucose or molasses, ammonium compounds, inorganic salts, and other substances.
Industrial lysine fermentation is usually performed using large-scale tank fermenters. In production plants, lysine accumulates to a final titer of 170 g/L after 45 hours.
Lysine and other amino acids are commonly produced by fermentation using strains of heterotrophic bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Corynebacterium glutamicum. C. glutamicum has been engineered to produce lysine with a yield of 0.31 g lysine/g sugar.
Lysine is involved in the production of hormones and energy. It's also important for calcium and immune function.
Amino acid synthesis-1.pptx
Amino acids are small molecules that are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins serve as structural support inside the cell and they perform many vital chemical reactions. Each protein is a molecule made up of different combinations of 20 types of smaller, simpler amino acids.The pathways of amino acid synthesis comprise a significant fraction of a bacterium's metabolic activity during its growth in a minimal medium. Two amino acids, glutamine and glutamate, are the immediate products of ammonia assimilation and essential nitrogen donors for the synthesis of other intermediates.
nutritional types.pptx
Nutrition is substances used in biosynthesis and energy production and therefore are required for all living things.
Bacteria, like all living cells, require energy and nutrients to build proteins and structural membranes and drive biochemical processes.
Bacteria require sources of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and a large number of other molecules.
Carbon, nitrogen, and water are used in the highest quantities.
The nutritional requirements for bacteria can be grouped according to the carbon source and the energy source.
Some types of bacteria must consume pre-formed organic molecules to obtain energy, while other bacteria can generate their own energy from inorganic sources.
Loculoascomycetes^.^.pptx
Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species.The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus" (from Ancient Greek ἀσκός (askós) 'sac, wineskin'), a microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores, are formed. However, some species of the Ascomycota are asexual, meaning that they do not have a sexual cycle and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewers' and bakers' yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens (loosely termed "ascolichens") such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota.
Ascomycota is a monophyletic group (it contains all descendants of one common ancestor). Previously placed in the Deuteromycota along with asexual species from other fungal taxa, asexual (or anamorphic) ascomycetes are now identified and classified based on morphological or physiological similarities to ascus-bearing taxa, and by phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences.
fungi.pptx
A fungus or funguses is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from the other eukaryotic kingdoms, which, by one traditional classification, includes Plantae, Animalia, Protozoa, and Chromista.
A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes, mushroom). In the past mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.
Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on
Economic importance of Basidiomycotina.pptx
Basidiomycetes
Also known as club fungi.
The reproductive structure is basidium.
Spores that are produced are called basidiospores.
The vegetative structure is made up of primary or secondary mycelium.
Vegetative reproduction is done by fragmentation.
Sexual reproduction is done by the two vegetative or somatic cells creating a basidium.
Basidiospores are produced in the basidium by the development of fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
Examples – Agaricus (found in mushrooms), Puccinia.
Basidiomycetes include these groups: mushrooms, puffballs, jelly fungi, boletes, chanterelles, earth stars, smuts, rusts, mirror yeasts, and Cryptococcus, the human pathogenic yeast.
lipids.pptx
Lipid metabolism is the synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells, involving the breakdown and storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of structural and functional lipids, such as those involved in the construction of cell membranes. In animals, these fats are obtained from food and are synthesized by the liver. Lipogenesis is the process of synthesizing these fats. The majority of lipids found in the human body from ingesting food are triglycerides and cholesterol.[4] Other types of lipids found in the body are fatty acids and membrane lipids. Lipid metabolism is often considered as the digestion and absorption process of dietary fat; however, there are two sources of fats that organisms can use to obtain energy: from consumed dietary fats and from stored fat.[5] Vertebrates (including humans) use both sources of fat to produce energy for organs such as the heart to function. Since lipids are hydrophobic molecules, they need to be solubilized before their metabolism can begin. Lipid metabolism often begins with hydrolysis, which occurs with the help of various enzymes in the digestive system.Lipid metabolism also occurs in plants, though the processes differ in some ways when compared to animals.[8] The second step after the hydrolysis is the absorption of the fatty acids into the epithelial cells of the intestinal wall.[6] In the epithelial cells, fatty acids are packaged and transported to the rest of the body.[9]
Metabolic processes include lipid digestion, lipid absorption, lipid transportation, lipid storage, lipid catabolism, and lipid biosynthesis. Lipid catabolism is accomplished by a process known as beta oxidation which takes place in the mitochondria and peroxisome cell organelles.
