This document discusses forensic accounting and its potential use as a tool to fight financial crimes in Nigeria. It defines forensic accounting as the application of accounting skills and techniques to legal issues. Forensic accountants look beyond financial statements and audit trails to examine the substance of transactions. They can help gather evidence of economic crimes in a way that is suitable for use in court. The document recommends that anti-corruption agencies in Nigeria consider engaging forensic accountants to strengthen evidence and improve conviction rates for fraud offenders.
Forensic Accounting is also known by other names like Forensic Accountancy or Financial forensics. Forensic Accounting has been defined as “accounting analysis that can uncover possible fraud that is suitable for presentation in court”. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on Forensic Accounting:- http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/accounting/forensic-accounting.aspx
Forensic Accounting is also known by other names like Forensic Accountancy or Financial forensics. Forensic Accounting has been defined as “accounting analysis that can uncover possible fraud that is suitable for presentation in court”. Copy the link given below and paste it in new browser window to get more information on Forensic Accounting:- http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/accounting/forensic-accounting.aspx
Forensic Accounting and Fraud Prevention and Detection in Nigerian Banking In...crimsonpublisherscojrr
This study examined the role of the forensic accountant in the prevention and detection of fraud in the Nigeria banking sector. The study adopted the Survey research design while the source of data is the primary data and the data sourced was gleened from copies of the questionnaire administered to selected banks. Three (3) hypotheses were formulated and tested using Simple regression at a significant level of 5%, Independent T-test and Oneway Anova. Findings revealed a negative significant relationship between IFRS adoption and foreign direct investment of Nigeria banks. Findings also revealed that between forensic accounting has a significant impact on fraud prevention and detection. In addition, the findings of this study also revealed that there is a low level of the awareness of forensic accounting in the Nigeria banking industry. Consequently, the study recommended that Nigerian Government should provide the enabling environment for forensic accounting profession to thrive in the country by strengthening the legal, educational and political frame work in the country.
Application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related frau...Newman Enyioko
The incessant tax related fraud and malfeasance resulting to corporate collapse and the failure of the statutory audit to detect and prevent fraudulent activities which had led to the impoverishment of investors had given rise to the need for forensic audit and investigations. In view of the above, this paper considers the application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related fraud and malfeasance. The study is a theoretical research which considers the roles of forensic auditors in combating fraudulent activities, distinction of forensic auditor and statutory auditor, and impact of forensic auditor on corporate governance. Based on the findings; this paper concludes that forensic auditing has improved management accountability, strengthened external auditor’s independence and assisting audit committee members in carrying out their oversight function by providing them assurance on internal audit report have impacted positively to corporate governance, thereby reducing tax related fraud and malfeasance. Therefore the study recommends that; the service of forensic auditors should be employed in Nigerian organisations.
Application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related frau...Newman Enyioko
The incessant tax related fraud and malfeasance resulting to corporate collapse and the failure of the statutory audit to detect and prevent fraudulent activities which had led to the impoverishment of investors had given rise to the need for forensic audit and investigations. In view of the above, this paper considers the application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related fraud and malfeasance. The study is a theoretical research which considers the roles of forensic auditors in combating fraudulent activities, distinction of forensic auditor and statutory auditor, and impact of forensic auditor on corporate governance. Based on the findings; this paper concludes that forensic auditing has improved management accountability, strengthened external auditor’s independence and assisting audit committee members in carrying out their oversight function by providing them assurance on internal audit report have impacted positively to corporate governance, thereby reducing tax related fraud and malfeasance. Therefore the study recommends that; the service of forensic auditors should be employed in Nigerian organisations.
Forensic Accounting and Fraud Prevention and Detection in Nigerian Banking In...crimsonpublisherscojrr
This study examined the role of the forensic accountant in the prevention and detection of fraud in the Nigeria banking sector. The study adopted the Survey research design while the source of data is the primary data and the data sourced was gleened from copies of the questionnaire administered to selected banks. Three (3) hypotheses were formulated and tested using Simple regression at a significant level of 5%, Independent T-test and Oneway Anova. Findings revealed a negative significant relationship between IFRS adoption and foreign direct investment of Nigeria banks. Findings also revealed that between forensic accounting has a significant impact on fraud prevention and detection. In addition, the findings of this study also revealed that there is a low level of the awareness of forensic accounting in the Nigeria banking industry. Consequently, the study recommended that Nigerian Government should provide the enabling environment for forensic accounting profession to thrive in the country by strengthening the legal, educational and political frame work in the country.
Application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related frau...Newman Enyioko
The incessant tax related fraud and malfeasance resulting to corporate collapse and the failure of the statutory audit to detect and prevent fraudulent activities which had led to the impoverishment of investors had given rise to the need for forensic audit and investigations. In view of the above, this paper considers the application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related fraud and malfeasance. The study is a theoretical research which considers the roles of forensic auditors in combating fraudulent activities, distinction of forensic auditor and statutory auditor, and impact of forensic auditor on corporate governance. Based on the findings; this paper concludes that forensic auditing has improved management accountability, strengthened external auditor’s independence and assisting audit committee members in carrying out their oversight function by providing them assurance on internal audit report have impacted positively to corporate governance, thereby reducing tax related fraud and malfeasance. Therefore the study recommends that; the service of forensic auditors should be employed in Nigerian organisations.
Application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related frau...Newman Enyioko
The incessant tax related fraud and malfeasance resulting to corporate collapse and the failure of the statutory audit to detect and prevent fraudulent activities which had led to the impoverishment of investors had given rise to the need for forensic audit and investigations. In view of the above, this paper considers the application of forensic audit and investigation in resolving tax related fraud and malfeasance. The study is a theoretical research which considers the roles of forensic auditors in combating fraudulent activities, distinction of forensic auditor and statutory auditor, and impact of forensic auditor on corporate governance. Based on the findings; this paper concludes that forensic auditing has improved management accountability, strengthened external auditor’s independence and assisting audit committee members in carrying out their oversight function by providing them assurance on internal audit report have impacted positively to corporate governance, thereby reducing tax related fraud and malfeasance. Therefore the study recommends that; the service of forensic auditors should be employed in Nigerian organisations.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
This review present some evidence on fraud, forensic accounting, the skills and education of the forensic investigator. Also, some explanation for the diverging views among academics and regulators in relation to detecting fraud are provided. To regulators, I address the question on why academic research in forensic accounting have little significance to inform policy. Further, I present some rich set of questions and identify a number of important directions for future research in forensic accounting. This paper is intended to stimulate debates and future research on the issues identified.
