This document discusses the Boko Haram insurgency in Cameroon and the strategy of popular defense used to counter it. The summary is as follows:
Popular defense, which involves the mobilization of local vigilante groups to support security forces, is examined as a potential solution to the Boko Haram insurgency in Cameroon. While popular defense has contributed to Cameroon's resilience against Boko Haram, developing the economy is seen as a more sustainable solution that could undermine the insurgency's drivers. Factors like low education rates, lack of vocational training, and high poverty levels in Cameroon's Far North region have facilitated Boko Haram incursions.
Helping prevent terrorism and violent conflict the development dimensionKayode Fayemi
The document discusses the development dimension of preventing terrorism and violent conflict in Africa. It argues that narrowly defining security as a military issue fails to address the root causes of conflicts, which are often related to lack of economic opportunity and political legitimacy. A human security approach is needed that considers individual livelihoods and promotes democracy, justice and inclusive development. International organizations must support long-term peacebuilding in a holistic manner rather than just focusing on short-term goals like elections.
Peacebuilding and reconstruction ine aftermath of conflict the case of libe...Kayode Fayemi
Peacebuilding and reconstruction efforts require a holistic approach that addresses both short and long-term needs. Immediate relief efforts are important but not sufficient for sustainable peace and security. International actors should foster policy coherence, consult local communities, and consider how their actions may undermine stability, such as through arms sales or policies prioritizing macroeconomic targets over human welfare. A human security approach requires democratic governance, rule of law, development, and respect for human rights.
Preventing conflict and promoting peace and security within nepad and the afr...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the peace and security cluster of NEPAD and its operational challenges. It notes that while NEPAD recognizes the importance of peace and security for development, the original document had a limited understanding of the linkages between governance, security, and development. The document summarizes additions made at a later meeting to strengthen the peace and security cluster, including emphasizing democracy, human rights, and a human security approach. It argues this conceptualization of security is commendable and should scaffold NEPAD's implementation. However, challenges remain in translating these understandings into specific policies and ensuring effective implementation.
Comments on the human security aspect of the poverty reduction guidelinesKayode Fayemi
The document discusses the human security dimension of poverty reduction guidelines. It analyzes four typical policy levers proposed in the guidelines: 1) Support for peace building and reconstruction, 2) Support for state monopoly of means of coercion, 3) Promoting social coherence through civil society and tolerance, and 4) Building assets against disasters and economic shocks. However, the document argues that the assumptions and focus on the state in the guidelines provide an incomplete picture in Africa given increasing state illegitimacy. A human security approach requires considering non-state actors and the complex local and international dimensions driving conflicts on the continent.
Reflections on a Peace Building Approach to Conflict Prevention– Some Comment...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses a peacebuilding approach to conflict prevention in West Africa. It argues that peacebuilding must be linked to wider democratization and sustained development efforts. It analyzes the causes of conflicts in Africa, including shifts in global power relations after the Cold War, the rise of identity-based conflicts, increased availability of weapons, and the economic and political impacts of structural adjustment programs in the 1980s. The document calls for a human security approach focusing on four pillars: human security, democracy, transforming conflicts through political processes, and collective regional security.
This study interrogates the place of leadership and strategic communication in the actualization of overall national security in Nigeria. These tools of communication have been used to both incite violence as well as carry messages that help prevent violent conflict, and promote peace and reconciliation and Nigerian military is not exceptional. For instance, countering the Boko Haram insurgency was psychological operations. The Army was more successful in using this approach when Boko Haram’s use of violence was at its peak. Details for this are not hard to decipher, though they have never publicly explained why they engaged in psychological operations nor have they even admitted using them. There was a collective fear then, even among journalists and media establishments, some of whom were victims of Boko Haram’s attacks. The support the security services received from the media might have come from the need to address this for lasting solution in the nearest future. Due to government negligence on strategic communicate for national security, these gaps have unavoidably resulted in the resilience and devastating consequences in the state. Therefore, there is need for leaders to integrate a new culture of communication among agencies which can leads to greater efficiency in information and intelligence sharing under the established Strategic Communication Inter – Agency Policy Coordination Committee in overseeing strategic communication for national security.
Framework for cooperative security in a region in transition challenges and...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the framework for cooperative security in Africa and challenges therein. It provides context around increased regional cooperation in the late 1980s/early 1990s due to various global and local factors. It examines ECOWAS as the leading example in West Africa, outlining the institutions and mechanisms it has established like the Mediation and Security Council, Defence and Security Commission, and ECOMOG forces. However, it notes ongoing challenges including issues of sovereignty, differing regional interests, donor dependence, and lack of a shared security vision among some member states. The example of Cote d'Ivoire highlights the need for frameworks to go beyond structures to enable timely, credible action on humanitarian crises.
Helping prevent terrorism and violent conflict the development dimensionKayode Fayemi
The document discusses the development dimension of preventing terrorism and violent conflict in Africa. It argues that narrowly defining security as a military issue fails to address the root causes of conflicts, which are often related to lack of economic opportunity and political legitimacy. A human security approach is needed that considers individual livelihoods and promotes democracy, justice and inclusive development. International organizations must support long-term peacebuilding in a holistic manner rather than just focusing on short-term goals like elections.
Peacebuilding and reconstruction ine aftermath of conflict the case of libe...Kayode Fayemi
Peacebuilding and reconstruction efforts require a holistic approach that addresses both short and long-term needs. Immediate relief efforts are important but not sufficient for sustainable peace and security. International actors should foster policy coherence, consult local communities, and consider how their actions may undermine stability, such as through arms sales or policies prioritizing macroeconomic targets over human welfare. A human security approach requires democratic governance, rule of law, development, and respect for human rights.
Preventing conflict and promoting peace and security within nepad and the afr...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the peace and security cluster of NEPAD and its operational challenges. It notes that while NEPAD recognizes the importance of peace and security for development, the original document had a limited understanding of the linkages between governance, security, and development. The document summarizes additions made at a later meeting to strengthen the peace and security cluster, including emphasizing democracy, human rights, and a human security approach. It argues this conceptualization of security is commendable and should scaffold NEPAD's implementation. However, challenges remain in translating these understandings into specific policies and ensuring effective implementation.
Comments on the human security aspect of the poverty reduction guidelinesKayode Fayemi
The document discusses the human security dimension of poverty reduction guidelines. It analyzes four typical policy levers proposed in the guidelines: 1) Support for peace building and reconstruction, 2) Support for state monopoly of means of coercion, 3) Promoting social coherence through civil society and tolerance, and 4) Building assets against disasters and economic shocks. However, the document argues that the assumptions and focus on the state in the guidelines provide an incomplete picture in Africa given increasing state illegitimacy. A human security approach requires considering non-state actors and the complex local and international dimensions driving conflicts on the continent.
Reflections on a Peace Building Approach to Conflict Prevention– Some Comment...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses a peacebuilding approach to conflict prevention in West Africa. It argues that peacebuilding must be linked to wider democratization and sustained development efforts. It analyzes the causes of conflicts in Africa, including shifts in global power relations after the Cold War, the rise of identity-based conflicts, increased availability of weapons, and the economic and political impacts of structural adjustment programs in the 1980s. The document calls for a human security approach focusing on four pillars: human security, democracy, transforming conflicts through political processes, and collective regional security.
This study interrogates the place of leadership and strategic communication in the actualization of overall national security in Nigeria. These tools of communication have been used to both incite violence as well as carry messages that help prevent violent conflict, and promote peace and reconciliation and Nigerian military is not exceptional. For instance, countering the Boko Haram insurgency was psychological operations. The Army was more successful in using this approach when Boko Haram’s use of violence was at its peak. Details for this are not hard to decipher, though they have never publicly explained why they engaged in psychological operations nor have they even admitted using them. There was a collective fear then, even among journalists and media establishments, some of whom were victims of Boko Haram’s attacks. The support the security services received from the media might have come from the need to address this for lasting solution in the nearest future. Due to government negligence on strategic communicate for national security, these gaps have unavoidably resulted in the resilience and devastating consequences in the state. Therefore, there is need for leaders to integrate a new culture of communication among agencies which can leads to greater efficiency in information and intelligence sharing under the established Strategic Communication Inter – Agency Policy Coordination Committee in overseeing strategic communication for national security.
Framework for cooperative security in a region in transition challenges and...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the framework for cooperative security in Africa and challenges therein. It provides context around increased regional cooperation in the late 1980s/early 1990s due to various global and local factors. It examines ECOWAS as the leading example in West Africa, outlining the institutions and mechanisms it has established like the Mediation and Security Council, Defence and Security Commission, and ECOMOG forces. However, it notes ongoing challenges including issues of sovereignty, differing regional interests, donor dependence, and lack of a shared security vision among some member states. The example of Cote d'Ivoire highlights the need for frameworks to go beyond structures to enable timely, credible action on humanitarian crises.
Theoretical understanding of conflicts and violence in nigeria the niger delt...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research paper that explores theories to explain violence in Nigeria perpetrated by the Boko Haram militant group in the north and militant groups in the Niger Delta region. It discusses concepts of conflict and violence, and reviews literature on causes of conflicts. The paper aims to examine theories like relative deprivation, class conflict, and anomie to understand the violence in Nigeria, and suggest ways the government can manage these crises. Unemployment, poverty, and corruption are identified as major causes of violence in the country.
Socio pragmatic analysis of boko haram’s language of insurgency in nigeriaAlexander Decker
This document analyzes the language used by the Boko Haram insurgent group in Nigeria and its socio-pragmatic implications. It examines Boko Haram statements based on Austin's speech act theory, looking at the locutionary (what is said), illocutionary (intent/function), and perlocutionary (effect) acts. The analysis finds that Boko Haram's carefully chosen words, threatening an "Islamic state" and attacks until demands are met, have created fear among Nigerians and a sense that the government is unable to provide security. The document calls for Nigeria's government to take more innovative action to address the emergent security challenges posed by Boko Haram's insurgency
Globalization has allowed terrorism to exist on a global level due to increased technology and interconnectivity. While there is no agreed-upon definition, terrorism generally involves the use or threat of violence against civilians to achieve political goals. Globalization has aided terrorism through expanded air travel, televised news coverage, and access to more dangerous weapons. It has also contributed to cultural, economic, and religious explanations for terrorism. Technologies associated with globalization have improved terrorists' abilities to coordinate attacks, maintain security, gain mobility, and conduct more lethal operations. International efforts aim to curb terrorism through collaboration, but challenges remain around identification, bureaucratic defects, and addressing radicalizing messages.