polymerase
A DNA polymerase is a member of a family of enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of DNA molecules from nucleoside triphosphates, the molecular precursors of DNA. These enzymes are essential for DNA replication and usually work in groups to create two identical DNA duplexes from a single original DNA duplex. During this process, DNA polymerase "reads" the existing DNA strands to create two new strands that match the existing ones.[1][2][3][4][5][6] These enzymes catalyze the chemical reaction
deoxynucleoside triphosphate + DNAn ⇌ pyrophosphate + DNAn+1.
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the three prime (3')-end of a DNA strand, one nucleotide at a time. Every time a cell divides, DNA polymerases are required to duplicate the cell's DNA, so that a copy of the original DNA molecule can be passed to each daughter cell. In this way, genetic information is passed down from generation to generation.
Before replication can take place, an enzyme called helicase unwinds the DNA molecule from its tightly woven form, in the process breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide bases. This opens up or "unzips" the double-stranded DNA to give two single strands of DNA that can be used as templates for replication in the above reaction.
nmr spectrscopy.pptx
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy or magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), is a spectroscopic technique to observe local magnetic fields around atomic nuclei. This spectroscopy is based on the measurement of absorption of electromagnetic radiations in the radio frequency region from roughly 4 to 900 MHz. Absorption of radio waves in the presence of magnetic field is accompanied by a special type of nuclear transition, and for this reason, such type of spectroscopy is known as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy.[1] The sample is placed in a magnetic field and the NMR signal is produced by excitation of the nuclei sample with radio waves into nuclear magnetic resonance, which is detected with sensitive radio receivers. The intramolecular magnetic field around an atom in a molecule changes the resonance frequency, thus giving access to details of the electronic structure of a molecule and its individual functional groups. As the fields are unique or highly characteristic to individual compounds, in modern organic chemistry practice, NMR spectroscopy is the definitive method to identify monomolecular organic compounds.
The principle of NMR usually involves three sequential steps:
The alignment (polarization) of the magnetic nuclear spins in an applied, constant magnetic field B0.
The perturbation of this alignment of the nuclear spins by a weak oscillating magnetic field, usually referred to as a radio-frequency (RF) pulse.
Detection and analysis of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the nuclei of the sample as a result of this perturbation.
Similarly, biochemists use NMR to identify proteins and other complex molecules. Besides identification, NMR spectroscopy provides detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. The most common types of NMR are proton and carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy, but it is applicable to any kind of sample that contains nuclei possessing spin.
NMR spectra are unique, well-resolved, analytically tractable and often highly predictable for small molecules. Different functional groups are obviously distinguishable, and identical functional groups with differing neighboring substituents still give distinguishable signals. NMR has largely replaced traditional wet chemistry tests such as color reagents or typical chromatography for identification. A disadvantage is that a relatively large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required, although it may be recovered through a workup. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated magic angle spinning machine and may not give equally well-resolved spectra. The timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum. Although large amounts of impurities do show on an NMR spectrum, better methods exist for detecting impurities.
Lyophilizationn.pdf
Lyophilization or freeze drying is a process in which water is removed from a product after it is frozen and placed under a vacuum, allowing the ice to change directly from solid to vapor without passing through a liquid phase. The process consists of three separate, unique, and interdependent processes; freezing, primary drying (sublimation), and secondary drying (desorption).
The advantages of lyophilization include:
Ease of processing a liquid, which simplifies aseptic handling
Enhanced stability of a dry powder
Removal of water without excessive heating of the product
Enhanced product stability in a dry state
Rapid and easy dissolution of reconstituted product
Disadvantages of lyophilization include:
Increased handling and processing time
Need for sterile diluent upon reconstitution
Cost and complexity of equipment
The lyophilization process generally includes the following steps:
Dissolving the drug and excipients in a suitable solvent, generally water for injection (WFI).