Brennan, Niamh M. and McGrath, Mary [2007] Financial Statement Fraud: Inciden...Prof Niamh M. Brennan
This paper studies 14 companies which were subject to an official investigation arising from the publication of fraudulent financial statements. The research found senior management to be responsible for most fraud. Recording false sales was the most common method of financial statement fraud. Meeting external forecasts emerged as the primary motivation. Management discovered most fraud, although the discovery was split between incumbent and new management.
This literature review is organized in five sections. Firstly, we begin with general ideas and continue with the origin of the fraudulent. Secondly, we discuss the struggle of the phenomena, insisting on the available mechanisms. Finally, we’ll discuss the link between audit and fraud.
Influence of Forensic Accounting Practices on Fraud Prevention among Listed C...Premier Publishers
Fraud experts noted that it is essential to obtain clear knowledge on the trends of fraudulent activities in all business circle through the measurement and observing the compliance level of organizations. This has made it possible through the utilization of specialized investigative skills which gives an inquiry by assisting in the protection and recovery of embezzled assets through civil action. Therefore, this study examines the effect of forensic accounting knowledge on fraud prevention among listed companies in Nigeria. Questionnaires were administered to 177 Auditors of the listed companies out of which 105 auditors responded. The paper also used the multiple regression model to test the hypotheses formulated. Furthermore, the finding suggests that forensic accounting knowledge and complexity are significantly related with fraud prevention. It is therefore recommended that auditing staff of these companies should have more forensic accounting knowledge so as to serve as a tool to deter and prevent fraudulent activities in companies and Nigeria at large.
We present results from a laboratory experiment identifying the main channels through which different law enforcement strategies deter organized economic crime. The absolute level of a fine has a strong deterrence effect, even when the exogenous probability of apprehension is zero. This effect appears to be driven by distrust or fear of betrayal, as it increases significantly when the incentives to betray partners are strengthened by policies offering amnesty to “turncoat whistleblowers”. We also document a strong deterrence effect of the sum of fines paid in the past, which suggests a significant role for salience or availability heuristic in law enforcement.
Forensic Accounting An Ex Ante Ex post Evaluation for Indiaijtsrd
"Growing incidences of financial fraud have given rise to the field of forensic accounting, a specialty practice area of accounting that focuses on uncovering fraud, among other things. A forensic accounting engagement often involves a detailed assessment of a company’s accounting system and processes to determine whether or not the numbers that are presented reflect reality. Unlike financial accounting, forensic accounting is not performed on a routine basis, so it’s important for the owner and the executive management team to know when a forensic accountant is needed or should be consulted Incidences of financial fraud have been growing in both frequency and sophistication among businesses in India. Sunil V. Mohite ""Forensic Accounting: An Ex-Ante - Ex-post Evaluation for India"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Special Issue | Fostering Innovation, Integration and Inclusion Through Interdisciplinary Practices in Management , March 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23099.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/23099/forensic-accounting-an-ex-ante---ex-post-evaluation-for-india/sunil-v-mohite"
Forensic Accountant: Reliability & admissibility as Expert WitnessNeeraj Aarora
Forensic Accounting
Forensic accounting is a rapidly growing area of accounting concerned with the detection and prevention of financial fraud and white-collar criminal activities. George A. Manning in his book "Financial Investigation and Forensic Accounting" defines Forensic Accounting as the science of gathering and presenting financial information in a form that will be accepted by a court of jurisprudence against perpetrators of economic crimes. The integration of accounting, auditing, and investigative skills yields the specialty known as Forensic Accounting which focuses very closely on detecting or preventing accounting fraud. "Forensic", according to the Webster’s Dictionary means, "Belonging to, used in or suitable to courts of judicature or to public discussion and debate." The word accounting is defined as "a system of recording and summarizing business and financial transactions and analyzing, verifying, and recording the results." The term ‘forensic accounting’ refers to financial fraud investigation which includes the analysis of accounting records to prove or disprove financial fraud and serving as an expert witness in Court to prove or disprove the same. Thus, basically, the forensic accounting is the use of accounting for legal purposes.
Unveiling the Secrets How Does Generative AI Work.pdfSam H
At its core, generative artificial intelligence relies on the concept of generative models, which serve as engines that churn out entirely new data resembling their training data. It is like a sculptor who has studied so many forms found in nature and then uses this knowledge to create sculptures from his imagination that have never been seen before anywhere else. If taken to cyberspace, gans work almost the same way.
"𝑩𝑬𝑮𝑼𝑵 𝑾𝑰𝑻𝑯 𝑻𝑱 𝑰𝑺 𝑯𝑨𝑳𝑭 𝑫𝑶𝑵𝑬"
𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐬 (𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬) is a professional event agency that includes experts in the event-organizing market in Vietnam, Korea, and ASEAN countries. We provide unlimited types of events from Music concerts, Fan meetings, and Culture festivals to Corporate events, Internal company events, Golf tournaments, MICE events, and Exhibitions.
𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐬 provides unlimited package services including such as Event organizing, Event planning, Event production, Manpower, PR marketing, Design 2D/3D, VIP protocols, Interpreter agency, etc.
Sports events - Golf competitions/billiards competitions/company sports events: dynamic and challenging
⭐ 𝐅𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬:
➢ 2024 BAEKHYUN [Lonsdaleite] IN HO CHI MINH
➢ SUPER JUNIOR-L.S.S. THE SHOW : Th3ee Guys in HO CHI MINH
➢FreenBecky 1st Fan Meeting in Vietnam
➢CHILDREN ART EXHIBITION 2024: BEYOND BARRIERS
➢ WOW K-Music Festival 2023
➢ Winner [CROSS] Tour in HCM
➢ Super Show 9 in HCM with Super Junior
➢ HCMC - Gyeongsangbuk-do Culture and Tourism Festival
➢ Korean Vietnam Partnership - Fair with LG
➢ Korean President visits Samsung Electronics R&D Center
➢ Vietnam Food Expo with Lotte Wellfood
"𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐲, 𝐚 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐲. 𝐖𝐞 𝐚𝐥𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐥𝐲 𝐲𝐨𝐮 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐛𝐞 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬."