Print media framing of boko haram insurgency in nigeria a content analytical ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed how four Nigerian newspapers (The Guardian, Daily Sun, Vanguard, and Thisday) framed coverage of the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. The study used content analysis to examine how the newspapers employed different framing patterns and categories. Key findings were that the newspapers predominantly used a "policy response frame," focusing on government responses, except for the Daily Sun which emphasized "ethnic and religious frames." Overall, the "policy response frame" was used most often across the newspapers at 60%. The study aims to understand newspaper framing of the insurgency and how certain frames like emphasizing government responses can help minimize conflicts, while other frames like ethnic or religious ones may
The document summarizes the SIPRI Yearbook 2013. It covers topics such as armed conflicts, peace operations, military spending, arms production, nuclear forces, and arms control efforts. In 2012, the total number of peace operations was 53 while the number of personnel serving in these operations fell by over 10% due to withdrawals from Afghanistan. World military spending in 2012 was estimated at $1756 billion, about 0.4% lower than 2011 but still higher than any year prior to 2008 due to the global economic crisis. The largest military spenders were the US, China, UK, Russia and Japan.
This document summarizes a journal article that examines the relationship between conflicts and national development in Nigeria. It discusses several key concepts including conflict, national security, and development. It then analyzes some of the main challenges to security in Nigeria that have implications for development, including ethno-religious conflicts, high youth unemployment, and issues with electoral politics and political violence. The document concludes that addressing security challenges is critical to achieving sustainable development in Nigeria.
WAR ON IRAQ IN THE LIGHT OF DEMOCRATIC PEACE THEORYEce Dincaslan
The document discusses the US-led war in Iraq beginning in 2003 and how it relates to democratic peace theory. It provides background on democratic peace theory and how the US justified the Iraq war using this framework. However, the document also notes that the war in Iraq can be seen as scientifically questionable in relation to democratic peace theory. It discusses opponents who argue the war was not truly motivated by weapons of mass destruction or democracy promotion, but instead by other factors like oil.
The document provides information about the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). It begins with a summary of SIPRI's mission to conduct independent research on conflict, armaments, arms control and disarmament. It then lists the members of SIPRI's Governing Board and its Director. It provides SIPRI's contact information and describes the SIPRI Yearbook as presenting original data and analysis on topics such as world military spending, arms transfers, nuclear forces, armed conflicts and peace operations. The document serves as an introduction and overview to the SIPRI Yearbook 2012.
Liberalist approach to the Iraq War and the War on Terrorabbeyfieldpolitics
1) The document discusses the liberal view of the Iraq War in 2003 from three perspectives: humanitarian intervention, spreading democracy in the Middle East, and liberalism and benign empire.
2) While some liberals supported the war on humanitarian grounds to remove Saddam Hussein's tyrannical regime, most organizations like Human Rights Watch did not consider Iraq an exceptional case that justified unilateral humanitarian intervention.
3) Another justification was that invading Iraq could spread democracy in the Middle East, but some argue this view had an imperial logic.
4) The US portrayed itself as heading a liberal empire that was relatively benign by establishing democratic systems and then withdrawing control, though its occupation of Iraq was still traditionally imperial. De
11.challenges of global terrorism strategies, dimensions and response in sea...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the challenges of global terrorism, including its strategies, dimensions, and responses. It provides background on how globalization has contributed to terrorism becoming a global phenomenon. Key points made include:
- Terrorism has become more widespread, lethal, and indiscriminate, using tactics like suicide bombings.
- The number of terrorist groups and their capabilities have increased significantly since the 1990s.
- Major global terrorist groups today include al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah, and others based in various regions.
- Terrorists seek to polarize situations and sabotage peace negotiations through dramatic or lethal attacks.
- The threat of terrorists acquiring weapons of mass destruction like nuclear, chemical
Challenges of global terrorism strategies, dimensions and response in search...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the challenges of global terrorism, including its strategies, dimensions, and responses. It provides background on how globalization has contributed to terrorism becoming a global phenomenon. Key points made include:
- Terrorism has become more widespread, lethal, and indiscriminate, using tactics like suicide bombings.
- The number of terrorist groups and their capabilities have increased significantly since the 1990s.
- Major global terrorist groups today include al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah, and others based in various regions.
- Terrorists seek to polarize situations and sabotage peace negotiations through dramatic or lethal attacks.
- The threat of terrorists acquiring weapons of mass destruction like nuclear, chemical
Addressing the regional character of conflicts in west africaKayode Fayemi
This document discusses the regional dimensions of conflicts in West Africa and proposes a framework for human security in the region. It begins by outlining the nature and characteristics of conflicts in West Africa, noting that while some countries have made democratic progress, the region remains vulnerable to crisis and violence. It then analyzes the different thematic and geographic categories in the region in terms of their human security situations. The document argues that understanding the root causes of conflicts requires examining both historical and contemporary factors in a nuanced way. It also discusses regionalism in Africa, noting both the progress that has been made through organizations like ECOWAS but also the ongoing challenges to security arrangements and prospects for cooperative security in West Africa.
The Peace and Security Challenges Facing Africa: Can the African Union and NE...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the challenges facing the African Union (AU) and the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) in addressing peace and security issues on the continent. It analyzes the peace and security cluster of the NEPAD strategy, highlighting both positive and critical aspects. It examines the causes, nature, and context of conflicts in Africa in order to understand the values of security that need to be promoted. Finally, it discusses prospects for addressing current challenges and the need for genuine global partnership to resolve Africa's violent conflicts.
Preventing Conflict and Promoting Peace and Security Within NEPAD and the Afr...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the peace and security cluster of NEPAD and the African Union. It notes that while NEPAD recognizes the importance of peace and security to development, it could take a more holistic, human security approach. It summarizes the key areas of focus in the peace and security cluster and comments that emphasizing democracy, governance, and human rights is commendable. However, translating these ideals into specific policies and ensuring effective implementation remains a challenge.
The document outlines the Global Action to Prevent War Project, which aims to reduce armed conflict through three main components: 1) ongoing conflict prevention and resolution efforts to reduce internal conflicts, 2) a phased global disarmament program accompanied by strengthened peacekeeping, and 3) support for building a culture of peace. It provides details on implementation, arguing that sustained, coordinated multi-level efforts can help constrain violence and move towards the project's long-term goals of making armed conflict increasingly rare over several decades. While some progress has been made, it notes that more is needed to fulfill obligations around conflict prevention, humanitarian response, disarmament, and building sustainable peace.
Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 debate has circulated around the nature and success of counterterrorism policies. Considering after thirteen years, the world has not faced a major attack on the same scale as those witnessed in 2001; counterterrorism policies by some have been argued to be a phenomenal success. This article will focus on counterterrorism policies by the United States, positing the argument that the success of these policies cannot be determined by the mere lack of terrorist attacks, but by the effects of these policies
Though the worst intelligence failure, the USA took maximum advantage of the 9/11 tragedy and embarked on the mission to accomplish the objectives set forth in the infamous neo-con paper, known as the American Century.
America employed all its -military, diplomatic and financial, to wage a war of terror on several countries besides Afghanistan-its starting point.
Whether it was a stellar success or a dismal failure, it has cost the world massively in terms of loss of human lives, financial losses, refugees crises, missed opportunities, and surprisingly, increased global terrorism
This presentation covers all these issues in greater detail
The scourge of socio economic insecurity in nigeria’s fourth republic, and th...Alexander Decker
1) The document discusses socio-economic insecurity in Nigeria since the return to civilian rule in 1999. While expectations were high that an elected government would improve living standards, paradoxically Nigerians have faced harsh socio-economic conditions and a deterioration in their standard of living.
2) Issues like unemployment, collapse of industries, poor infrastructure, sectarian clashes, assassinations and kidnappings have created a high sense of insecurity. This undermines Nigeria's goal of becoming a top 20 global economy and its competitiveness in Africa.
3) The failure of leaders to provide "public goods" like education, healthcare, jobs and reducing inequality has been the source of violence and threatens Nigeria's relevance as an anchor country in
This document discusses the political will needed among African leaders to protect civilians. It notes that while the African Union has committed to intervening in humanitarian crises, leaders like Mugabe are skeptical of concepts like R2P. The document analyzes challenges in generating political will, like in Darfur where the AU struggled despite commitments. Ultimately, consistent action is needed to judge if leaders will fulfill responsibilities to protect civilians when crises occur.
Theoretical understanding of conflicts and violence in nigeria the niger delt...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research paper that explores theories to explain violence in Nigeria perpetrated by the Boko Haram militant group in the north and militant groups in the Niger Delta region. It discusses concepts of conflict and violence, and reviews literature on causes of conflicts. The paper aims to examine theories like relative deprivation, class conflict, and anomie to understand the violence in Nigeria, and suggest ways the government can manage these crises. Unemployment, poverty, and corruption are identified as major causes of violence in the country.
Socio pragmatic analysis of boko haram’s language of insurgency in nigeriaAlexander Decker
This document analyzes the language used by the Boko Haram insurgent group in Nigeria and its socio-pragmatic implications. It examines Boko Haram statements based on Austin's speech act theory, looking at the locutionary (what is said), illocutionary (intent/function), and perlocutionary (effect) acts. The analysis finds that Boko Haram's carefully chosen words, threatening an "Islamic state" and attacks until demands are met, have created fear among Nigerians and a sense that the government is unable to provide security. The document calls for Nigeria's government to take more innovative action to address the emergent security challenges posed by Boko Haram's insurgency
Globalization has allowed terrorism to exist on a global level due to increased technology and interconnectivity. While there is no agreed-upon definition, terrorism generally involves the use or threat of violence against civilians to achieve political goals. Globalization has aided terrorism through expanded air travel, televised news coverage, and access to more dangerous weapons. It has also contributed to cultural, economic, and religious explanations for terrorism. Technologies associated with globalization have improved terrorists' abilities to coordinate attacks, maintain security, gain mobility, and conduct more lethal operations. International efforts aim to curb terrorism through collaboration, but challenges remain around identification, bureaucratic defects, and addressing radicalizing messages.
Print media framing of boko haram insurgency in nigeria a content analytical ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed how four Nigerian newspapers (The Guardian, Daily Sun, Vanguard, and Thisday) framed coverage of the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. The study used content analysis to examine how the newspapers employed different framing patterns and categories. Key findings were that the newspapers predominantly used a "policy response frame," focusing on government responses, except for the Daily Sun which emphasized "ethnic and religious frames." Overall, the "policy response frame" was used most often across the newspapers at 60%. The study aims to understand newspaper framing of the insurgency and how certain frames like emphasizing government responses can help minimize conflicts, while other frames like ethnic or religious ones may
The document summarizes the SIPRI Yearbook 2013. It covers topics such as armed conflicts, peace operations, military spending, arms production, nuclear forces, and arms control efforts. In 2012, the total number of peace operations was 53 while the number of personnel serving in these operations fell by over 10% due to withdrawals from Afghanistan. World military spending in 2012 was estimated at $1756 billion, about 0.4% lower than 2011 but still higher than any year prior to 2008 due to the global economic crisis. The largest military spenders were the US, China, UK, Russia and Japan.
This document summarizes a journal article that examines the relationship between conflicts and national development in Nigeria. It discusses several key concepts including conflict, national security, and development. It then analyzes some of the main challenges to security in Nigeria that have implications for development, including ethno-religious conflicts, high youth unemployment, and issues with electoral politics and political violence. The document concludes that addressing security challenges is critical to achieving sustainable development in Nigeria.
