Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist born in 1564 who made many important contributions to astronomy and physics. He discovered that objects fall at the same rate regardless of their mass, observed the moons of Jupiter, and was the first to use a telescope to make astronomical observations. Galileo supported Copernicus' theory that the Earth revolved around the sun, which went against Catholic Church teachings. In 1633, the Inquisition placed Galileo under house arrest for the remainder of his life for defending the Copernican system. Despite this, Galileo continued his scientific work and is considered a founder of modern physics.

1. Ga li l eo’s Ba tt le for the He aven s AIRING OCTOBER 29, 2002
1564 Born in Pisa,Italy, on
February 15.
1579 Studies at a Benedictine
Who Was Galileo Galilei?
monastery and considers Galileo was a man of many interests. Unlike
becoming a monk. today’s scientists who become experts in very
1581 Begins studies at the
University of Pisa,Italy.
specialized areas, Galileo studied a wide range
1585 Leaves Pisa without a degree. of topics from mathematics to astronomy to Unfortunately, one of the books Galileo pub-
1589 Takes a teaching position at physics. He was also a teacher, inventor, and lished included a strong argument that the Sun
Pisa.Three years later, begins writer. and not Earth was at the center of the solar sys-
teaching at the University of Galileo may be best known for opposing the tem.This went against church teachings, and
Padua. Catholic Church’s view that Earth was the center Galileo was brought before a church organiza-
1597 Develops a geometric and
of the universe, but he was in fact a religious per- tion known as the Inquisition.
military compass.
1599 Enters a relationship with son. As a teenager, he attended school in a In 1633, the Inquisition placed Galileo
Marina Gamba,who bears his monastery and dreamed of becoming a monk. under house arrest,where he stayed until he
three children. In 1581, Galileo’s father sent him to the died in 1642. Although Galileo was old and
1600 Daughter, Virginia University of Pisa, Italy, to study medicine. He sick at this point, he continued scientific experi-
(1600–1634),is born. wanted Galileo to become a doctor so he could mentation. Going blind, he could no longer
1601 Daughter, Livia (1601–1659),
make a good living and eventually support his study astronomy. Instead, he returned to his
is born.
1602 Conducts experiments with a younger siblings. Galileo had other ideas. While studies on motion. Galileo’s studies of inclined
pendulum. at the University, he became fascinated with planes, falling bodies, projectiles, and other laws
1604 Begins experimenting with mathematics. He left the University to become of motion became the foundation of modern
accelerated motion on an a tutor of mathematics and then a professor. physics.Throughout his life, Galileo was
inclined plane. Galileo next became interested in falling strongly supported by his eldest daughter,
1606 Son, Vincenzio (1606–1649), bodies. Whether or not he dropped cannonballs Virginia (Sister Maria Celeste), who entered
is born.
1609 Improves the telescope and
from the Leaning Tower of Pisa is not known, into a convent in 1613 and corresponded with
becomes first to use it for ser i- but he did discover that the speed at which him regularly.
ous astronomical observation. objects fall depends on air resistance, not on By following his many interests and
1610 Discovers the moons of how much they weigh. pursuing questions that intrigued him,
Jupiter; appointed chief math- At around this time, Galileo’s love for tin- Galileo contributed greatly to science. He
ematician and philosopher to kering with mechanical things led to his inven- made many discoveries in astronomy and laid
the Grand Duke of Tuscany,
tion of a simple thermometer, a geometric and the foundation for modern physics.
Cosimo II.
1632 Publishes Dialogue on the military compass, and an improved telescope.
Two Chief World Systems: He observed the surface of the Moon and Galileo Resources
Ptolemaic and Copernican. found it to be surprisingly similar to Earth; he
1633 Submits to trial for heresy by witnessed four objects circling around Jupiter Galileo’s Battle for the Heavens.
The Holy Office of the (four of its moons); and then he sketched WGBH Boston Video, 2002.