What are the main advantages of using HR recruiter services.pdfHumanResourceDimensi1
HR recruiter services offer top talents to companies according to their specific needs. They handle all recruitment tasks from job posting to onboarding and help companies concentrate on their business growth. With their expertise and years of experience, they streamline the hiring process and save time and resources for the company.
Memorandum Of Association Constitution of Company.pptseri bangash
www.seribangash.com
A Memorandum of Association (MOA) is a legal document that outlines the fundamental principles and objectives upon which a company operates. It serves as the company's charter or constitution and defines the scope of its activities. Here's a detailed note on the MOA:
Contents of Memorandum of Association:
Name Clause: This clause states the name of the company, which should end with words like "Limited" or "Ltd." for a public limited company and "Private Limited" or "Pvt. Ltd." for a private limited company.
https://seribangash.com/article-of-association-is-legal-doc-of-company/
Registered Office Clause: It specifies the location where the company's registered office is situated. This office is where all official communications and notices are sent.
Objective Clause: This clause delineates the main objectives for which the company is formed. It's important to define these objectives clearly, as the company cannot undertake activities beyond those mentioned in this clause.
www.seribangash.com
Liability Clause: It outlines the extent of liability of the company's members. In the case of companies limited by shares, the liability of members is limited to the amount unpaid on their shares. For companies limited by guarantee, members' liability is limited to the amount they undertake to contribute if the company is wound up.
https://seribangash.com/promotors-is-person-conceived-formation-company/
Capital Clause: This clause specifies the authorized capital of the company, i.e., the maximum amount of share capital the company is authorized to issue. It also mentions the division of this capital into shares and their respective nominal value.
Association Clause: It simply states that the subscribers wish to form a company and agree to become members of it, in accordance with the terms of the MOA.
Importance of Memorandum of Association:
Legal Requirement: The MOA is a legal requirement for the formation of a company. It must be filed with the Registrar of Companies during the incorporation process.
Constitutional Document: It serves as the company's constitutional document, defining its scope, powers, and limitations.
Protection of Members: It protects the interests of the company's members by clearly defining the objectives and limiting their liability.
External Communication: It provides clarity to external parties, such as investors, creditors, and regulatory authorities, regarding the company's objectives and powers.
https://seribangash.com/difference-public-and-private-company-law/
Binding Authority: The company and its members are bound by the provisions of the MOA. Any action taken beyond its scope may be considered ultra vires (beyond the powers) of the company and therefore void.
Amendment of MOA:
While the MOA lays down the company's fundamental principles, it is not entirely immutable. It can be amended, but only under specific circumstances and in compliance with legal procedures. Amendments typically require shareholder
Buy Verified PayPal Account | Buy Google 5 Star Reviewsusawebmarket
Buy Verified PayPal Account
Looking to buy verified PayPal accounts? Discover 7 expert tips for safely purchasing a verified PayPal account in 2024. Ensure security and reliability for your transactions.
PayPal Services Features-
🟢 Email Access
🟢 Bank Added
🟢 Card Verified
🟢 Full SSN Provided
🟢 Phone Number Access
🟢 Driving License Copy
🟢 Fasted Delivery
Client Satisfaction is Our First priority. Our services is very appropriate to buy. We assume that the first-rate way to purchase our offerings is to order on the website. If you have any worry in our cooperation usually You can order us on Skype or Telegram.
24/7 Hours Reply/Please Contact
usawebmarketEmail: support@usawebmarket.com
Skype: usawebmarket
Telegram: @usawebmarket
WhatsApp: +1(218) 203-5951
USA WEB MARKET is the Best Verified PayPal, Payoneer, Cash App, Skrill, Neteller, Stripe Account and SEO, SMM Service provider.100%Satisfection granted.100% replacement Granted.
Cracking the Workplace Discipline Code Main.pptxWorkforce Group
Cultivating and maintaining discipline within teams is a critical differentiator for successful organisations.
Forward-thinking leaders and business managers understand the impact that discipline has on organisational success. A disciplined workforce operates with clarity, focus, and a shared understanding of expectations, ultimately driving better results, optimising productivity, and facilitating seamless collaboration.
Although discipline is not a one-size-fits-all approach, it can help create a work environment that encourages personal growth and accountability rather than solely relying on punitive measures.
In this deck, you will learn the significance of workplace discipline for organisational success. You’ll also learn
• Four (4) workplace discipline methods you should consider
• The best and most practical approach to implementing workplace discipline.
• Three (3) key tips to maintain a disciplined workplace.
RMD24 | Retail media: hoe zet je dit in als je geen AH of Unilever bent? Heid...BBPMedia1
Grote partijen zijn al een tijdje onderweg met retail media. Ondertussen worden in dit domein ook de kansen zichtbaar voor andere spelers in de markt. Maar met die kansen ontstaan ook vragen: Zelf retail media worden of erop adverteren? In welke fase van de funnel past het en hoe integreer je het in een mediaplan? Wat is nu precies het verschil met marketplaces en Programmatic ads? In dit half uur beslechten we de dilemma's en krijg je antwoorden op wanneer het voor jou tijd is om de volgende stap te zetten.
What is the TDS Return Filing Due Date for FY 2024-25.pdfseoforlegalpillers
It is crucial for the taxpayers to understand about the TDS Return Filing Due Date, so that they can fulfill your TDS obligations efficiently. Taxpayers can avoid penalties by sticking to the deadlines and by accurate filing of TDS. Timely filing of TDS will make sure about the availability of tax credits. You can also seek the professional guidance of experts like Legal Pillers for timely filing of the TDS Return.
The world of search engine optimization (SEO) is buzzing with discussions after Google confirmed that around 2,500 leaked internal documents related to its Search feature are indeed authentic. The revelation has sparked significant concerns within the SEO community. The leaked documents were initially reported by SEO experts Rand Fishkin and Mike King, igniting widespread analysis and discourse. For More Info:- https://news.arihantwebtech.com/search-disrupted-googles-leaked-documents-rock-the-seo-world/
India Orthopedic Devices Market: Unlocking Growth Secrets, Trends and Develop...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, “India Orthopedic Devices Market -Industry Size, Share, Trends, Competition Forecast & Opportunities, 2030”, the India Orthopedic Devices Market stood at USD 1,280.54 Million in 2024 and is anticipated to grow with a CAGR of 7.84% in the forecast period, 2026-2030F. The India Orthopedic Devices Market is being driven by several factors. The most prominent ones include an increase in the elderly population, who are more prone to orthopedic conditions such as osteoporosis and arthritis. Moreover, the rise in sports injuries and road accidents are also contributing to the demand for orthopedic devices. Advances in technology and the introduction of innovative implants and prosthetics have further propelled the market growth. Additionally, government initiatives aimed at improving healthcare infrastructure and the increasing prevalence of lifestyle diseases have led to an upward trend in orthopedic surgeries, thereby fueling the market demand for these devices.