WAR ON IRAQ IN THE LIGHT OF DEMOCRATIC PEACE THEORYEce Dincaslan
The document discusses the US-led war in Iraq beginning in 2003 and how it relates to democratic peace theory. It provides background on democratic peace theory and how the US justified the Iraq war using this framework. However, the document also notes that the war in Iraq can be seen as scientifically questionable in relation to democratic peace theory. It discusses opponents who argue the war was not truly motivated by weapons of mass destruction or democracy promotion, but instead by other factors like oil.
The document provides information about the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). It begins with a summary of SIPRI's mission to conduct independent research on conflict, armaments, arms control and disarmament. It then lists the members of SIPRI's Governing Board and its Director. It provides SIPRI's contact information and describes the SIPRI Yearbook as presenting original data and analysis on topics such as world military spending, arms transfers, nuclear forces, armed conflicts and peace operations. The document serves as an introduction and overview to the SIPRI Yearbook 2012.
Liberalist approach to the Iraq War and the War on Terrorabbeyfieldpolitics
1) The document discusses the liberal view of the Iraq War in 2003 from three perspectives: humanitarian intervention, spreading democracy in the Middle East, and liberalism and benign empire.
2) While some liberals supported the war on humanitarian grounds to remove Saddam Hussein's tyrannical regime, most organizations like Human Rights Watch did not consider Iraq an exceptional case that justified unilateral humanitarian intervention.
3) Another justification was that invading Iraq could spread democracy in the Middle East, but some argue this view had an imperial logic.
4) The US portrayed itself as heading a liberal empire that was relatively benign by establishing democratic systems and then withdrawing control, though its occupation of Iraq was still traditionally imperial. De
11.challenges of global terrorism strategies, dimensions and response in sea...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the challenges of global terrorism, including its strategies, dimensions, and responses. It provides background on how globalization has contributed to terrorism becoming a global phenomenon. Key points made include:
- Terrorism has become more widespread, lethal, and indiscriminate, using tactics like suicide bombings.
- The number of terrorist groups and their capabilities have increased significantly since the 1990s.
- Major global terrorist groups today include al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah, and others based in various regions.
- Terrorists seek to polarize situations and sabotage peace negotiations through dramatic or lethal attacks.
- The threat of terrorists acquiring weapons of mass destruction like nuclear, chemical
Challenges of global terrorism strategies, dimensions and response in search...Alexander Decker
This document discusses the challenges of global terrorism, including its strategies, dimensions, and responses. It provides background on how globalization has contributed to terrorism becoming a global phenomenon. Key points made include:
- Terrorism has become more widespread, lethal, and indiscriminate, using tactics like suicide bombings.
- The number of terrorist groups and their capabilities have increased significantly since the 1990s.
- Major global terrorist groups today include al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah, and others based in various regions.
- Terrorists seek to polarize situations and sabotage peace negotiations through dramatic or lethal attacks.
- The threat of terrorists acquiring weapons of mass destruction like nuclear, chemical
Addressing the regional character of conflicts in west africaKayode Fayemi
This document discusses the regional dimensions of conflicts in West Africa and proposes a framework for human security in the region. It begins by outlining the nature and characteristics of conflicts in West Africa, noting that while some countries have made democratic progress, the region remains vulnerable to crisis and violence. It then analyzes the different thematic and geographic categories in the region in terms of their human security situations. The document argues that understanding the root causes of conflicts requires examining both historical and contemporary factors in a nuanced way. It also discusses regionalism in Africa, noting both the progress that has been made through organizations like ECOWAS but also the ongoing challenges to security arrangements and prospects for cooperative security in West Africa.
The Peace and Security Challenges Facing Africa: Can the African Union and NE...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the challenges facing the African Union (AU) and the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) in addressing peace and security issues on the continent. It analyzes the peace and security cluster of the NEPAD strategy, highlighting both positive and critical aspects. It examines the causes, nature, and context of conflicts in Africa in order to understand the values of security that need to be promoted. Finally, it discusses prospects for addressing current challenges and the need for genuine global partnership to resolve Africa's violent conflicts.
Preventing Conflict and Promoting Peace and Security Within NEPAD and the Afr...Kayode Fayemi
This document discusses the peace and security cluster of NEPAD and the African Union. It notes that while NEPAD recognizes the importance of peace and security to development, it could take a more holistic, human security approach. It summarizes the key areas of focus in the peace and security cluster and comments that emphasizing democracy, governance, and human rights is commendable. However, translating these ideals into specific policies and ensuring effective implementation remains a challenge.
The document outlines the Global Action to Prevent War Project, which aims to reduce armed conflict through three main components: 1) ongoing conflict prevention and resolution efforts to reduce internal conflicts, 2) a phased global disarmament program accompanied by strengthened peacekeeping, and 3) support for building a culture of peace. It provides details on implementation, arguing that sustained, coordinated multi-level efforts can help constrain violence and move towards the project's long-term goals of making armed conflict increasingly rare over several decades. While some progress has been made, it notes that more is needed to fulfill obligations around conflict prevention, humanitarian response, disarmament, and building sustainable peace.
Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 debate has circulated around the nature and success of counterterrorism policies. Considering after thirteen years, the world has not faced a major attack on the same scale as those witnessed in 2001; counterterrorism policies by some have been argued to be a phenomenal success. This article will focus on counterterrorism policies by the United States, positing the argument that the success of these policies cannot be determined by the mere lack of terrorist attacks, but by the effects of these policies
Though the worst intelligence failure, the USA took maximum advantage of the 9/11 tragedy and embarked on the mission to accomplish the objectives set forth in the infamous neo-con paper, known as the American Century.
America employed all its -military, diplomatic and financial, to wage a war of terror on several countries besides Afghanistan-its starting point.
Whether it was a stellar success or a dismal failure, it has cost the world massively in terms of loss of human lives, financial losses, refugees crises, missed opportunities, and surprisingly, increased global terrorism
This presentation covers all these issues in greater detail
The scourge of socio economic insecurity in nigeria’s fourth republic, and th...Alexander Decker
1) The document discusses socio-economic insecurity in Nigeria since the return to civilian rule in 1999. While expectations were high that an elected government would improve living standards, paradoxically Nigerians have faced harsh socio-economic conditions and a deterioration in their standard of living.
2) Issues like unemployment, collapse of industries, poor infrastructure, sectarian clashes, assassinations and kidnappings have created a high sense of insecurity. This undermines Nigeria's goal of becoming a top 20 global economy and its competitiveness in Africa.
3) The failure of leaders to provide "public goods" like education, healthcare, jobs and reducing inequality has been the source of violence and threatens Nigeria's relevance as an anchor country in
This document discusses the political will needed among African leaders to protect civilians. It notes that while the African Union has committed to intervening in humanitarian crises, leaders like Mugabe are skeptical of concepts like R2P. The document analyzes challenges in generating political will, like in Darfur where the AU struggled despite commitments. Ultimately, consistent action is needed to judge if leaders will fulfill responsibilities to protect civilians when crises occur.
This document is an essay submission cover sheet from a student at the University of York submitting an essay on securitization of humanitarian aid in Afghanistan. The cover sheet confirms the student has followed submission guidelines, including formatting the essay properly, including an accurate word count, and not including their name. The attached essay abstract indicates it will examine the impact of civil-military relations on humanitarian principles in Afghanistan after 9/11, including whether securitization of aid was necessary and the consequences of militarized intervention.
The document argues that Prime Minister Netanyahu's assertion that continued bombardment of Gaza will create security and peace for Israel is not backed by scientific evidence. It proposes an alternative approach called Invincible Defense Technology (IDT) that uses Transcendental Meditation to reduce stress and violence, which has been successfully implemented and shown to reduce conflict and violence in over 50 studies and real-world applications in countries like Mozambique. The document concludes that adopting IDT would allow Israel to assure lasting peace through a scientifically-validated means without continued violence.
This document provides an overview of international relations theory, including concepts of security in the international arena. It discusses traditional security approaches focused on the state and military concerns, as well as more modern human security approaches. It also outlines several theoretical perspectives in international relations like realism, liberalism, constructivism, and compares realism and liberalism. Key concepts covered include the multi-sum security principle, women in international security, and the UNDP human security proposal.
Victory Amongst People - Mills- Richards - Ewen McLayEwen McLay
The document summarizes and reviews the book "Victory Among People – Lessons from Countering Insurgency and Stabilising Fragile States". It makes the following key points:
1) The book provides a rich starting point for studying insurgencies and is a must-read for counterinsurgents.
2) It examines regional case studies of 16 counterinsurgency campaigns across different continents and decades. Common themes that emerge can inform how to counter insurgencies.
3) The authors have extensive first-hand operational experience, giving credibility to the analysis and recommendations in the book.
Beyond presentability civil-military relations and the future of democratic...Kayode Fayemi
This summary provides an overview of the challenges to demilitarization and democratic consolidation in West Africa based on the document:
1) West Africa poses some of the greatest challenges to demilitarization due to a history of conflicts, increased arms flows, influence of private armies, and the prominent role of force in conflict resolution.
2) Successful demilitarization requires addressing both quantitative reductions in military forces as well as qualitative changes in military culture and influence.
3) Key challenges include overcoming the militarized mindset developed during decades of authoritarian rule, addressing the colonial legacy of West African militaries, and developing knowledgeable civilian oversight to replace military dominance over security policies.
The Future of Demilitarisation and Stable Civil-Military Relations in West Af...Kayode Fayemi
This document summarizes the challenges of demilitarization and establishing stable civil-military relations in West Africa. It argues that West Africa poses some of the greatest obstacles to demilitarization in Africa due to high levels of conflicts, arms flows, private armies, and military influence over political decision-making. While countries in West Africa have democratized through elections, many have not established true democracies and still struggle with issues like rigged elections, authoritarian leaders, and exclusion of opposition groups. This paradox means that completely demilitarizing is difficult for authoritarian leaders but also that solely focusing on elections does not promote demilitarization or resolve the root causes of conflicts. The challenges of demilitarization in
The Role of Youths in Peace Building A Response to Insurgency in the Northeas...ijtsrd
This paper aims to investigate the role of youths in peace building, as a response to Boko Haram insurgent activities in the northeastern Nigeria. The paper used secondary data and discussions of the findings have been made qualitatively. The finding of the study indicated that the northeast geopolitical region has been a peaceful region, notably Kanem Borno Empire since before the colonial rule. This was possible because of the role played by the rulers of that era in promoting peace and peaceful coexistence, such as establishing the concept of unity of God none to be worshipped but Allah alone , rule with justice as Allah and His messenger gave judgment, by the Book Quran and the Sunnah Hadith , and not to oppress any of the servants of Allah, as Allah averts oppression from the two worlds, etc. However, there were some emerging challenges to peace as a result of Boko Haram insurgency in the region, such as unleashed great fear and suffering upon individuals, displaced great number of people causing an enormous economic Barden upon the society and total destruction of educational system where students were been killed and schools were destroyed. The finding also indicated youth have played important role in peace building. The paper gave some recommendations on the expected roles of youth in peace building in the North East, view to proffering solutions and relevant policy options that could be implemented, for a strong, lasting, beneficial, acceptable, strategy that will eradicate violence, social conflicts and other vices which constitute threat to our peaceful coexistence. Dr. Kalli Alkali Yusuf Gazali "The Role of Youths in Peace Building: A Response to Insurgency in the Northeastern Nigeria" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-1 , February 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52715.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/52715/the-role-of-youths-in-peace-building-a-response-to-insurgency-in-the-northeastern-nigeria/dr-kalli-alkali-yusuf-gazali
Preventing conflict and promoting peace and security within nepad and the afr...Kayode Fayemi
The document discusses the peace and security cluster of NEPAD and the African Union. It provides context on the causes and nature of conflicts in Africa. Key points include:
- NEPAD recognizes the importance of peace and security but its understanding of the link between governance, security, and development is limited.