Inquisition and abjures his Find out more about Galileo’s discoveries, his
pictures of the changing pattern of
views;is allowed to retire to
spots on the Sun. He proposed, clash with the Catholic Church, and more in
his villa in Arcetri near
Florence, Italy, where he quite rightly, that these sunspots the two-hour NOVA program that airs
spends the remainder of his were on the surface of the Sun October 29, 2002. Call 1-800-949-8670 or
life under house arrest. and that their changing visit main.wgbh.org/wgbh/shop/nova.html
1638 Becomes blind. pattern was evidence that to order. ya a
1642 Dies on January 8 in Arcetri, the Sun rotated.
Italy. In a companion Web site, learn about Galileo’s
1892 Awarded honorary degree life, his place in the world of science, his experi-
from the University of Pisa.
1981 Pope John Paul II establishes
ments, and his mistaken belief that Earth’s daily
the Galileo Commission to rotation and its annual orbit around the Sun
study the Galileo case. trigger ocean tides. ya a
1992 Pope John Paul II officially www.pbs.org/nova/galileo/
closes the work of the com-
mission,affirming that his Discover more at your local library.
predecessor, Pope Urban VIII
(1568–1644),had unfairly
condemned Galileo for his
beliefs. The following icons indicate whether a
resource is recommended for children,
young adult, and/or adult audiences.
c children
ya young adult
a adult
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2. G a li l eo’s Ba ttle f or t he He av en s AIRING OCTOBER 29, 2002
Learning More Scientists Today
Rubin, Vera C. Astronomy and physics are much different today than they were in Galileo’s time. Today’s
Bright Galaxies,Dark Matter. scientists are much more likely to subspecialize in a main area of interest. For example,
Woodbury, NY: American physicists interested in subatomic objects are called particle physicists. Astronomers interested
Institute of Physics Press, in the origin of life in the universe are called astrobiologists.
1997. Almost anyone can become a scientist. Here are brief biographies of some of the scientists
Rubin narrates her resear ch in who are making contributions to astronomy and physics today.
such areas as galactic motion
and dark matter and the course
of her own career. a Vera Cooper Rubin Since 1995, Tyson has written a monthly
essay “Universe” for Natural History magazine.
Women in Astronomy: An Vera Rubin’s interest in
He has also written numerous books to help
Introductory Resource Guide stars began when she
others understand the universe. His research
www.astrosociety.org/ was 10 years old. Her
interests include star formation, exploding stars,
education/resources/ father helped her build a
dwarf galaxies, and the structure of our Milky
womenast_bib06.html telescope from scratch
Way. He has two children.
Provides a reading list of and attended amateur
books about women in astronomy club meetings
with her. In the early Stephen Hawking
astronomy. ya a
1960s, Rubin became the first woman Stephen Hawking likes to
P P permitted to observe at the Palomar think big. He spends time
Tyson, Neil de Grasse
Observatory, which is run by the California working as a cosmologist,
The Sky Is Not the Limit:
Institute of Technology. One of her major a person who studies the
Adventures of an Urban
contributions to astronomy was finding origin, present state, and
Astrophysicist.
evidence to support the theory that there may future of the universe.
New York: Doubleday, 2000.
be large amounts of unseen matter, known as One of his greatest con-
Offers Tyson’s perspectives dark matter, in the universe. tributions has been in the
and experiences—from his She is currently an astronomer at the understanding of black
childhood in the Bronx to his Carnegie Institution of Washington (D.C.) holes, which are thought to be places in space
current post as director of
for the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. where there is so much concentrated mass that
Hayden Planetarium. a
In 1993, she was awarded the National Medal anything nearby is sucked into their gravita-
Neil de Grasse Tyson of Science. She has four children, all of whom tional pull.
www.wnyc.org/legacy/shows/ have pursued careers in science. In addition, Hawking has also had to overcome great
survivalkit/tyson042802.html she has been very active in encouraging physical challenges. For most of his adult life,
In this National Public Radio women and minorities to pursue science he has had a disease called amyotrophic lateral
interview, find out what careers. sclerosis,or ALS. Also known as Lou Gehrig ’s
Tyson would put in a survival disease, this illness makes it progressively more
kit if he were stranded difficult to move, speak, breathe, and swallow.