Sterilizing the bulk solution by passing it through a 0.22 micron bacteria-retentive filter.
Filling into individual sterile containers and partially stoppering the containers under aseptic conditions.
Transporting the partially stoppered containers to the lyophilizer and loading into the chamber under aseptic conditions.
Freezing the solution by placing the partially stoppered containers on cooled shelves in a freeze-drying chamber or pre-freezing in another chamber.
Applying a vacuum to the chamber and heating the shelves in order to evaporate the water from the frozen state.
Complete stoppering of the vials usually by hydraulic or screw rod stoppering mechanisms installed in the lyophilizers.
There are many new parenteral products, including anti-infectives, biotechnology derived products, and in-vitro diagnostics which are manufactured as lyophilized products. Additionally, inspections have disclosed potency, sterility and stability problems associated with the manufacture and control of lyophilized products. In order to provide guidance and information to investigators, some industry procedures and deficiencies associated with lyophilized products are identified in this Inspection Guide.
It is recognized that there is complex technology associated with the manufacture and control of a lyophilized pharmaceutical dosage form. Some of the important aspects of these operations include: the formulation of solutions; filling of vials and validation of the filling operation; sterilization and engineering aspects of the lyophilizer; scale-up and validation of the lyophilization cycle; and testing of the end product. This discussion will address some of the problems associated with the manufacture and control of a lyophilized dosage form.
PAPER ELECTROPHORESIS.pptx
Electrophoresis is a scientific laboratory technique that is used to separate DNA, RNA, or protein molecules based on their size and electrical charge. An electric current is passed through the molecules to move them so that they can be separated via a gel. The pores present in the gel work like a sieve, allowing smaller molecules to pass through more quickly and easily than the larger molecules. According to the way conditions are adjusted during electrophoresis, the molecules can be separated in the desired size range.
What is electrophoresis and what are its uses?
Electrophoresis is a very broadly used technique that, fundamentally, applies electric current to biological molecules – they’re usually DNA, but they can be protein or RNA, too – and separates these fragments into pieces that are larger or smaller in size.
The phenomenon of electrophoresis was first observed by Russian professors Peter Ivanovich Strakhov and Ferdinand Frederic Reuss in 1807 at Moscow University. A constant application of electric field caused the particles of clay dispersed in water to migrate, showing an electrokinetic phenomenon.
Electrophoresis can be defined as an electrokinetic process that separates charged particles in a fluid using an electrical field of charge. Electrophoresis of cations or positively charged ions is sometimes referred to as cataphoresis (or cataphoretic electrophoresis). In contrast, sometimes, the electrophoresis of anions or negatively charged ions is referred to as anaphoresis (or anaphoric electrophoresis).
It’s used in a variety of applications. Though it is most often used in life sciences to separate protein molecules or DNA, it can be achieved through several different techniques and methods depending upon the type and size of the molecules.
The methods differ in some ways, but all we need is a source for the electrical charge, a support medium and a buffer solution. Electrophoresis is also used in laboratories for the separation of molecules based on their size, density and purity.
The method used to separate macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, or protein molecules is known as gel electrophoresis.
It is used in forensics for –
Nucleic acid molecule sizing
DNA fragmentation for southern blotting
RNA fragmentation for northern blotting
Protein fragmentation for western blotting
Separation of PCR products analysis
Detection and analysis of variations or mutations in the sequence
Its clinical applications involve –
Serum protein electrophoresis
Lipoprotein analysis
Diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies and hemoglobin A1c.
The fundamental principle of electrophoresis is the existence of charge separation between the surface of a particle and the fluid immediately surrounding it. An applied electric field acts on the resulting charge density, causing the particle to migrate and the fluid around the particle to flow.
It is the process of separation or purification of protein molecules, DNA, or RNA that differ in charge, size.