- Democracy, good governance, and human rights need to be explicitly prioritized to effectively link human security to development.
- Africa's conflicts are complex with roots in economic issues, shifts in global power, and the proliferation of small arms exacerbating internal divisions.
- A human security approach focusing on democracy, political solutions, and collective security is needed to build peace.
Peacebuilding and reconstruction ine aftermath of conflict the case of libe...Kayode Fayemi
Peacebuilding and reconstruction efforts require a holistic approach that addresses both short and long-term needs. Immediate relief efforts are important but not sufficient for sustainable peace and security. International actors should foster policy coherence, consult local communities, and consider how their actions may undermine security and development goals. A human security approach requires addressing poverty, lack of opportunities, and the protection of citizens' rights and dignity.
This document discusses how science and technology education can strengthen peace building. It begins by outlining some of the main causes of conflicts in Africa, including inequitable distribution of resources, poverty, breakdown of communication, and lack of a culture of peace. The document then examines the role that scientific knowledge, application of knowledge, and scientific processes can play in influencing socioeconomic development, poverty reduction, communication, and mindsets that promote peace - all of which are important aspects of peace building.
This document discusses how science and technology education can strengthen peace building. It begins by outlining some of the main causes of conflicts in Africa, including inequitable distribution of resources, poverty, breakdown of communication, and lack of a culture of peace. The document then examines the role that scientific knowledge, its application, and the scientific process can play in influencing socioeconomic development, poverty reduction, communication, and mindsets that promote peace - all of which are important aspects of peace building.
This article discusses how the Department of Defense (DOD) counters terrorism through partnerships. Domestically, DOD counterintelligence agents work with the FBI on Joint Terrorism Task Forces to investigate terrorist threats and protect DOD personnel and assets. Overseas, DOD partners with the State Department on Force Protection Detachments to share intelligence with military commanders transiting high-risk areas. The article cites an example of a DOD agent assisting an FBI investigation that led to the arrest of a former Navy sailor providing terrorist support.
Panel Debate: Mediation, Conflict Prevention, Resolution and Post-conflict Re...Africa Cheetah Run
Conflict resolution is a way for two or more parties to find a peaceful solution to a disagreement among them. The disagreement may be personal, financial, political, or emotional. When a dispute arises, often the best course of action is negotiation to resolve the disagreement. The overall reduction in the number of violent conflicts can, in part, be attributed to the collective efforts of the United Nations, other international actors and regional organisations.
Peace and security are fundamental human needs that are closely tied to development goals like prosperity, inclusion, and human rights. However, achieving peace and security is challenging as threats like armed conflicts, terrorism, and human rights abuses endanger lives and stability. The document outlines some of the main contemporary threats to peace and security, including ongoing armed conflicts, terrorism, and their severe human and economic costs. It also discusses strategies for preventing disputes from escalating, such as preventive diplomacy, disarmament, and early warning systems to enable timely action from the UN Security Council.
This document discusses education inequality in Ivory Coast in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. It identifies types of conventional education inequalities related to school attainment, distribution, completion, and learning outcomes. While efforts have been made to promote equality and equity, inequalities persist. The use of media education during COVID-19 in Ivory Coast revealed gender and regional inequalities. There were both similarities and differences between conventional and media-based education inequalities. Media education helped reduce some inequalities but also created new ones related to access and resources. Addressing issues like school locations, inequity, and rural-urban divides could help promote more equal education opportunities.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines how a lack of local legitimacy has undermined the effectiveness of UN peacekeeping missions in the Horn of Africa region. It finds that host governments and conflicting parties often perceived missions as inappropriate or partisan, reducing cooperation. When local actors see missions as illegitimate, they are less likely to comply or support them. The document analyzes how legitimacy deficits influenced specific missions, like UNOSOM in Somalia in the 1990s, which failed in part due to a lack of consent from powerful Somali warlords. Overall, it concludes that a lack of local legitimacy has made missions unable to resolve conflicts and promote sustainable peace in the region.
From Teacher to OnlyFans: Brianna Coppage's Story at 28get joys
At 28, Brianna Coppage left her teaching career to become an OnlyFans content creator. This bold move into digital entrepreneurship allowed her to harness her creativity and build a new identity. Brianna's experience highlights the intersection of technology and personal branding in today's economy.
Sara Saffari: Turning Underweight into Fitness Success at 23get joys
Uncover the remarkable journey of Sara Saffari, whose transformation from underweight struggles to being recognized as a fitness icon at 23 underscores the importance of perseverance, discipline, and embracing a healthy lifestyle.
HD Video Player All Format - 4k & live streamHD Video Player
Discover the best video playback experience with HD Video Player. Our powerful, user-friendly app supports all popular video formats and codecs, ensuring seamless playback of your favorite videos in stunning HD and 4K quality. Whether you're watching movies, TV shows, or personal videos, HD Video Player provides the ultimate viewing experience on your device. 🚀
Tom Cruise Daughter: An Insight into the Life of Suri Cruisegreendigital
Tom Cruise is a name that resonates with global audiences for his iconic roles in blockbuster films and his dynamic presence in Hollywood. But, beyond his illustrious career, Tom Cruise's personal life. especially his relationship with his daughter has been a subject of public fascination and media scrutiny. This article delves deep into the life of Tom Cruise daughter, Suri Cruise. Exploring her upbringing, the influence of her parents, and her current life.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Introduction: The Fame Surrounding Tom Cruise Daughter
Suri Cruise, the daughter of Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes, has been in the public eye since her birth on April 18, 2006. Thanks to the media's relentless coverage, the world watched her grow up. As the daughter of one of Hollywood's most renowned actors. Suri has had a unique upbringing marked by privilege and scrutiny. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of Suri Cruise's life. Her relationship with her parents, and her journey so far.
Early Life of Tom Cruise Daughter
Birth and Immediate Fame
Suri Cruise was born in Santa Monica, California. and from the moment she came into the world, she was thrust into the limelight. Her parents, Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes. Were one of Hollywood's most talked-about couples at the time. The birth of their daughter was a anticipated event. and Suri's first public appearance in Vanity Fair magazine set the tone for her life in the public eye.
The Impact of Celebrity Parents
Having celebrity parents like Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes comes with its own set of challenges and privileges. Suri Cruise's early life marked by a whirlwind of media attention. paparazzi, and public interest. Despite the constant spotlight. Her parents tried to provide her with an upbringing that was as normal as possible.
The Influence of Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes
Tom Cruise's Parenting Style
Tom Cruise known for his dedication and passion in both his professional and personal life. As a father, Cruise has described as loving and protective. His involvement in the Church of Scientology, but, has been a point of contention and has influenced his relationship with Suri. Cruise's commitment to Scientology has reported to be a significant factor in his and Holmes' divorce and his limited public interactions with Suri.
Katie Holmes' Role in Suri's Life
Katie Holmes has been Suri's primary caregiver since her separation from Tom Cruise in 2012. Holmes has provided a stable and grounded environment for her daughter. She moved to New York City with Suri to start a new chapter in their lives away from the intense scrutiny of Hollywood.
Suri Cruise: Growing Up in the Spotlight
Media Attention and Public Interest
From stylish outfits to everyday activities. Suri Cruise has been a favorite subject for tabloids and entertainment news. The constant media attention has shaped her childhood. Despite this, Suri has managed to maintain a level of normalcy, thanks to her mother's efforts.
The cats, Sunny and Rishi, are brothers who live with their sister, Jessica, and their grandmother, Susie. They work as cleaners but wish to seek other kinds of employment that are better than their current jobs. New career adventures await Sunny and Rishi!
Taylor Swift: Conquering Fame, Feuds, and Unmatched Success | CIO Women MagazineCIOWomenMagazine
From country star to global phenomenon, delve into Taylor Swift's incredible journey. Explore chart-topping hits, feuds, & her rise to billionaire status!
The Future of Independent Filmmaking Trends and Job OpportunitiesLetsFAME
The landscape of independent filmmaking is evolving at an unprecedented pace. Technological advancements, changing consumer preferences, and new distribution models are reshaping the industry, creating new opportunities and challenges for filmmakers and film industry jobs. This article explores the future of independent filmmaking, highlighting key trends and emerging job opportunities.
Leonardo DiCaprio House: A Journey Through His Extravagant Real Estate Portfoliogreendigital
Introduction
Leonardo DiCaprio, A name synonymous with Hollywood excellence. is not only known for his stellar acting career but also for his impressive real estate investments. The "Leonardo DiCaprio house" is a topic that piques the interest of many. as the Oscar-winning actor has amassed a diverse portfolio of luxurious properties. DiCaprio's homes reflect his varied tastes and commitment to sustainability. from retreats to historic mansions. This article will delve into the fascinating world of Leonardo DiCaprio's real estate. Exploring the details of his most notable residences. and the unique aspects that make them stand out.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Leonardo DiCaprio House: Malibu Beachfront Retreat
A Prime Location
His Malibu beachfront house is one of the most famous properties in Leonardo DiCaprio's real estate portfolio. Situated in the exclusive Carbon Beach. also known as "Billionaire's Beach," this property boasts stunning ocean views and private beach access. The "Leonardo DiCaprio house" in Malibu is a testament to the actor's love for the sea and his penchant for luxurious living.
Architectural Highlights
The Malibu house features a modern design with clean lines, large windows. and open spaces blending indoor and outdoor living. The expansive deck and patio areas provide ample space for entertaining guests or enjoying a quiet sunset. The house has state-of-the-art amenities. including a gourmet kitchen, a home theatre, and many guest suites.
Sustainable Features
Leonardo DiCaprio is a well-known environmental activist. whose Malibu house reflects his commitment to sustainability. The property incorporates solar panels, energy-efficient appliances, and sustainable building materials. The landscaping around the house is also designed to be water-efficient. featuring drought-resistant plants and intelligent irrigation systems.
Leonardo DiCaprio House: Hollywood Hills Hideaway
Privacy and Seclusion
Another remarkable property in Leonardo DiCaprio's collection is his Hollywood Hills house. This secluded retreat offers privacy and tranquility. making it an ideal escape from the hustle and bustle of Los Angeles. The "Leonardo DiCaprio house" in Hollywood Hills nestled among lush greenery. and offers panoramic views of the city and surrounding landscapes.