Neil de Grasse Tyson
somewhere.(Requires Adaptive technologies have allowed him to
RealPlayer plug-in.) a Neil de Grasse Tyson is
continue to write and deliver scientific papers
an astrophysicist who
P P has pursued science and
and lectures worldwide. He has three children
McDaniel, Melissa and Jerry and one grandchild.
Lewis. spent years helping oth-
Stephen Hawking: ers understand it.
Revolutionary Physicist. Tyson first looked
New York: Chelsea House up at the sky from the
Publishers, 1994. rooftop of his Bronx,
New York,apartment house with a pair of
Relates Hawking’s life from his binoculars. He was 9 years old. He would later
childhood to the present.This
become the youngest-ever director of the
book is part of the series, Great
Hayden Planetarium at the American
Achievers:Lives of the
Museum of Natural History in New York
Physically Challenged. ya a
City. He also spends time as a visiting
Stephen Hawking’s Web Site research scientist in astrophysics at Princeton
www.hawking.org.uk/home/ University, New Jersey. The following icons indicate whether a
hindex.html resource is recommended for children,
Profiles personal and profes- young adult, and/or adult audiences.
sional information about c children
Hawking. ya
ya young adult
a adult
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3. Ga li l eo’s Ba tt le for the He aven s AIRING OCTOBER 29, 2002
In the Swing of Things Learning More
Bonnet , Robert L. and Dan Keen.
Science Fair Projects: Physics.
For ages 10 and older. What to do New York: Sterling Publishing, 1999.
1 Measure out an 18-inch length of Presents projects and experiments that use
It is thought that Galileo first started
string. Tie a washer to one end. easy-to-find materials to explore the
studying pendulums when, in 1583,
Measure and mark the string 12 inches world of physics, covering such topics as
he watched a suspended lamp swing
from the washer. Find a surface from temperature, energy flow, acceleration,
back and forth in the cathedral of Pisa.
which you can freely swing the pendu- sound, pendulums, momentum,magnet-
He used his pulse to time the swings
lum, such as the corner of a table or ism, and solar heat.
and discovered that the duration of
desk. Tape the string to the edge of the
each swing was the same.This would Galileo’s Pendulum Experiments
surface, making sure that the marked
later become an important concept in es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/
part of the string sits right on the edge.
regulating clocks. Do this experiment Student_Work/Experiment95/galileo_
with a pendulum and see whether you 2 Raise the washer to the height of the pendulum.html
can learn what makes it work. table. As you drop the washer, start Relates the observations Galileo made in
your timing. Count how many times his pendulum experiments, reproduces the
You will need the pendulum swings in 15 seconds. experiments, and reports the results.
Record the number on a sheet of
• cotton string How Pendulum Clocks Work
notepaper.
• flat metal washers www.howstuffworks.com/clock.htm
• ruler 3 Add a second washer to your pendu- Describes the workings of the pendulum
• scissors lum and repeat the experiment. Count clock, the first clock made that had any
• tape the number of swings in 15 seconds accuracy.
• watch with a second hand and record that number.
• notepaper The Pendulum
• ballpoint pen 4 Add two more washers (for a total of muse.tau.ac.il/museum/galileo/
four) and repeat the procedure one pendulum.html#a1
more time. Explains the mechanism that drives the
pendulum,why Galileo became interested
5 Cut a new piece of string 30 inches
in pendulums, and Galileo’s conclusions
long and create a pendulum that is 24
about the pendulum.
inches long, twice as long as in your
first experiment. Repeat the experi-
ment above.