[Note: This is a partial preview. To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
Sustainability has become an increasingly critical topic as the world recognizes the need to protect our planet and its resources for future generations. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It involves long-term planning and consideration of the consequences of our actions. The goal is to create strategies that ensure the long-term viability of People, Planet, and Profit.
Leading companies such as Nike, Toyota, and Siemens are prioritizing sustainable innovation in their business models, setting an example for others to follow. In this Sustainability training presentation, you will learn key concepts, principles, and practices of sustainability applicable across industries. This training aims to create awareness and educate employees, senior executives, consultants, and other key stakeholders, including investors, policymakers, and supply chain partners, on the importance and implementation of sustainability.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles and concepts that form the foundation of sustainability within corporate environments.
2. Explore the sustainability implementation model, focusing on effective measures and reporting strategies to track and communicate sustainability efforts.
3. Identify and define best practices and critical success factors essential for achieving sustainability goals within organizations.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Key Concepts of Sustainability
2. Principles and Practices of Sustainability
3. Measures and Reporting in Sustainability
4. Sustainability Implementation & Best Practices
To download the complete presentation, visit: https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
Business Valuation Principles for EntrepreneursBen Wann
This insightful presentation is designed to equip entrepreneurs with the essential knowledge and tools needed to accurately value their businesses. Understanding business valuation is crucial for making informed decisions, whether you're seeking investment, planning to sell, or simply want to gauge your company's worth.
Forensic accounting as a tool for fighting financial crime in nigeria
1. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
18
Forensic Accounting as a Tool for Fighting Financial Crime in
Nigeria
Ofiafoh Eiya1
John I Otalor2*
1. Department of Accounting, University of Benin,
P. M .B 1154,Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
2. Chris Awili & co (Chartered Accountants), 8, Akpakpava Street,
P. O. Box 4390,Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
* E-mail of the corresponding author: john.otalor@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
There has been a dramatic increase in financial crime across the globe especially in developing economies. In
Nigeria, the print and electronic media is replete with news of the charges brought against suspected persons
accused of financial crime and charged to court by the anti-graft agencies being dismissed for lack of credible
and sufficient evidence. The paper highlights how forensic accounting can be employed to resolve that challenge.
Forensic accounting assignment is more comprehensive in nature than financial audit. Unlike financial audit
which aims mainly at uncovering material deviation in financial data and significant variances from acceptable
accounting and auditing standards, forensic audit looks beyond the transactions and audit trail to focus on
substances of the transaction instead. It was recommended that the relevant anti-graft agencies should consider
engaging the services of forensic accountant to enhance conviction of fraud culprits.
Keywords: Forensic accounting, financial crime, expert witness and Nigeria.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The risk of financial irregularities has been in existence for a very long time. In fact it was the fear of this and the
need to provide owners of wealth with a means of safeguarding their wealth from embezzlement following the
rise of the Joint Stock Companies that gave rise to stewardship accounting and later auditing by the Joint Stock
Company Act of 1844.
Financial crimes which may involve fraud are crime against property. It involves the unlawful conversion of the
ownership of property belonging to another to one's own personal use and benefit. Financial crimes may be
carried out by individuals, corporations, or by organized crime groups and victims may include individuals,
corporations, governments, and the entire world. During the early decades of the last century, the general believe
was that it was not the duty of the auditor to detect fraud and auditors sought to immunize themselves from
professional liability by issuing professional pronouncements that minimized or denied professional
responsibility for fraud discovery. By the mid-point of the century, authoritative professional pronouncements
avoided even using the word “fraud,” preferring discreet euphemisms like “irregularities” (Albrecht, Albrecht &
Albrecht, 2006; 2008; Commission on Auditors’ Responsibilities, 1978). The flight was attributed to a litigious
climate in which the most common alleged fault inter alia was the auditor’s failure to detect a fraud (Jaenicke,
1977; Gray & Moussalli, 2006:17). The unrelenting series of embarrassing audit failures over the last 50 years
has prompted a paradigm shift in accounting. Interestingly, in the mid-20th century, when the flight from fraud
detection was at its height, a few observers predicted that in the future there will be acceptance of the general
responsibility of the auditor to perform tests to detect material defalcations and errors if they exist (Brown, 1962;
Gray & Moussalli, 2006:17). These events led to the hiring of fraud detection experts called forensic
accountants.
Forensic accounting is defined as the practice of rigorous data collection and analysis in the areas of litigation
support consulting, expert witnessing, and fraud examination (Rezaee, Crumbly and Elmore, 2003; 2004:2).
Forensic Accounting provides an accounting analysis suitable to the court and forms the basis for discussion,
debate and ultimately dispute resolution (Zysman, 2004). Forensic accounting may be described as being the
integration of an individual's accounting and auditing knowledge with investigative skills that have been gained
from years of practical experience. It is the means by which the forensic accountant will review instructions
given by a client, usually through a solicitor, thoroughly investigate those instructions and the underlying
circumstances, examine the financial information and any relevant contracts and other agreements, obtain
appropriate evidence, prepare any appropriate calculations, form a conclusion and publish the whole in the form
of a report suitable for presentation to the court.
This paper seeks to explore how forensic accounting can be used as a tool for reducing financial crime in Nigeria.
2. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
19
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
The 1990s witnessed a dramatic change in scope and concerns about forensic accounting as a topic in accounting
literatures. Consequently a number of recent articles have focused on the increasing demand for accountants to
conduct forensic accounting activities and on the broadening definition of forensic accounting away from the
usual narrow fraud detection definition (Cohen, Crain, & Sanders, 1996; Baron, 2006; Wells, 2003; Rezaee,
Crumbley, & Elmore, 2006). It has been argued that the definition of forensic accounting is unclear hence the
term forensic accounting services has dominated forensic accounting literature and the legal system
(Coppolla,2006; Dorrell, 2000; Durkin & Harry, 1997; Hochberg, 2006; Telpner & Mostek,2003; Bologna, 2000;
Huber & Glenn, 2005; Carmichael et al.,) or in another adversarial context (Gray & Moussalli, 2006:16).