Design and Amenities
The Hollywood Hills house is a mid-century modern gem characterized by its sleek design and floor-to-ceiling windows. The open-concept living space is perfect for entertaining. while the cozy bedrooms provide a comfortable retreat. The property also features a swimming pool, and outdoor dining area. and a spacious deck that overlooks the cityscape.
Environmental Initiatives
The Hollywood Hills house incorporates several green features that are in line with DiCaprio's environmental values. The home has solar panels, energy-efficient lighting, and a rainwater harvesting system. Additionally, the landscaping designed to support local wildlife and promote
Brian Peck Leonardo DiCaprio: A Unique Intersection of Lives and Legaciesgreendigital
Introduction
The world of Hollywood is vast and interconnected. filled with countless stories of collaboration, friendship, and influence. Among these tales are the notable narratives of Brian Peck and Leonardo DiCaprio. The keyword "Brian Peck Leonardo DiCaprio" might not immediately ring a bell for everyone. but the connection between these two figures in the entertainment industry is intriguing and significant. This article delves deep into their lives, careers, and the moments where their paths intersect. providing a comprehensive look at how their stories intertwine.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Early Life and Career Beginnings
Brian Peck: The Early Years
Brian Peck was born in New York City on July 29, 1960. From a young age, Peck exhibited a passion for the performing arts. He attended the Professional Children's School. which has a history of nurturing young talent in the arts. Peck's early career marked by a series of roles in television and film that showcased his versatility as an actor.
Peck's breakthrough came with his role in the cult classic "The Return of the Living Dead" (1985). His performance as Scuz, one of the punk rockers who releases a toxic gas that reanimates the dead. earned him a place in the annals of horror cinema. This role opened doors for Peck. allowing him to explore various facets of the entertainment industry. including writing and directing.
Leonardo DiCaprio: From Child Star to Hollywood Icon
Leonardo DiCaprio was born in Los Angeles, California, on November 11, 1974. His career began at a young age with appearances in television commercials and educational films. DiCaprio's big break came when he joined the cast of the popular sitcom "Growing Pains" (1985-1992). where he played the character Luke Brower.
DiCaprio's transition from television to film was seamless. He gained recognition for his role in "This Boy's Life" (1993) alongside Robert De Niro. This performance began a series of acclaimed roles. establishing DiCaprio as one of the most talented actors of his generation. His portrayal of Jack Dawson in James Cameron's "Titanic" (1997) catapulted him to global stardom. solidifying his status as a Hollywood icon.
Brian Peck Leonardo DiCaprio: Their Paths Cross
Collaborations and Connections
The keyword "Brian Peck Leonardo DiCaprio" signifies more than two names; it represents a fascinating connection in Hollywood. While their careers took different trajectories, their paths crossed in the 1990s. Brian Peck worked with DiCaprio on the set of the 1990s sitcom "Growing Pains." where DiCaprio had a recurring role. Peck appeared in a few episodes. contributing to the comedic and dynamic environment of the show.
Their professional relationship extended beyond "Growing Pains." Peck directed DiCaprio in several educational videos for the "Disneyland Fun" series. where DiCaprio's youthful charm and energy were evident. These early collaborations offered DiCaprio valuable experience in front of the camera. he
Brian Peck Leonardo DiCaprio: A Unique Intersection of Lives and Legacies
G374858
1. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 48
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS)
E-ISSN: 2378-702X
Volume-03, Issue-07, pp 48-58
July-2020
www.arjhss.com
Research Paper Open Access
Boko Haram Insurgency as a Threat to Peace building and
Economic Emergence in Cameroon:
Does the Popular Defense a Solution?
Herman Touo
University of Ngaoundere, Cameroon
Abstract: - The starting point of this study is the idea that, geopolitical and geo-strategic regional compulsions
around the Lake Chad have made the revision and redefinition of the popular defense, which is army and nation
working in synergy to defend a country’s territory and sovereignty, a necessity. More broadly, the conceptual
and empirical puzzles of this piece can be simply and directly formulated in two research questions. Does
popular defense, which is the operational concept in the strategy of defense in Cameroon, a genuine solution to
Boko Haram insurgency regarding factors driving this phenomenon? Can the mobilization of the population
really impact peacebuilding as a prerequisite of economic emergence of Cameroon, that is, "a country that
creates and distributes wealth fairly; a country that offers equal development opportunities to all; a country with
strong and sustainable growth; a country with enhanced food security, in a word, a country that ensures
happiness for all"? The principal hypothesis driving this study is that, although Cameroon’s resilience to Boko
Haram can be associated to the materialization of popular defense or the symbiosis between army and nation,
there is an urgent need to develop the economy as a sustainable solution which can counter insurgency. Built
principally on individual methodology and constructivism as theoretical framework or ‘how we know what we
know’, the study finds that the mobilization of local people who formed vigilante groups or vigilance
committees to volunteer in intelligence, on the condition that the confidentiality is guaranteed, and support to
the Defense and security forces at the war front, if combined with robust democratic governance and inclusive
public policies, can be an appropriate solution to Boko Haram insurgency as the main obstacle to peace and
development.
I. INTRODUCTION
The starting point of this study is the fact that, geopolitical and geo-strategic regional compulsions
around the Lake Chad have made the revision and redefinition of the popular defense, which is army and nation
working in synergy to defend a country’s territory and sovereignty, a necessity. The Boko Haram insurgency,
which gained national attention in2014 with bombing attacks and killings which led to the death of several
policemen, soldiers and civilians, remains the most devastating security challenge that the post 1970s
Cameroon has faced before the crisis in the North West and South West regions which started in 2016. This
terrorist group, which claims to have pledged allegiance to the Islamic State in West Africa, has brought death
and desolation in the affected region. In fact, the absence of peace or its fragility, as the result of Boko Haram
insurgency – 296 attacks with more than 28 suicide bombings so far – is one of the barriers preventing citizens
from seizing opportunities that can be generated by the dynamics of economic emergence in Cameroon. It
deprives the population of the chance to develop its potential which can boost the country’s entire economy. In
his review of the UNESCO Yearbook on Peace and Conflict Studies, Michael Efthimiades (1986) observes that,
“since his existence, man has always desired and strived for peace, yet has always fallen short of reaching such a
worthwhile goal. This is due to man’s failure to communicate and his attempts to promote his own self-interests
at the expense of the goals of society. The only way to obtain such a goal is for mankind to establish and
implement a unified proposal which slowly leads to the establishment of peace”. In other words, the only way
to prevent violence or conflict is to build a genuine lasting peace. In 1945, US secretary of state Edward R.
Stettinius (as cited in Kumali, 2014: 4) acknowledges that “the battle of peace has to be fought on two fronts.
The first is the security front where victory spells freedom from fear. The second is the economic and social
front where victory means freedom from want. Only victory on both fronts can assure the world of an enduring
peace”. In the same perspective, J. Galtung (1973 as cited in Zamir) argues that “there are two different
2. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 49
concepts of peace: one is the negative peace definition. That is to say, peace is defined in terms of absence of
war, ceasefire and disarmament. The other concept is the positive peace that means cooperation, human rights,
justice, anti-racism, and conservation of the environment”. In fact, peace also implies the promotion of
sustainable economic and social development, equality between women and men, democratic participation,
tolerance, the free flow of information and disarmament. As the UN Secretary General said, while presenting his
Annual Report in July 2009, “building peace is about much more than ending war. It is about putting in place
the institutions and trust that will carry people forward into a peaceful future”. According to the UN
Peacebuilding Commission (as cited in Kumali, 2014), “peacebuilding involves a range of measures targeted to
reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict in countries emerging from conflict by strengthening national
capacities at all levels, address key causes of conflict and lay down the foundations for sustainable peace and
development. These measures include, for example, security sector reform, elections and human rights
monitoring and institutional capacity development”. Although military and security forces are crucial for
keeping peace, civilian agencies are just as important for constructing, preserving and maintaining it. It is
therefore essential to welcome and promote the talents and contributions of vigilance committees / vigilante
groups, in the perspective of popular defense, to ensure peace and development. The Boko Haram insurgency
has taken an untold damage on development initiatives in Cameroon, bringing virtually to naught or zero all
initiatives to improve on livelihoods of local populations by the destruction of all that stands for development:
schools, hospitals, roads and communication networks. Although statistical records are not yet available, their
negative impact on development initiatives are devastating. The arm inflicted has not only been in Nigeria,
where the epicenter of their activity is found, and where there are regular attacks leading to bloodletting.
Cameroon took a rather unusual share of the devastation as if it is a direct part of the conflict, whereas it is mere
collateral despite the hypothesis of internal complicities. The conspiracy theory cannot be used seriously as a
way to avoid a sincere reflection on the social and political causes of violence in the region (Pommerple, 2015).
Failing to include the population in the fight is the equivalent of walking with one leg and one cannot do it or
cannot move forward. Besides the concern for national security, the challenge to off-root Boko Haram is
demonstrated by associations, traditional and religious authorities, individual citizens and institutions of
learning. Those who could contribute to the war effort in cash or kind prayed that the Almighty Creator of
mankind should alter the tendency. Vigilance committees’ contributions backing up defense and security forces
ensure that all citizens have the opportunity to contribute to their nation’s security. The damages and disorder
that the militants have set off in markets, places of worship and other public gatherings could not be compared
to any other violence experience in Cameroon. The cross-border character, as well as the dialectic between
conventional and asymmetric tactics used by the members of this terrorist group, is such that the Defense and
security forces need the support of the population to achieve concrete results. In this perspective, local people
formed vigilance committees to volunteer in intelligence and support to the Defense and security forces at the
war front. In fact, the first step in dealing with terrorism is to overcome fear, to stand up and say ‘enough is
enough’. All administrative and defense officials in the affected localities and across the country have been
supportive of the need for the population to actively take part in the fight in view to restore peace and stability in
the Far North Region and ensure that no part of Cameroon is ceded to Boko Haram projected “state”. Some
observers even sounded skeptical about the effectiveness of such synergy. According to them, the Cameroonian
success story, however, has its downsides, such as placing top officers under surveillance, assigning domestic
intelligence to civilian agency, and creating civilian – controlled paramilitary forces to handle internal security
and counterinsurgency. In addition, intelligence from vigilante groups is determining and useful, but if poorly
used, it may become dangerous and lead to witch hunting. Yet the results produced on the field do testify that
the collective of a people can never be subjugated by any negative force, no matter how strong it is. The
determination of a suicide bomber profile is crucial for any victory. Therefore, the intelligent participation of
vigilante groups in the fight against terrorism, and other forces of destruction, calls for more research in this
field. It therefore goes without saying that peace; human rights and economic emergence are indivisible and
concern everyone. Although no one can justify the existence of terrorism or extremism, no matter the reason,
there is an urgent need to understand and explain the origins, affiliation, source of strength or factors irrigating
Boko Haram insurgency, and the dynamics of popular defense, and other initiatives as responses. The main
objective of this paper is to generate innovative knowledge that can inform policy debates on the socio-
economic causes of violence and options relating to conflicts or violence management and avoidance. It is sub-
divided into four sections: - statement of the research problem and hypothesis - theoretical framework and
methodology - Factors facilitating Boko Haram incursions in the Far North region - Popular defense: from a
simple concept to a defense strategy in action.