NITROGEN ASSIMILATION
Plants absorb nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrate (NO3−) and ammonium (NH4+). In aerobic soils where nitrification can occur, nitrate is usually the predominant form of available nitrogen that is absorbed. However this is not always the case as ammonia can predominate in grasslands and in flooded, anaerobic soils like rice paddies.[4] Plant roots themselves can affect the abundance of various forms of nitrogen by changing the pH and secreting organic compounds or oxygen. This influences microbial activities like the inter-conversion of various nitrogen species, the release of ammonia from organic matter in the soil and the fixation of nitrogen by non-nodule-forming bacteria.
Ammonium ions are absorbed by the plant via ammonia transporters. Nitrate is taken up by several nitrate transporters that use a proton gradient to power the transport.Nitrogen is transported from the root to the shoot via the xylem in the form of nitrate, dissolved ammonia and amino acids. Usually (but not always most of the nitrate reduction is carried out in the shoots while the roots reduce only a small fraction of the absorbed nitrate to ammonia. Ammonia (both absorbed and synthesized) is incorporated into amino acids via the glutamine synthetase-glutamate synthase (GS-GOGAT) pathway. While nearly all the ammonia in the root is usually incorporated into amino acids at the root itself, plants may transport significant amounts of ammonium ions in the xylem to be fixed in the shoots.This may help avoid the transport of organic compounds down to the roots just to carry the nitrogen back as amino acids.
Nitrate reduction is carried out in two steps. Nitrate is first reduced to nitrite (NO2−) in the cytosol by nitrate reductase using NADH or NADPH. Nitrite is then reduced to ammonia in the chloroplasts (plastids in roots) by a ferredoxin dependent nitrite reductase. In photosynthesizing tissues, it uses an isoform of ferredoxin (Fd1) that is reduced by PSI while in the root it uses a form of ferredoxin (Fd3) that has a less negative midpoint potential and can be reduced easily by NADPH. In non photosynthesizing tissues, NADPH is generated by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway.
In the chloroplasts,glutamine synthetase incorporates this ammonia as the amide group of glutamine using glutamate as a substrate. Glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT and NADH-GOGAT) transfer the amide group onto a 2-oxoglutarate molecule producing two glutamates. Further transaminations are carried out make other amino acids (most commonly asparagine) from glutamine. While the enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) does not play a direct role in the assimilation, it protects the mitochondrial functions during periods of high nitrogen metabolism and takes part in nitrogen remobilization.
replication and cell cycle
Cellular replication is an essential process by which a single-celled organism develops into a multicelluar being. Replication also allows the body to renew itself. The cellular cycle of eukaryotic cells consists of four phases: G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase and M phase. Cells increase in size during G1 phase, which is followed by DNA replication in S phase. Protein synthesis and the production of microtubules occurs during G2 phase, which is then followed by mitosis. Mitosis is the briefest phase of the cell cycle, however is extremely important. During this period, nuclear and cytoplasmic division occurs, concluding with cyotkenesis. When cells are not actively dividing they are considered to be in a state of quiescence, known as the G0 phase. The passage of a cell through the cell cycle is controlled by various cytoplasmic proteins in order to assure quality control.
Eukaryotic DNA replication is regulated to ensure all chromosomes replicate once and only once per cell cycle. Replication begins at many origins scattered along each chromosome. Except for budding yeast, origins are not defined DNA sequences and probably are inherited by epigenetic mechanisms. Initiation at origins occurs throughout the S phase according to a temporal program that is important in regulating gene expression during development. Most replication proteins are conserved in evolution in eukaryotes and archaea, but not in bacteria. However, the mechanism of initiation is conserved and consists of origin recognition, assembly of pre-replication (pre-RC) initiative complexes, helicase activation, and replisome loading. Cell cycle regulation by protein phosphorylation ensures that pre-RC assembly can only occur in G1 phase, whereas helicase activation and loading can only occur in S phase. Checkpoint regulation maintains high fidelity by stabilizing replication forks and preventing cell cycle progression during replication stress or damage.
In all cells studied, DNA replication is regulated by recruiting the replication machinery or “replisome” to sites called origins on the chromosome. The replisome is a molecular machine that replicates the DNA bidirectionally from origins in a semiconservative fashion. The recruitment process is called initiation, whereas subsequent replication of the DNA by the replisome is called elongation. It is initiation and hence the recruitment process that is the site of regulation. When a change in replication rate is needed, adjustments are made to initiation. For example, the rate of DNA replication is almost two orders of magnitude faster in embryos than in somatic cells because more origins are used, resulting in more initiations. This review focuses on the important molecules used in the initiation process in the context of the cell cycle.
STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL2.pdf
statistical quality control, the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and maintaining of the quality of products and services. One method, referred to as acceptance sampling, can be used when a decision must be made to accept or reject a group of parts or items based on the quality found in a sample. A second method, referred to as statistical process control, uses graphical displays known as control charts to determine whether a process should be continued or should be adjusted to achieve the desired quality.Statistical process control (SPC) or statistical quality control (SQC) is the application of statistical methods to monitor and control the quality of a production process. This helps to ensure that the process operates efficiently, producing more specification-conforming products with less waste scrap. SPC can be applied to any process where the "conforming product" (product meeting specifications) output can be measured. Key tools used in SPC include run charts, control charts, a focus on continuous improvement, and the design of experiments. An example of a process where SPC is applied is manufacturing lines.
SPC must be practiced in two phases: The first phase is the initial establishment of the process, and the second phase is the regular production use of the process. In the second phase, a decision of the period to be examined must be made, depending upon the change in 5M&E conditions (Man, Machine, Material, Method, Movement, Environment) and wear rate of parts used in the manufacturing process (machine parts, jigs, and fixtures).
An advantage of SPC over other methods of quality control, such as "inspection," is that it emphasizes early detection and prevention of problems, rather than the correction of problems after they have occurred.
In addition to reducing waste, SPC can lead to a reduction in the time required to produce the product. SPC makes it less likely the finished product will need to be reworked or scrapped.
Statistical process control was pioneered by Walter A. Shewhart at Bell Laboratories in the early 1920s. Shewhart developed the control chart in 1924 and the concept of a state of statistical control. Statistical control is equivalent to the concept of exchangeability.
Statistical process control is appropriate to support any repetitive process, and has been implemented in many settings where for example ISO 9000 quality management systems are used, including financial auditing and accounting, IT operations, health care processes, and clerical processes such as loan arrangement and administration, customer billing etc. Despite criticism of its use in design and development, it is well-placed to manage semi-automated data governance of high-volume data processing operations, for example in an enterprise data warehouse, or an enterprise data quality management system.In manufacturing, quality is defined as conformance to specification. However, no two products or characteristics are ever exactly the same.
GC MASS SPECTROMETERY
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is an analytical method that combines the features of gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample.[1] Applications of GC-MS include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis, explosives investigation, food and flavor analysis, and identification of unknown samples, including that of material samples obtained from planet Mars during probe missions as early as the 1970s. GC-MS can also be used in airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, it can identify trace elements in materials that were previously thought to have disintegrated beyond identification. Like liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, it allows analysis and detection even of tiny amounts of a substance.[2]
GC-MS has been regarded as a "gold standard" for forensic substance identification because it is used to perform a 100% specific test, which positively identifies the presence of a particular substance. A nonspecific test merely indicates that any of several in a category of substances is present. Although a nonspecific test could statistically suggest the identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification. However, the high temperatures (300°C) used in the GC-MS injection port (and oven) can result in thermal degradation of injected molecules,[3] thus resulting in the measurement of degradation products instead of the actual molecule(s) of interest.The first on-line coupling of gas chromatography to a mass spectrometer was reported in the late 1950s.[4][5] An interest in coupling the methods had been suggested as early as December 1954.
IDENTIFICATION OF PROTEIN BINDING SITE.docx
• It is a technique that predicts the interaction between a macromolecules and a chemical molecule.
• Most of the existing efforts to identify the binding sites in protein-protein interaction are based on analyzing the differences between interface residues and non-interface residues, often through the use of machine learning or statistical methods.
• Its major application is to Identify the protein ligand binding sites is an important process in drug discovery and structure based drug design.
• Earlier, detecting protein ligand binding site is expensive and time consuming by traditional experimental method. Hence, computational approches provide many effective strategies to deal with this issue.