The term “Forensic” means “suitable for use in a court of law”, and it is to that standard and potential outcome
that forensic accountants generally have to work. Litigation services and investigative accounting are the two
main branches of forensic accounting, according to some experts (Crumbley, 2005; Coppolla, 2006). “Litigation
Support” provides assistance of an accounting nature in a matter involving existing or pending litigation. It deals
primarily with issues related to the quantification of economic damages. A typical litigation support assignment
would be calculating the economic loss resulting from a breach of contract. “Investigative accounting” is often
associated with investigations of criminal matters. A typical investigative accounting assignment would be an
investigation of employee theft. Other examples include securities fraud, insurance fraud, kickbacks and
proceeds of crime investigations. However, it has been argued that, “fraud auditing, forensic accounting,
litigation support, investigative accounting, and valuation analysis are often used interchangeably” (Bologna,
1994; 1996). Interestingly, what is at the heart of all the services coming under these names is a search for fraud.
Whether the professional is evaluating a business for bankruptcy, conducting an insurance investigation,
searching for hidden assets in a divorce proceeding, or investigating the revenue recognition procedures of a
publicly quoted company, the fear of fraud is the motivation for hiring the forensic accountant and he is expected
to detect fraud where it exist (Gray & Moussalli, 2006:16).
Forensic accounting, also called investigative accounting or fraud audit, is a merger of forensic science and
accounting. Forensic science according to Crumbley (2003) “may be defined as application of the laws of nature
to the laws of man”. He refers to forensic scientists as examiners and interpreters of evidence and facts in legal
cases that also offers expert opinions regarding their findings in court of law. The science in question here is
accounting science, meaning that the examination and interpretation will be of economic information. In the
views of Joshi (2003) Forensic accounting is the application of specialized knowledge and specific skill to
stumble up on the evidence of economic transactions. It demands reporting, where the accountability of the fraud
is established and the report is considered as evidence in the court of law or in the administrative proceeding
(Kasum, 2009:2). Zysman (2004) defined Forensic accounting as the integration of accounting, auditing, and
investigative skills. Simply put, forensic accounting is accounting that is suitable for legal review offering the
highest level of assurance and including the now generally accepted connotation of having been arrived at in a
scientific fashion (Crumbley, 2006). Coenen (2005) posited that Forensic accounting involves the application of
accounting concepts and techniques to legal problem.
Forensic accounting has also been defined as the science of gathering and presenting information in a form that
will be accepted by a court of jurisprudence against perpetrators of economic crime (Stanbury & Paley-Menzies,
2010). Smith & Crumbley (2009) defined forensic accounting by distinguishing forensic accounting from fraud
auditing. They argue that a fraud auditor is an accountant with a specialized skilled in auditing while a forensic
accountant may take on fraud auditing engagements and may in fact be a fraud auditor, but he or she will also
use other accounting, consulting, and legal skills in broader engagements. The AICPA defines forensic
accounting as services that involve the application of specialized knowledge and investigative skills possessed
by CPAs. Forensic accounting services utilize the practitioner’s specialized accounting, auditing, economic, tax,
and other skills (AICPA, 2010).
In the views of Singleton & Singleton (2010) forensic accounting comprehensively entails fraud investigation,
prevention of fraud and analyzing antifraud controls in addition to gathering non-financial information.
Hopwood, Leiner, & Young (2008) define forensic accounting as the application of investigative and analytical
skills for the purpose of resolving financial issues in a manner that meets standards required by courts of law.
They however contend that while forensic accounting may not make explicit reference to fraud, fraud
investigations are integral part of forensic accounting.
Forensic accounting or financial forensics is the specialty practice area of accountancy that describes
engagements that result from actual or anticipated disputes or litigation. “Forensic accountants, also referred to
as forensic auditors or investigative auditors, often have to give expert evidence at the eventual trial. Other
terminologies used to describe forensic accounting include:
3. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
20
Forensic Investigation: The utilization of specialized investigative skills in carrying out an inquiry conducted in
such a manner that the outcome will have application to a court of law. A forensic investigation may be
grounded in accounting, medicine, engineering or some other discipline.
Forensic Audit: An examination of evidence regarding an assertion to determine its correspondence to
established criteria carried out in a manner suitable to the court. An example would be a forensic audit of sales
records to determine the quantum of rent owing under a lease agreement, which is the subject of litigation.
Internal Audit: An audit performed by an employee who examines operational evidence to determine whether
prescribed operating procedures have been followed.
External Audit: An audit performed by an auditor engaged in public practice leading to the expression of a
professional opinion which lends credibility to the assertion under examination
A Forensic Accountant is often retained to analyze, interpret, summarize and present complex financial and
business related issues in a manner which is both understandable and properly supported. Forensic Accountants
can be engaged in public practice or employed by insurance companies, banks, police forces, government
agencies and other organizations. A Forensic Accountant is often involved in investigating and analyzing
financial evidence; developing computerized applications to assist in the analysis and presentation of financial
evidence; communicating their findings in the form of reports, exhibits and collections of documents; and
assisting in legal proceedings, including testifying in court as an expert witness and preparing visual aids to
support trial evidence. In order to properly perform these services a Forensic Accountant must be familiar with
legal concepts and procedures. In addition, a Forensic Accountant must be able to identify substance over form
when dealing with an issue.
Economic or financial crime as a concept apparently first appeared in the criminology literature in 1872, when
Edwin Hill used the phrase “white collar crime”(Nelu, 2010:2) but the expression was subsequently established
by Edwin Sutherland in his famous work "Principles of Criminology and White Collar Crime" published in 1939.
He defined the term as “A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of
his occupation.” Though the actions and perpetrators might vary, these crimes all involved “The violation of
delegated or implied trust.” The cooperative, if clueless, victim was necessary for the predication of the crime.