Statement of the research problem and hypothesis
Recent repeated terrorists’ attacks have turned the entire World into one trembling village, in which
every citizen and those responsible for public order are all looking for ways to protecting affected areas. For
3. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 50
quite a long time, terrorism was a vice never really associated directly with Africa. However of late, its ugly
face has found a fertile ground in several parts of Africa, with Cameroon, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, Somalia and
Uganda as new entrants into the rather embarrassing club of terrorists-affected countries south of the Sahara.
Cameroon, a country which knows what price it takes to pay for peace – after fighting a ruthless war of
liberation to obtain its independence in 1960 and which has been able to keep conflict situations at bay since its
independence – is facing the Jihadist movement, Boko Haram whose real motives still remain relatively
unknown, except for the fact that it wants to install Islam as a formal and institutional religion. On July 15,
2015, two suicide attacks was perpetuated in Fotokol, a locality of the Far North region situated at the border
with Nigeria leaving behind thirteen deaths including the two suicide bombers and ten injured. One week later,
precisely on July 22, 2015, two other suicide attacks occurred at the entrance of the Maroua Central market
leaving behind 13 deaths including the suicide bombers and 32 injured. Three days later, on July 25, 2015,
another suicide attack occurred at the Pont Vert neighborhood, still in Maroua town the head quarter of the Far
North region, leaving behind 21 deaths and 85 injured. Following these successive tragedies of an
unprecedented cruelty, which created stir and shock within the population, the President of the Republic of
Cameroon instructed that strong measures in view to hunt, track down and boot out such “criminals”. It is
thanks to the understanding and synergy of the defense and security forces, vigilance committees, the
administration and the civil society that Boko Haram finds itself in a difficult position. Giving the important role
vigilance committees have been playing in the whole fight against the terrorist group, they have been equipped
with materials that enhance their effort in identifying suspected members of Boko Haram. Defense and Security
Forces defeat Boko Haram only through intelligence which implies the collaboration of the population and the
culture of vigilance. More broadly, the conceptual and empirical puzzles of this piece can be simply and
directly formulated in two research questions. Does popular defense, which is the operational concept in the
strategy of defense in Cameroon, a genuine solution to Boko Haram insurgency regarding factors driving this
phenomenon? Can the mobilization of the population really impact peacebuilding as a prerequisite of
economic emergence of Cameroon, that is, "a country that creates and distributes wealth fairly; a country that
offers equal development opportunities to all; a country with strong and sustainable growth; a country with
enhanced food security, in a word, a country that ensures happiness for all"? The principal hypothesis driving
this study is that, although Cameroon’s resilience to Boko Haram can be associated to the materialization of
popular defense or the symbiosis between army and nation, there is an urgent need to develop the economy as a
sustainable solution which can counter insurgency. In other words, while Boko Haram terrorists continue to
create damages in what it called “war in the population” by the late brigadier general Jacob Kodji, their
activities can mostly be eradicated if the government also gives a humane face to its decisions, and distributes
resources such that all segments of society are taking into consideration. This may reinforce people’s capacity to
resist and to cope with day-to-day challenges imposed by the “criminal gang”. Furthermore, peace is a vector of
sustainable development, essential and timely in the country’s specific context where every citizen is called
upon to contribute for an emergent Cameroon.
Theoretical framework and methodology
This study is built principally on individual methodology and constructivism as theoretical framework
or ‘how we know what we know’. Drawing inspiration from Raymond Boudon scholarship, Hyunsun Choi
(2010) argues that individualism emphasizes the important role of an individual in society. An individual may
be the State, a group, an association or a human being. It claims that society exists for the benefit of the
individual, and the individual must not be constrained by government interventions or made subordinate to
collective interests as peace. Ayn Rand (as cited in Choi 2010), wrote that humans are ultimate ends in
themselves, not means to the ends of others. The pursuit of one's own self-interest and happiness is the highest
moral purpose of life. Hyunsun Choi (2010) concludes that social systems are collections of individuals and
individualism focuses on protecting natural freedoms and rights, pursuing the development of society for the
benefit of the individual in a peaceful environment. It fails, however to recognize the causes of social problems
and the importance of government intervention. On the other hand, constructivism helps us to point out that
peace is a social construction. The idea of the socially constructed nature of peace is also rooted in symbolic
interactionism as pioneered by Margaret Mead (as cited in Friedrich, 2012)). Peter Berger and Thomas
Luckmann also defend the idea of the social construction of peace. They argued that social order is a human
product or an ongoing human production (1967). Boko Haram can be considered as a social construction that
can also be socially deconstructed. Regarding the research methodology, we will use an exploratory research
model. This qualitative methodology has enabled us to deduce and refine our hypothesis continually during the
research process. From our preliminary investigations, we suspect that there is very little research or data to
assist us in understanding the scope of the problem in Cameroon. We hope to identify specific actors, their
patterns, opinions and motivations in participating in the fight against Boko Haram. The study uses case
histories to evaluate the implication of some groups as vigilance committees in the war. In-depth interviews
4. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 51
based on thematically grouped open-ended questions to study individual group experiences, was administered in
a way to allow for free dialogue and for trust to be build. Participant observation helps to address the reality of
inequalities and poverty in the affected region.
Factors facilitating Boko Haram incursions in the Far North region
According to statistics collected in 2011, nearly 7 out of 10 people aged 10 or over (that is 71.2%) have
been to school in Cameroon. In contrast, less than 3 out of 10 people are going to school in the Far North
region1
. The school attendance rate in Cameroon is 80.9%. The Far North, with 48.3% rate, is the lowest school
attendance region2
. The school wastage rate is 2.2% in Cameroon in general. It is higher in the Far North, with
5.4%3
. The distribution of the population by level of education shows that the out-of-school population
represents 33.7%. This rate is very high in the Far North, with 63.3%. According to the survey on employment
and the informal sector in Cameroon, the proportion of people with vocational training is higher in the cities of
Yaoundé (47.2%) and Douala (47.8%). Moreover, the populations of Adamaoua (14.2%), North (9.9%) and Far
North (4.9%) have the least professional training4
compared to those of the others regions5
.
Furthermore, one former minister of Territorial Administration6
also blames suicide bombings on lack
of women emancipation. In a strongly worded open letter, he condemned the use of small girls and young
women in the war tactics by Boko Haram. He argued that “the Defense and Security Forces might, coupled with
the international assistance, could help Cameroon and other nations being ravaged by Boko Haram win the
war’’. But adds that ‘’for peace to be long lasting, and to stem the temptation of young people, especially young
girls from being recruited by extremists groups, the Cameroonian government needs to implement social
measures that bring hope and guarantee better standards of living to all Cameroonians in general, and especially
those living in the Far North region of the country”. According to him, the war to extricate the most vulnerable
members of the society from the temptation of terrorism will take much longer time. The first target group for
emancipation are women and young people because they are hungry for knowledge, have dreams to work and
ambition to becoming independent as well as build a family. Practices like female genital mutilations or
circumcision and the ironing of breasts of young girls in the attempt to delay their puberty should be stopped.
“Al-Shebbab” means “Youths” and that is the reason why Islamic extremists target this segment of
every population to recruit their members. Abandoning young people into the hands of extremist ideologists is a
crime that the Cameroonian government should not commit. There is a need for compulsory and free education
for all Cameroonians up to the age of sixteen and the introduction of two-month compulsory national youth
service so as to reduce the number of potential recruits available for exploitation by terrorists groups like Boko
Haram. In fact, the northern part of Cameroon stands in greater need of this type of initiative so that it can play
its key as a barricade against extremists. Primary school enrolment in northern regions of Cameroon is still as
low as 40% as against the average of 70% in the southern regions of the country.
In the other hand, Bernard Muna once obseve that: “We waited long to take precautions. When Boko
Haram was rampant in Nigeria, we did not think that sharing the same borders with that country, Boko Haram
was to come home. Many people also speak of this war by saying that they are Cameroonians who are part of
this terrorist movement. But I can tell you one thing, these are people who have the Cameroonian national
identity card. They got such identity cards because we had to cheat during elections. In this border area, there
are some authorities in our country who have gone to Nigeria to look for people in order to vote in their favor.
Today, these people are poor and when Boko Haram gives them 1000Fcfa, they are forced to go and fight
alongside them. We say anything about Boko Haram but the ground was prepared by us. The President of the
Republic must involve all opposition parties in the fight against this war”.
Information collected from the field also indicates that one of the causes of the radicalization is the
lack of family affection experienced by some young people, most of whom are from polygamous families. Such
emotional harm pushes them to take it out on society. Boko Haram has exploited these vulnerabilities to make
the Far North a logistics base, a safe haven or refuge and a source of recruitment. The group has particularly
gathered support among disaffected youth in districts adjacent to Nigeria through the use of ideological
indoctrination, socio-economic incentives and coercion. Cameroonian security forces, starting in 2013,
1
Deuxième enquête sur l’emploi et le secteur informel au Cameroun (EESI2), National Institute of Statistics,
Yaounde, 2011, p. 20.
2
Ibid. p. 21.
3
Ibid. p. 25.
4
Vocational training is the set of activities of adaptation of the man to his work. It aims at acquiring knowledge
(knowledge), know-how (skills), knowledge being (attitudes necessary to the exercise of a job or profession)
and allows access to employment ( See Deuxième enquête , op. cit., p.27)
5
Ibid. p. 27.
6
For more details, see The Guardian Post N° 0776 of August 3, 2015, p. 8.
5. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 52
dismantled hidden weapon stockpiles and arrested Boko Haram leaders, pushing the group to threaten and
eventually attack Cameroon directly.
Studies have shown that the biggest risk factor for violent extremism, in addition to being female or
marginalized, is having a connection to someone in a radical group. In the 1980s, researchers in Italy found that
69 percent of Italian left-wing militants in one underground organization were friends before joining. Similarly,
about two thirds of al-Qaida fighters in Afghanistan post-2001 were tied to the network by friends or family.
Ambassador Samantha Power, following a meeting with Cameroonian President Paul Biya, on April
19, 2016, has this to say: “We discussed the monstrous threat posed by Boko Haram, and we agreed – and he
was very forceful on this point – that the military response alone could not succeed in defeating Boko Haram in
the long-term. We need, together in partnership and across the region, to make sure that we are investing
appropriately in economic development, that the security agencies who are responsible for fighting Boko Haram
are respecting human rights of the local population; that, politically, the people living in these areas – some of
which have been quite marginal over the years – feel that their government and their security services and the
civil administration are looking out for them.”