6 Now take a look at your results. What You’re
affects the timing of the swing? What Getting
do you think would happen if you Very Sleepy
started the pendulum from different Have you
heights? ever seen a
hypnotist
swing a
watch back
and forth to put somebody in a
very relaxed state? The watch on a
chain is a type of pendulum.The
idea is that the swinging motion is
so regular that the person looking
at it will become so entranced that
she will be susceptible to anything
you tell her. Whether this is true
is debatable. But how a pendulum
works is not. Galileo discovered
the laws under which pendulums
work, one of the main principles
being that they swing in an almost
constant, steady interval. Later,
scientists used those principles to
design pendulum clocks.
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4. G a li l eo’s Ba ttle f or t he He ave n s AIRING OCTOBER 29, 2002
The Tick Tock of a Water Clock Learning More
Llewellyn, Claire.
For ages 10 and older. What to do My First Book of Time.
New York: DK Publishing, 1992.
1 On a sheet of paper, start from the bot-
Water clocks measure time by using the Covers such topics as days, seasons, sim-
tom and mark up four inches, drawing
fact that water will flow at a constant rate ple fractions, clocks, measuring time, and
lines at every half inch. Label the lines
through a certain size hole.The same time zones.
and cut out your ruler.
amount of water flows into its receiving 2 Have an adult help you remove the A Walk through Time: Early Clocks
container every second. By measuring the bottle label and cut the bottle in half. physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/
amount of water in the container, it is Tape your paper ruler onto the bottle early.html
possible to measure how much time has so that the bottom of the ruler lines up Provides a descriptive look at the history
passed. In this experiment, you will build a with the bottom of the bottle. Tape the of timekeeping from ancient to modern
water clock that measures time. bottle onto the front of the cardboard methods.
shoebox top.
You will need 3 Use the ballpoint pen to make a small Clock a History
• cardboard shoebox top hole in the bottom of the paper cup. www.ernie.cummings.net/clock.htm
• 1 paper cup Make the hole about a quarter-inch Includes information on who invented the
• 1-liter flat-bottomed clear plastic bottle from the outer edge of the bottom. Use clock, the world’s official timekeepers, and
• 1-cup measuring cup tape to secure the cup to the shoebox various types of clocks, such as the sand,
• 1/2 cup of water lid so that the hole in the cup is closest Sun, water, and candle clocks, and more.
• scissors to you.
• clear tape 4 Hold your finger under the hole in the
• stop watch or watch with second hand top container and pour in about 1/2 Telling Time
• notepaper cup of water.
• ballpoint pen 5 Remove your finger and begin timing. Today it is difficult not
Time how long it takes the water to fill to be conscious of time.
the bottom container a half inch. Can Wall clocks, radio
you make a scale that measures time announcements, com-
periods of one minute? How accurate puter monitors, watches, and cell
is your clock? What affects the accura- phones all tell us how much time is
cy? Try changing the variables, such as passing. Thousands of years ago,
the size of the hole or the number of measuring time was more
cups you use. What happens? Make difficult.The ancient
observations and note what you see. Egyptians, Greeks,
What are some ways you could use Romans, and Chinese
your clock? used clocks that depended
on nature. For instance,
the sundial kept track of
the time during daylight hours. To
measure smaller increments of
time, or when the Sun was not
shining, ancient peo-
ple used different
variations of clocks,
such as water, sand, or
candle clocks.
®
“Galileo’s Battle for the Heavens” is a production by Green
Umbrella,Ltd., for WGBH/Boston in association with Channel 4.
Major funding for “Galileo’s Battle for the Heavens”provided by
the National Science Foundation.
Any opinions,findings,and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Major funding for NOVA is provided by the Park Foundation,
the Northwestern Mutual Foundation,and Sprint. Additional
funding is provided by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting
and public television viewers.
Illustrations by Hannah Bonner
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