The above definition identified three principal factors which aids the crime, namely: offense, the offender and
society. Offense is an act by respected person in high social and economic status that violates rules or otherwise
relating to professional activities. Offenders are usually citizens who by their status are above suspicion. They
commit criminal acts in connection with business and their professional conduct, are aware of the lawfulness or
unlawfulness of their conduct. They use their social position to violate the law. Society's attitude and reaction to
crime often encourages criminals. Thus the main goal pursued by criminals is social or financial success and in
trying to achieve the goal, they employ both legal and illegal or unethical means. They believe strongly in the old
Machiavellian principle of “the end justifying the means" (Nelu, 2010:3).
Financial crimes are crime against property, involving the unlawful conversion of the ownership of property
(belonging to another) to one's own personal use and benefit. Financial crimes may involve fraud which can take
the form of (cheque fraud, credit card fraud, mortgage fraud, medical fraud, corporate fraud, securities fraud
(including insider trading), bank fraud, payment (point of sale) fraud, health care fraud and so on); theft; scams
or confidence tricks; tax evasion; bribery; embezzlement; identity theft; money laundering; and forgery and
counterfeiting, including the production of Counterfeit money and consumer goods. Financial crimes may
involve additional criminal acts, such as computer crime, elder abuse, burglary, and even violent crime such as
armed robbery or murder. Financial crimes may be carried out by individuals, corporations, or by organized
crime groups. Victims may include individuals, corporations, governments, and entire economies.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_crimes)
3.0 THE NATURE FORENSIC ACCOUNTING ASSIGNMENTS
The procedures adopted in carrying out financial audits are designed to detect material mis-statements, not
material frauds hence, financial auditors depend on a sample and rely on examination of audit trail instead of the
examination of the events and activities behind the documents. Financial audit procedures are based on
uncovering material deviations in financial data and significant variances from acceptable accounting and
auditing standards. Forensic audit/ accounting have the following peculiar characteristics:
(a) It is more of a mindset than a mythology;
(b) Forensic audit approach is different from financial audit approach;
(c) Forensic audit is learned from experience not from text books; and
(d) Forensic audit views fraud as an intentional misrepresentation of material financial facts;
financial audit views fraud as an intentional misrepresentation of financial fact of a material
4. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
21
nature.
Forensic auditors/ accountants look behind and beyond the transactions and audit trail to focus on substance of
the transactions instead. Unlike the financial auditor, the forensic auditor asks the following questions:
(a) Where are the weakest links in the system chain of controls?
(b) How are offline transactions handled, and who authorizes them?
(c) What possible deviations can occur in the system different from conventional good accounting
practice?
(d) What simple way exists to compromise the system?
(e) What is the nature of work environment in the organisation?
(f) How can higher management bypass the control systems in the organisation?
Forensic Accountants become involved in a wide range of investigations, spanning many different
industries. The practical and in-depth analysis that a Forensic Accountant will bring to a case helps uncover
trends that bring to light the relevant issues. Detailed below are various areas in which a Forensic Accountant
will often become involved.
Criminal Investigations
Forensic investigations often relate to criminal investigations on behalf of police forces. For example, a Forensic
Accountant may be retained by the EFCC, ICPC, The Police forces and organizations such as the Law Society.
A Forensic Accountant's report is prepared with the objective of presenting evidence in a professional and
concise manner.
Shareholders' and Partnership Disputes
These assignments often involve a detailed analysis of numerous years accounting records to quantify the issues
in dispute. For example, a common issue that often arises is the compensation and benefits received by each of
the disputing shareholders or partners.
Personal Injury Claims / Motor Vehicle Accidents
A Forensic Accountant is often asked to quantify the economic losses resulting from a motor vehicle accident. A
Forensic Accountant needs to be familiar with the legislation in place which pertains to motor vehicle accidents.
Cases of medical malpractice and wrongful dismissal often involve similar issues in calculating the resulting
economic damages.
Business Interruption / Other Types of Insurance Claims
Insurance policies differ significantly as to their terms and conditions. Accordingly, these assignments involve
a detailed review of the policy to investigate coverage issues and the appropriate method of calculating the loss.
A Forensic Accountant is often asked to assist from either an insured or insurer's perspective in the settlement of
a case. Examples of these types of assignments include; business interruptions, property losses and employee
dishonesty (fidelity) claims.
Business/Employee Fraud Investigations
Business investigations can involve funds tracing, asset identification and recovery, forensic intelligence
gathering and due diligence reviews. Employee fraud investigations often involve procedures to determine the
existence, nature and extent of fraud and may concern the identification of a perpetrator. These investigations
often entail interviews of personnel who had access to the funds and a detailed review of the documentary
evidence.
Matrimonial Disputes
Matrimonial disputes from a Forensic Accounting point-of-view often involve the tracing, locating and
evaluation of assets. The assets to be evaluated and valued may be businesses, property or other assets.
Business Economic Losses
Examples of assignments involving business economic losses include; contract disputes, construction claims,
expropriations, product liability claims, trademark and patent infringements and losses stemming from a breach
of a non-competition agreement.
Professional Negligence
These investigations are often approached from two different but complimentary perspectives, these being:
Technical - has a breach of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or Generally Accepted Auditing
Standards or other standards of practice occurred; and
Loss Quantification.
If the professional in question is an accountant then a Forensic Accountant could be involved with both
perspectives. If the matter involves some other profession a Forensic Accountant will normally be retained to
perform only a loss quantification.
5. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
22
Mediation and Arbitration
Because of their familiarity and comfort with legal issues and procedures some Forensic Accountants have
sought out special training and become involved in alternative dispute resolution (ADR). ADR services include
both mediation and arbitration and are designed to help individuals and businesses resolve disputes with minimal
disruption and in a timely fashion.
4.0 COMPETENCES REQUIRED OF A FORENSIC ACCOUNTANT
To be considered capable and effective, a forensic accountant must possess the following characteristics/qualities:
curiosity, persistence, creativity, discretion, organization, confidence, and sound professional judgement. A
Forensic Accountant must be open to consider all alternatives, scrutinize the fine details and at the same time see
the big picture. In addition, a Forensic Accountant must be able to listen effectively and communicate clearly
and concisely. Moreover, the forensic accountant, auditor and investigator are required to possess some skills
which are complementary to the qualities enumerated above. DiGabriele (2007:15; 2009) identified a set of skill,
prominent amongst which are:
(a) Deductive analysis: The ability to identify financial contradictions that do not fit in the normal pattern
of assignment. In consideration of the barrage of recent financial reporting scandals this skill appears to
be necessary and essential for a forensic accountant to meet the objective of uncovering a potential
financial fraud. Forensic accounting courses aimed at financial misrepresentations should incorporate
course objectives to meet this ability.