Finally, the charm offensive, which consist to rally young people around agricultural and livestock
farming activities, by the Cameroonian government towards the Extreme-North youth, meant to promote
income-generating activities, could help in preventing the expansion of the Nigerian terrorist sect Boko Haram.
Indeed, the latter takes advantage of the general poverty in this part of Cameroon, to recruit members who will
later commit attacks on these populations. In fact, it is a classic formula for radicalization, with a network of
individuals bonded by shared values, developing a willingness to defend each other or their beliefs, regardless of
the cost. But there is also strong evidence that the opposite is also true regarding the fact that the same elements
that give rise to violent extremism, if seriously addressed, can help reverse the process.
Popular defense: from a simple concept to a defense strategy in action
Cameroon also created a system of Vigilance Committees (VC) / Vigilante Groups, which have
successfully thwarted or limited the damage caused by suicide attacks. This defense strategy in action implies a
sincere collaboration between army and the nation (populations). Members of the vigilante groups or
committees are considered as the volunteers of the Nation7
. Regarding the modalities of the selection of the
members of vigilance committees, there are selected by administrative authorities and traditional rulers8
, who
are well placed to evaluate the morality of individuals that can be part of such committees. Intelligence from
vigilante groups is determinant and useful, but if poorly used, it may become dangerous. There is also a need to
reassure the population that the defense and security forces are on the field to protect them and that they should
not be afraid of the threats of Boko Haram fighters.
The impact of the action of these Committees on the field is real. In fact, nine dead and 24 injured were
recorded on September 13, 2015 in the locality of Kolofata in the Far North region after two suicide male
teenage bombers exploded their devices at a thirty minute interval. Reports say the casualty would have been
ever greater if Dogo Ngonda, a member of the local vigilante group or committee had not approach the first
bomber whose face was unfamiliar in the locality and asked the later to identify himself. It was upon insisting
that the bomber reportedly of foreign nationality activated the device he was wearing under his “boubou”,
7
See “Comités de vigilance – Boko Haram: une guerre à mort”, article in L’Oeil du Sahel, N° 762, December
2015, p. 2.
8
According to Paul NCHOJI NKWI, before the modern State came into existence on the African Continent,
peoples were governed with political systems invented by themselves. The Indirect Rule policy implemented by
the British Administration in the former West Cameroon virtually recognized the usefulness and the virtual role
traditional institutions played in keeping people together in harmony. Many people today still reify the culture
and the values embedded on them. The fact that the Cameroon State has provide a clear framework within
which they can be consulted, through the July 1977 decree, indicates the vital role they have to play. However,
administrators, politicians and modern elite usually command more respect and can make decisions far more
than traditional rulers. No doubt, they have understood the game and some of them have sought and obtained
greater political leverage by engaging in partisan politics; thus exposing themselves sometimes to raillery and
insults from their populations. However, some traditional rulers, such as the Lamidos in the Northern part of the
country still command respect and participle actively in decision-making. It was the Fulani Islamic scholar and
teacher, Usman Dan Fodio, who conquered the area and imposed his leaders. History recounts that most of the
Lamidos in Northern Cameroon were put in place by this spiritual leader. The Lamidos, who in effect are
temporary and spiritual leaders, often exercising more power than Islamic clergy, the Imams. This has been
further helped by the setup of societies that demand nearly absolute allegiance to traditional rulers and the
elderly (See Cameroon Tribune N° 10722 / 6921 of November 21, 2014, pp. 8-9).
6. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 53
killing both. The second bomber who sneaked into a group commenting on the suicide bombing activated his
device killing six on the spot and a seventh who died on his way to the hospital9
.
On November 9, 2015, a young girl of about 14 years, blew herself up near the mosque in the village of
Fotokol, in the Logone and Chari Division, in the Far North Region, killing five people including the suicide
bomber and about twenty injured. The attack occurred when a young woman, member a vigilance committee,
who after spotting the suicide bomber owing to her suspicious attitude, moved towards that direction to arrest
her . Feeling unmasked, the suicide bomber went on to trigger her bomb, leading to the dead of the vigilance
committee member and three other people. This young woman, with such a heroic courage, has, in sacrificing
her own life, helped to save the lives of many other innocent people located around and inside the mosque of
Fotokol10
.
On November 21, 2015, four Boko Haram suicide bombers perpetrated an attack in Nigué, a locality
situated some three kilometers from the town of Fotokol in the Logone and Chari Division of the Far North
Region. According to the officials, the four young female suicide bombers had arrived in the locality that fateful
day to cause havoc. One headed for temporary residence of third class traditional ruler of Lemani who had fled
his village due to insecurity. The assailant found her way into the house and exploded her vest, killing herself
and the traditional ruler’s five family members. This attack is certainly part of new strategy used by Boko
Haram which consists in targeting vigilante groups and traditional rulers who constitute an important arm in the
new intelligence and surveillance mechanism mounted against the terrorist group. Vigilante groups and
traditional rulers received regularly adopted equipment from government to ensure their protection11
Twin suicide attacks from two young girls suspected to be agents of Boko Haram led to the death of
seven people in the village of Dabanga on November 28, 2015. The incident occurred when members of
vigilante group (volunteers of the Nation) identified the suspects who had just crossed from Nigeria and
informed the defense forces. Aware of the presence of the suspects, two soldiers reacted promptly by taking
control of them; unfortunately one of the girls reactivated the bomb on her, killing herself and wounding the two
soldiers. The second girl who had escaped into a family home found a group of women who were taking their
dinner, sat beside them and equally activated her own bomb killing four members of the family and herself. In
total, seven people, including one wounded soldier who dies after sustaining serious wounds and the two suicide
bombers also lost their lives in the attacks. It is thanks to the understanding and synergy of the defense and
security forces, vigilante groups, the administration and the civil society that Boko Haram finds itself in a
difficult position. Giving the important role vigilante groups have been playing in the whole fight against the
terrorist group, they have been equipped with material that enhance their effort in identified suspected members
of Boko Haram12
.
The self-defense groups have helped the military by patrolling villages and hard to reach border areas,
but they say this is hard, dangerous work and they need more training. A member of a self-defense group in
Kolofata, says men in his group have been kidnapped and killed. He says they need special training to be able to
work from 9 PM to 4 AM every day. Cameroon believes the terrorists’ ability to organize large-scale attacks has
been greatly reduced, and that they are trying to replenish their ranks by recruiting vulnerable youths in
Cameroon. Necessary measures was taken in view to remove the bad grains from the good and to stop
infiltration of local self-defense militia by Boko Haram that may destroy all the good works that the self-defense
groups have been doing. The administrative authorities organize self-defense groups or vigilance committees to
henceforth work in synergy with security forces and denounce suspects as soon as they get any information.’
The government also gave the self-defense groups food and material to boost their morale. This move really
improves their working conditions and spur them to work as the government expects. Sources from the ministry
of Defense indicate that the call for collaboration from the population is bearing fruits because besides the
spontaneity of the vigilante group members, people are now aware that they have to draw the attention of their
traditional rulers and Defense and security forces to any strange face or suspicious activity in their localities.
Administrative authority always urged the population not to give in to fear.
Information about the liberation of more than 900 hostages by the Cameroon’s National Defense Forces
of the Emergence 4 and Alpha Units in collaboration with the Sector Number One of the Multinational Joint
Task Force in the Lake Chad Basin Commission (MJTF) based in Mora (Cameroon) and Nigerian forces
sounded like the beginning of the end of Boko Haram with the transfer of more than 1 800 Nigerians back to
their country. The officials also indicate that the swift operations from 26-28 November, 2015 helped in
9
See the article of Cameroon Tribune N° 10926/7125 of September 14, 2015, p. 5.
10
See the Statement issue by the Minister of Communication extending the condolences of the Head State to the
families of the victims in Cameroon Tribune N° 10967/ 7166 of November 10, 2015, p. 3.).
11
See Cameroon Tribune N° 10976/7175 of November 23, 2015, p.14.
12
Minister of Communication, cited in Cameroon Tribune N°10981/7180 of November 30, 2015, p. 11
7. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 54
chasing away the obnoxious militants from Cameroonian towns on border with Nigeria, forcing them to
abandon their propaganda material. It is a real testimony of the determination of the Defense and Security
Forces to face the macabre acts of the extremists group that has been sowing desolation and chaos in the Far
North Region. The carnage and disorder that the militants have set off in markets, places of worship and other
public gatherings could not be compared to any other violence experience in Cameroon.
The resolve being demonstrated by the National Defense forces in Cameroon can certainly produce
better results if the much needed support the soldiers want is given and on time. The sheer proliferation of arms
and the presence of such dangerous weapons in the hands of dubious persons is sufficiently disturbing. While
terrorists continue to create havoc, their activities can mostly be curtailed if world leaders also give a humane
face to their decisions and distribute resources such that all segments of society are taking into consideration.
Although no one can justify the existence of terrorism or extremism, no matter the reason, but achievements of
defense and security forces in the fight against terrorism and other forces of destruction, require sustained
political will, so that the populations for whom the defense forces battle to ensure their safety can effectively
enjoy peace and stability13
.
On January 28, 2016 during a sensitization meeting and evaluation of the activities of the Vigilance
Committees in the Mayo-Sava division, the governor of the Far North region, Midjiyawa Bakari, would had
asked these committees to “use nothing less than the practice of witchcraft”
14
. According to governor, “the
Head of State recommended to integrate witchcraft in the fight against Boko Haram. We expect each village’s
brilliant actions in this direction. We want to hear that this or that village destroyed or limited the damage of the
sect through witchcraft. Fight for your country. Get involved actively. This is what the head of State expected of
you. And we are waiting for the results’’. After government’s call to employ witchcraft against Boko Haram,
hundreds of militia fighters rushed to sorcerers, commonly called “marabouts,” to obtain lucky charms and
talismans to protect them in the battle field. At night, some people believed they would leave their bodies and
take the shape of animals, such as butterflies and cats, in order to fight witches that threatened their
communities.
To local populations, there are two types of witchcraft: fetishism, which employs charms to harm or do
good, and vampirism, in which incantations replace the physical objects. A marabout based in Maroua claimed
that "some members of the vigilance committees now have the ability to mystically eat the hearts of enemies or
make them slaves by pronouncing incantations". A member of the vigilante group fighter said he possessed an
amulet that allowed him to turn invisible and sneak up on Boko Haram terrorists in Kérawa. He explained to a
local reporter that: "I was recently alerted that two women were in possession of a bomb. I wanted to surprise
them. I pronounced the magic phrases and I appeared before them. The bomb was defused". Nevertheless,
without empirical evidence, citizens and officials don’t know if the wizardry has been working or not.