SOLID SCINTILLATION WRITE UP.docx
A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and detecting the resultant light pulses or it can be defined as it is used to detect gamma rays and the presence of a particle. It can also measure the radiation in the scintillating medium, the energy loss, or the energy gain. The medium can be solid and liquid.
The phenomenon in which the nucleus of the atom of an element undergoes spontaneous and uncontrollable disintegration or decay and emit alpha, beta, or gamma rays
It is the property of some unstable atoms to spontaneously emit nuclear radiation to gain stability.
The heavy elements are called radioactive elements and rays emitted these elements are called radioactive rays.
The phenomenon of radioactivity is discovered by HENRI BACQUEREL IN 1896.
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay (α-decay), beta decay (β-decay), and gamma decay (γ-decay), all of which involve emitting one or more particles.
DEGRADATION OF PURINE WRITE UP.docx
Purine nucleotide degradation refers to a regulated series of reactions by which human purine ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides are degraded to uric acid in humans. Two major types of disorders occur in this pathway. A block of degradation occurs with syndromes involving immune deficiency, myopathy or renal calculi. Increased degradation of nucleotides occurs with syndromes characterized by hyperuricemia and gout, renal calculi, anemia or acute hypoxia. Management of disorders of purine nucleotide degradation is dependent upon modifying the specific molecular pathology underlying each disease state.
The end products of purine catabolism in various animals differ from those found in plants. Xanthine is the starting material of purine degradation and end products in plants are ammonia, carbon dioxide, and glyoxylate. In some plant species, there is a transient accumulation of allantoin and allantoate, intermediates of purine catabolism, which function as storage reserves or as transporters of nitrogen. Allantoin and allantoate, intermediates of the oxidative catabolic pathway of purines, were labelled transiently. Ammonia released by bacteroids in the nodules is assimilated and used to generate purines, which are then partially degraded to allantoin and allantoate. The product of urate oxidase, 5-hydroxyisourate, is relatively unstable and decomposes in vitro to yield allantoin. However, this spontaneous reaction is unlikely to be physiologically relevant, since spontaneous decomposition yields racemic allantoin, whereas organisms contain mostly the (S)-(+)-allantoin enantiomer.
ANOVA SNEHA.docx
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is an analysis tool used in statistics that splits an observed aggregate variability found inside a data set into two parts: systematic factors and random factors. The systematic factors have a statistical influence on the given data set, while the random factors do not.
Analysts use the ANOVA test to determine the influence that independent variables have on the dependent variable in a regression study.
The t- and z-test methods developed in the 20th century were used for statistical analysis until 1918, when Ronald Fisher created the analysis of variance method.
ANOVA is also called the Fisher analysis of variance, and it is the extension of the t- and z-tests. The term became well-known in 1925, after appearing in Fisher's book, "Statistical Methods for Research Workers."
It was employed in experimental psychology and later expanded to subjects that were more complex.ANOVA (Analysis Of Variance) is a collection of statistical models used to assess the differences between the means of two independent groups by separating the variability into systematic and random factors. It helps to determine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Here are the three important ANOVA assumptions:
1. Normally distributed population derives different group samples.
2. The sample or distribution has a homogenous variance
3. Analysts draw all the data in a sample independently.
ANOVA test has other secondary assumptions as well, they are:
1. The observations must be independent of each other and randomly sampled.
2. There are additive effects for the factors.
3. The sample size must always be greater than 10.
4. The sample population must be uni-modal as well as symmetrical.
TYPES OF ANOVA
1. One way ANOVA analysis of variance is commonly called a one-factor test in relation to the dependent subject and independent variable. Statisticians utilize it while comparing the means of groups independent of each other using the Analysis of Variance coefficient formula. A single independent variable with at least two levels. The one way Analysis of Variance is quite similar to the t-test.
2 TWO WAY ANOVA
The pre-requisite for conducting a two-way anova test is the presence of two independent variables; one can perform it in two ways –
Two way ANOVA with replication or repeated measures analysis of variance – is done when the two independent groups with dependent variables do different tasks.
Two way ANOVA sans replication – is done when one has a single group that they have to double test like one tests a player before and after a football game
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