(b) Creative thinking: The ability to differentiate between opinion and fact. The essence of being an expert
witness is to be able to perform the task of discerning fact from fiction in order to maintain a credible
testimony. Courses developed in this area should emphasize the ability to remove any non corroborated
opinions from expert reports and testimony.
(c) Unstructured problem solving: The ability to treat each situation as inherently unique and
preparedness to solve problems with an unstructured approach. Accounting education has been based
around concentrating on compliance with rules and procedures. This skill is a direct contradiction to
this concept. It can be argued that a shortcoming of auditors is not seeing the proverbial forest beyond
the trees.
(d) Investigative flexibility: The ability to move away from standardized audit procedures and thoroughly
examine situations for a typical warning signs.
(e) Analytical proficiency: The ability to look out for what should be provided rather than what was
provided. Considering the post financial fraud regulatory environment, solving a financial puzzle with
less than a complete set of pieces appears to be the direction the current business environment is
heading
(f) Oral communication: The ability to effectively communicate in speech via expert testimony and
general explanation of the bases of opinion.
(g) Written communication: The ability to effectively communicate in writing via reports, charts, graphs
and schedules the bases of opinion.
(h) Specific legal knowledge: The ability to understand basic legal processes and legal issues including the
rule of evidence.
(a) Composure: The ability to maintain a calm attitude when under pressured. The most prevalent area
where this is necessary is expert testimony in either deposition or court. The composure of an expert
can be an integral component in the ultimate outcome of the case.
5.0 THE ROLE OF THE FORENSIC ACCOUNTANT
The principal role of a Forensic Accountant as an expert witness is to Analyze, Interpret, Summarize and Present
Complex Business and Financial deals in a logical, understandable manner supported with facts. An expert
witness is a witness, who by virtue of education, training, skill, or experience, is believed to have knowledge in a
particular subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon
the witness's specialized (scientific, technical or other) opinion about an evidence or fact issued within the scope
of their expertise, referred to as the expert opinion, as an assistance to the fact-finder. Expert witnesses may also
deliver expert evidence about facts from the domain of their expertise. At times, their testimony may be rebutted
with a learned treatise, sometimes to the detriment of their reputations. The Forensic Accountant must (a)
Investigate and analyze financial information, (b) Develop computerized applications (if applicable) to assist in
the analysis and presentation of financial information (Amadiebube, 2008). In addition, an Expert Witness must:
Communicate Findings in the form of a Report and supporting documents.
6. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
23
Assist in any Legal Proceedings.
Assist in obtaining documentation necessary to support or refute a claim.
Review of the relevant documentation to form an initial assessment of the case and identify areas of loss.
Assist with Examination for Discovery including the formulation of questions to be asked regarding the
financial evidence.
Attend the Examination for Discovery to review the testimony, assist with understanding the financial
issues and to formulate additional questions to be asked.
Review of the opposing expert's damages report and reporting on both the strengths and weaknesses of
the positions taken.
Assist with settlement discussions and negotiations.
Attend trial to hear the testimony of the opposing expert and to provide assistance with cross-
examination.
6.0 APPROACHES TO A FORENSIC ACCOUNTING ASSIGNMENT
Each forensic accounting assignment is unique. Accordingly, the actual approach adopted and the procedures
performed will be specific to it. However, in general, many Forensic Accounting assignments will include the
steps detailed below:
Meet with the client
It is helpful to meet with the client to obtain an understanding of the important facts, players and issues at hand.
Perform a conflict check
A conflict check should be carried out as soon as the relevant parties are established.
Perform an initial investigation
It is often useful to carry out a preliminary investigation prior to the development of a detailed plan of
action. This will allow subsequent planning to be based upon a more complete understanding of the issues.
Develop an Action Plan
This plan will take into account the knowledge gained by meeting with the client and carrying out the initial
investigation and will set out the objectives to be achieved and the methodology to be utilized to accomplish
them.
Obtain the relevant evidence
Depending on the nature of the case this may involve locating documents, economic information, assets, a
person or company, another expert or proof of the occurrence of an event.
Perform the analysis
The actual analysis performed will be dependent upon the nature of the assignment and may involve:
calculating economic damages;
summarizing a large number of transactions;
performing a tracing of assets;
performing present value calculations utilizing appropriate discount rates;
performing a regression or sensitivity analysis;
utilizing a computerized application such as a spread sheet, data base or computer model; and
utilizing charts and graphics to explain the analysis.
Prepare the report
Often a report will be prepared which may include sections on the nature of the assignment, scope of the
investigation, approach utilized, limitations of scope and findings and/or opinions. The report will include
schedules and graphics necessary to properly support and explain the findings.
7.0 CONCLUSION
Financial crimes and fraud have serious negative effect on human capital and infrastructural development in
developing economies, especially countries like Nigeria where the menace has become endemic.
In the past auditors issued professional pronouncements that minimized or denied professional responsibility for
fraud discovery. The unrelenting series of embarrassing audit failures of the last five decades has prompted a
paradigm shift in accounting. It is now tacitly accepted that the auditor has responsibility to perform tests to
detect material defalcations and errors if they exist. Expectedly, fraud detection experts called forensic
accountants are now being hired in developed economies to investigate cases of financial crime. It is therefore
recommended that:
(a) the forensic auditor as an expert witness should at all times bring his education, training, skill, or
experience to bear so that their specialized opinion about an evidence or fact issued within the scope of
7. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
24
their expertise( expert opinion), as an assistance to the fact-finder can be relied upon, and
(b) the anti-graft agencies should consider engaging the services of forensic accountants to assist them in
court cases involving economic or financial crimes.
REFERENCES
AICPA Forensic and Litigation Services Committee (2004). Discussion Memorandum: Forensic services, audits
and corporate governance – bridging the gap. American Institute of Certified Publiv Accountants.
Downloaded April 20, 2013 from
http://www.aicpa.org/download/bvfls/Discussion_Memorandum_Final%20Rports_(Color%20Slides).pdf
AICPA (2010) FVS Practice Aid 10-1: Serving as an expert witness or consultant. New York: American
Institute of Certified Public Accountants.