Ironically, witchcraft is illegal in Cameroon due to its perceived pernicious effects in tribal
communities, where believers frequently cast spells in hopes of hurting their enemies. Section 251 of the Law
N° 2016 / 007 of July 12, 2016 relating to the Penal Code states that: “Whoever commits any act of witchcraft,
magic or divination liable to disturb public order or tranquility, or to harm another in his person, property or
substance, whether by the taking of a reward or otherwise, shall be punished with imprisonment for from 2
(two) to 10 (ten) years , and with fine from CFAF 5000 (five thousand) to CFAF 100 000 (one hundred)”. Many
people have been thrown into prison on the grounds that they are accused and convicted of practicing black
magic in the villages. A legal mind will tell us that ‘’necessity makes law’’ to justify the use of witchcraft in the
fight against Boko Haram. However, "it is well known that occult ceremonies are practiced in the political
circles of Cameroon at a very high level,” argues Henriette Ekwe, a Cameroonian political analyst and good
governance advocate. In Africa in general, witchcraft is sometimes considered as traditional barrier to
development and acquisition of new forms of wealth (Fisiy & Geschiere, 1993: 99).
While addressing the Diplomatic corps based in Yaounde on January 8, 2015, President Paul Biya put
emphasis on the global dimension of terrorism: “It is a global threat that calls for a global response”. He further
mentioned that: “The threat posed by Jihadists Boko Haram and Shebabs may be defeated only by global
mobilization”. As a matter of fact, the photos below highlight the reality of the popular defense as doctrine and
defense strategy in action:
13
See Cameroon Tribune, N°10988/7187 of December 9, 2015, p.5.
14
See L’Oeil du Sahel, No. 778 of February 1st, 2016.
8. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 55
Photo 1 & 2: Soldiers of the Rapid Intervention Battalion (BIR) hereby counseling the populations about the
fight against terrorism and the importance of collaboration in the fight against Boko Haram
Source:https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=1103278696362538&set=pcb.1103279129695828&type=3
&theater consulted on January 7, 2016.
This counseling is timely, giving the fact that there is a possibility of misinformation or abuse in
counterinsurgency operations. For example, on February 14, 2020, Human Rights Watch found that government
forces, including members of the Rapid Intervention Battalion (BIR), the elite unit of the Cameroonian army,
9. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 56
and armed ethnic Fulani killed 21 civilians in Ngarbuh (a locality situated in the North West region), burned
homes, and beat residents. The armed Fulani is the “local vigilante group” referred to in the government news
release. On April 16, 2020, the Commission of inquiry set up by Cameroon’s government found that security
forces and members of “local vigilante group” went on a reconnaissance operation in Ngarbuh, where they
confronted armed ambazonians separatists, killing 5 of them. In the exchange 13 civilians were killed. The
military then attempted to cover up their acts by burning homes and filing a false report on the incident. The
commission identified a sergeant, a gendarme, and a soldier as responsible for the killings and named a battalion
commander who failed to supervise the operation.
Photo 3: A member of a civilian vigilante group carries a bow and arrow while running on patrol with the
Cameroonian military in Kerawa, Cameroon:
Source: Associated Press, Photo: Reuters, March 16, 2016.
Authorities in northern Cameroon argue that local self-defense group used a poisoned arrow to kill a woman
with explosives strapped to her body.
II. CONCLUSION
For many years Cameroon has confronted the insurgents of the Nigeria-born insurgent group Boko
Haram. Although the first attacks occurred in March 2014, the jihadist group’s presence in Cameroon’s Far
North region dates back to at least 2011. It has benefited from a network of local collaborators and has exploited
vulnerabilities that the region shares with North-Eastern Nigeria. While the first eighteen months of conflict
were characterized by conventional warfare, the group later switched to an asymmetric mode of attack. The
Cameroonian government’s focus on a military and popular defense response has been partly successful, but the
structural problems that allowed this threat to arise have not been addressed completely. Therefore the fight
against Boko Haram requires adapting and improving security structures, and long-term crisis resolution
policies that will prevent a revival of this threat in a different form, and stop insecurity in the region. In other
words and in order to consolidate military gains against Boko Haram and bring back lasting peace in the Far
North, Cameroon’s government must shift from a security-based approach to focus on socio-economic
development and countering religious radicalism. For instance, during their detention, members of Boko Haram
should be exposed to a range of educational, vocational, recreational, spiritual and psychosocial activities from
10. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 57
job training to sport. This suggests that by providing alternate means of attaining personal significance and
enabling access to peaceful social networks, people can be taught to turn away from extremist ideology. In
addition, the delegitimizing of a corrupt ruling elite15
in the eyes of the people is partly responsible for the
emergence of terrorist groups or sects like Boko Haram. Combined with high youth unemployment and very
low development indicators, the incidence of absolute poverty in the Far North has made many poor and
vulnerable young people ripe or mature for recruitment by extremist groups, sometimes simply in their bid to
survive. For example, the robbery-related activities often attributed to the group attest to the desperation of some
of its members to survive the vagaries of daily life in Cameroon. Information gathered from the field indicate
that by initially joining the activities of Boko Haram, people intended to denounce the arrogance of a
government disconnected from reality, because they do not measure enough the misery of the people. The
context of post-modernity in which the action of the rulers unfolds is characterized by the valorization of the
money than anything else, the control of the thought and the instrumentalization of the fear. Another question
that can be addressed is whether behind the Boko Haram insurgency and other crises in Cameroon, particularly
the Anglophone crisis, are not hidden the succession maneuvers that conspiracy theory might suggest. Silence
breeds anger, depression and even violence. Where there is social justice, there is peace; where there is peace,
there is harmony and inclusion; where there is harmony, there is development which is the new name of peace.
Our thesis is that the mobilization of local people who formed vigilante groups to volunteer in intelligence, on
the condition that the confidentiality is guaranteed, and support to the Defense and security forces at the war
front, if combined with robust democratic governance and inclusive public policies, can be an appropriate
solution to Boko Haram insurgency as the main obstacle to peace and development.
REFERENCES
[1]. Berger, Peter & Luckman, Thomas (1967), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the
Sociology of Knowledge, New York, Anchor Books.
[2]. Boudon, Raymond (1970), L’analyse mathématique des faits sociaux, Paris, Plon.
[3]. Bourdieu, Pierre (2000), Propos sur le champ politique, Lyon, Presses Universitaires de Lyon.
[4]. Choi, Hyunsun (2010), "Systemism", 21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook. SAGE
Publications.
[5]. Desh, Michael C. (2000), « Quelles menaces pour la nation ? Quelles missions pour l’armée ? » In
Diamond, Larry et Plattner, Marc F. (dir.), Le rôle de l’armée en démocratie, Paris, Nouveaux
Horizons, pp. 51-74.
[6]. Efthimiades, Michael (1986), “Review Work: UNESCO Yearbook on Peace and Conflict Studies”,
International Journal on World Peace, Vol. 3, N° 1, Jan.-Mar, pp. 141-143.
[7]. Fiorina, Jean-François (2015), « Boko Haram : religion et frontières en Afrique. Secte islamiste, gang
criminel ou rébellion ethnique ? », CLES, Note hebdomadaire d’analyse géopolitique, 151, Février
2015.
[8]. Fisiy, Cyprian & Geschiere, Peter, « Sorcellerie et accumulation, variations régionales », Geschiere,
Peter & Konings, Piet (dir.), Itinéraires d’accumulation au Cameroun, Paris, Karthala, 1993, pp. 99-
129.
[9]. Heungoup Ngangtcho, Hans De Marie (2011), Le BIR et la GP dans la politique de défense et de
sécurité du Cameroun : socioanalyse du rôle présidentiel, des concepts stratégiques et d'emploi des
forces, Mémoire de Master en Gouvernance et Politiques Publiques, Université Catholique d'Afrique
Centrale.
[10]. Joseph, Richard (1977), Radical Nationalism in Cameroon: Social Origins of the UPC Rebellion,
Oxford, Clarendon Press.
15
In a post mortem interview on CRTV, broadcasted on July 19, 2016, the Cameroonian musician icon, Anne
Marie NDZIE, affirmed that “highway robbers are not only in the forest, but are also in the offices of the public
administration”. Cameroon’s 2013 Anti-corruption Status Report of the National Anti-Corruption Commission
(CONAC) disclosed different modes the cankerworm is manifesting its ugly face in the public administration
with code-names given to the practice of corruption in the system. The practice at the Ministry of Finance,
especially at the National Information Technology Development Centre (CENADI) where fake payment
vouchers, bribery to obtain pay slips, illegal swelling of salaries amongst other vices are known as “mboma”. At
the General Directorate of Taxation, the phenomenon where fake business licenses , creation and use of fake tax
discs and stamps is known as “Al Qaeda” transforming the public administration as a playground of “corruption
terrorists”. Other appellations used by promoters and users of public administration to signify ways of
exploitation are: “gombo”, “tchoko”, “kola”, “thanks” (See Cameroon Tribune N° 10985/7184 of December 4,
2015, p. 16).
11. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020
ARJHSS Journal www.arjhss.com Page | 58
[11]. Kratochwil, Friedrich (2012), “Constructivism: what it is (not) and how it matters”, in Porta,
Donatella Della & Keating, Michael (eds) Approaches and Methodologies in the Social Sciences: A
Pluralist Perspective, Cambridge University Press, pp. 80-98.
[12]. Kuwali, Dan (2014), Just Peace: Achieving Peace, Justice, and Development in Post-Conflict Africa,
SSRC Working Papers, African Peacebuilding Network, APN Working Papers: N°2
[13]. Lacoste, Yves (2006), Géopolitique: la longue histoire d'aujourd'hui, Paris, Larousse, 2006.
[14]. Mbembe, Achille (1988), Afriques indociles : christianisme, pouvoir et Etat en société postcoloniale,
Paris, Karthala.
[15]. Mead, Margaret (1935), Sex and temperament in three primitive societies, New York, William
Morrrow.
[16]. Pommerple, Marie-Emmanuelle (2015), « Les violences dans l’Extrême-Nord du Cameroun : le
complot comme outil d’interprétation et de luttes politiques », Politique Africaine, 2015/2, N° 138, pp.
163-177.
[17]. Renan, Ernest (1992) Qu’est-ce qu’une nation, Paris, Editions Presses Pocket.
[18]. Sindjoun, Luc (2002), L’Etat ailleurs : entre noyau dur et case vide, Paris, Economica.
[19]. Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2015), “Inequality, Living Standards, and Economic Growth”, Mariana Mazzucato
and Michael Jacobs (eds.), Rethinking Capitalism, Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell.
[20]. Stiglitz, Joseph E. (2015), “The origins of Inequality, and Policies to Contain It”, National Tax Journal,
68(2): 425-448.
[21]. Young, Iris Marion (2002), Inclusion and Democracy, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
[22]. Zamir, Sara, “Universal Obstacles to Peace Education”, Peace, Literature and Art, Vol. 1
[23]. Heungoup, Hans De Marie, “In the Tracks of Boko Haram in Cameroon”, International Crisis Group,
www.crisisgroup.org, published on September 2, 2016 and consulted July 10, 2018.
[24]. Onuoha, Freedom C. (2012), “The audacity of the Boko Haram: Background, analysis and emerging
trend”, Security Journal, 25(2), pp. 134-151.
[25]. Samir, Puri (, 2015), The strategic art of confronting armed groups, AdelphiSeries.
Herman Touo
University of Ngaoundere, Cameroon