Albrecht, W. S., Albrecht, C.C. and Albrecht, C.O. (2006). Fraud Examination, 2nd
ed. Thomson South-Western.
Albrecht, W. S., Albrecht, C.O. and Albrecht, C. C. (2008). Current trends in fraud and its detection, Information
Security Journal: A global perspective, Vol.17, pp.1-32
Amadiebube, R.M. (2008). Money Laundering: The role of a forensic accountant as an expert witness. A paper
presented at the ICAN conference held at the International Conference Center in Abuja, October 13-17.
Baron, L. (2006). CPAs are a hot commodity. Journal of Accountancy, v. 201, issue 2.
Bologna, J. (2000). The ‘one minute fraud auditor’ Revisited. Forensic Accounting Review. (December): 1-4.
Brown, R. G. (1962). Changing audit objectives and techniques. Accounting Review 37, no. 4 (October): 696-
703.
Carmichael, D. R., Michele M. S, Wilson, D.K; Reed, M.L., and Shipp C.W. (2002). PPC’s guide to fraud
detection, 5th ed., vol. 1. Fort Worth, TX: Practitioners Publishing.
Coenen, T.L. (2005), Forensic accounting, a new twist on being an accountant, Tracy@sequence-inc.com.
Cohen, M., Crain, M. A and Sanders, A. (1996). Skills used in litigation services. Journal of Accountancy, v. 182,
i. 3, p. 101.
Coleman, J. (1998) .The criminal elite: Understanding white-collar crime. New York: St. Martin’s Press,
Commission on Auditors’ Responsibilities, CAR (1978). Report, Conclusions, and Recommendations. New
York: Commission on Auditors’ Responsibilities.
Coppola, D. R. (2006). Demystifying financial fraud: Forensic accountants gain in popularity. Alaska Business
Monthly 22, no. 5 (May): 79.
Crumbley, D. L (2003). What is Forensic Accounting, www.edwardspub.com.
Crumbley, D. L (2006). Forensic accountants appearing in the literature, www.forensicaccounting.com.
Crumbley, D. L. (2005). Qualifying as an expert witness. In Walter J. Pagano and Thomas A. Buckhoff, eds.,
Expert Witnessing in Forensic Accounting, Philadelphia: Edwards.
DiGabriele, J. A.(2007), Fishbowl the forensic accountant: Are there differences in the views of the relevant
skills of a forensic accountant among practitioners, academics and users of forensic accounting services?
(January 2,). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1522488 or
http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1522488
DiGabriele, J. A. (2009). Fishbowl the Forensic Accountant: A Closer Look at the Skills Forensic Accounting
Education Should Emphasize. The Forensic Examiner, 18(2), 77-79.
Dorrell, D. (2000). Explaining forensic accounting. CPA Litigation Service Counselor 21, no. 6 (June): 7-8.
Durkin, R. L. and Harry III, E. P. (1997). Fraud investigations in litigation and dispute resolution services: A
non-authoritative guide. Consulting Services Practice Aid 97-1. New York: American Institute of Certified
Public Accountants.
Gray, O. R and Moussalli, S. D., Forensic accounting and auditing united again: A historical perspective (2006).
Journal of Business Issues, No. 2, pp. 15-25, 2006. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1642100
Hochberg, N. A. (2006). When accounting practices go under the microscope. Financial Executive 22, no. 1: 53-
55.
Hopwood, W. S., Leiner, J. J. and Young, G.. R.(2008). Forensic Accounting. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Huber, E., and Glenn, G. A. (2005). Forensic accounting for divorce engagements: A Practical Guide. 2nd ed.
New York: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.
Jaenicke, H. R. (1977). Effect of litigation on independent auditors. Research Study No.1. New York:
Commission on Auditors’ Responsibilities.
Joshi, M. S. (2003). Definition of forensic accounting. www.forensicaccounting.com.
Kasum, A. S. (2009. The relevance of forensic accounting to financial crimes in private and public sectors of
Third World Economies: A study from Nigeria. Available at
8. Research Journal of Finance and Accounting www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1697 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2847 (Online)
Vol.4, No.6, 2013
25
SSRN: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1384242
Nelu, N.(2010), Use of accounting information on economic and financial crime prevention in the globalization
context (July 14, 2010). Criminality Investigation Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 5. Available at SSRN:
http://ssrn.com/abstract=2027388
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Rezaee, Z, Crumbley, D. L. and Elmore, R. C. (2003). Forensic accounting education: A survey of
academicians and practitioners, Advances in Accounting Education, Forthcoming. Available at SSRN:
http://ssrn.com/abstract=518263
Rezaee, Z, Crumbley, D.L. and Elmore R.C. (2006). Forensic accounting education; A survey of academicians
and practitioners, Journal of Forensic Accounting, Vol.10 No.3, PP, 48 – 59.
Rezaee, Z., Crumbley, D., and Elmore, R. (2004). Forensic accounting education: A survey of academicians and
practitioners. Advances in Accounting Education Teaching and Curriculum Development, v. 6, p. 193.
Singleton, T. W and Singleton, A. J. (2006). Fraud Auditing and Forensic Accounting. 3rd ed.
Smith, G. and Crumbley, D. (2009). How divergent are pedagogical views toward the fraud/forensic accounting
curriculum? Global Perspectives on Accounting Education, v. 6, p. 1 - 24.
Stanbury, J and Paley-Menzies, C.. 2010. Forensic futurama: Why forensic accounting is evolving. Available at
http://www.aicpa.org/Publications/Newsletters/AICPACPAInsider/2010/jun28/Pages/ForensicFuturamaWh
yForensicAccountingIsEvolving.aspx
Telpner, Z and Michael M. (2003). Expert witnessing in forensic accounting: A Handbook for Lawyers and
Accountants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Wells, J. (2003). The fraud examiners: Sleuthing careers bring CPAs personal and professional satisfaction,
Journal of Accountancy, v. 196, issue 4.
Zysman, A. (2004), Forensic accounting demystified, world investigators network standard practice for
investigative and forensic accounting engagements, Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountant, Nov 2006.
http://www.pueleibowtzanmdchickllc.com/litigation.shtml
http://www.forensic-accounting-informatiom.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_crimes
http://accounting-financial-tax.com/2010/03/examining-asset-fraud/
http://www.fraudessentials.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8&Itemid=10