This document describes a study that examined the influence of gender and images of healthy vs. unhealthy snacks on attitudes toward snacking. The researchers hypothesized that: 1) females would express more ambivalence than males toward unhealthy snacking; 2) attitudes would be more positive when unhealthy snacks were pictured; and 3) females shown unhealthy snack pictures would have the most positive attitudes. Students completed a survey with either healthy or unhealthy snack images rating snacking statements. Results found gender, image, and interaction effects, warranting further research.
The document summarizes four studies that examined different factors influencing eating behaviors. The first study showed genetics play a role in eating behaviors like snacking and meal sizes. The second found children who eat more meals away from home consume less calcium. The third demonstrated families with a member in a community garden ate more fruits and vegetables. The fourth associated greater family support for healthy eating with healthier diets in Mexican American children. Together the studies explored genetics, home vs away eating, community gardens, and family influences on dietary behaviors.
Introduction to psychology - summary, analysis and critique of priming effect...Sarah Lee
The document summarizes and critiques a 2009 study by Harris, Bargh and Brownell on the effects of television food advertising on eating behavior. The study found that both children and adults consumed more snacks after viewing food advertisements compared to non-food ads. Children ate 45% more snacks and adults ate more unhealthy snacks after "fun" food ads. However, the critique notes that the study had limitations such as small sample sizes, lack of variety in food types tested, and inability to analyze different ad characteristics. Further research is needed to fully understand the relationship between food ads and eating behaviors.
Introduction to Psychology - Proposal for research on eating disorders and ho...Sarah Lee
Introduction to Psychology - Proposal for research on eating disorders and how they are caused by the sustained high prevalence of the media depicting the ideal female body as excessively thin
Genetics play a significant role in the development of eating disorders according to three studies. Study 1 found that identical twins exhibited more similar internalization of thin ideals and disordered eating than fraternal twins, indicating genetic influences. Study 2 determined that genetics accounted for 40-48% of variances in disordered eating behaviors for both males and females. Study 3 revealed a 38% genetic contribution to restrained eating independent of BMI. However, the influence of genetics relative to environmental factors like media is still unclear according to the conclusions. Further research is needed to fully understand the interplay between genetic predispositions and social influences on eating pathology.
The document summarizes a study examining factors associated with fruit and vegetable intake among college students. It describes the methods used, including a survey of 981 college students assessing demographics, living situations, sleep habits, physical activity, smoking, marijuana use, and fruit/vegetable consumption. Chi-square tests found no significant associations between fruit/vegetable intake and race, living arrangements, sleep, smoking, or marijuana use. Physical activity level was the only factor significantly related to fruit/vegetable consumption.
There is a linear correlation between increased media exposure and the development of eating disorders in both females and males of all ages. Studies have shown that exposure to thin ideals in media can lead to body dissatisfaction, unhealthy weight loss behaviors, and increased risk of anorexia. However, factors like past media exposure, cultural influences, and the type of media consumed also impact the degree of negative body image and risk of eating disorders developed.
The document discusses body image and satisfaction in females. It summarizes previous research that found using the Whole Body Experience Questionnaire improved body satisfaction in females by encouraging consideration of multiple body parts. The current study investigated this effect in dieting and non-dieting females, finding dieters had greater increases in satisfaction after using the questionnaire. However, the study did not attempt to raise body esteem in dissatisfied participants.
The document summarizes four studies that examined different factors influencing eating behaviors. The first study showed genetics play a role in eating behaviors like snacking and meal sizes. The second found children who eat more meals away from home consume less calcium. The third demonstrated families with a member in a community garden ate more fruits and vegetables. The fourth associated greater family support for healthy eating with healthier diets in Mexican American children. Together the studies explored genetics, home vs away eating, community gardens, and family influences on dietary behaviors.
Introduction to psychology - summary, analysis and critique of priming effect...Sarah Lee
The document summarizes and critiques a 2009 study by Harris, Bargh and Brownell on the effects of television food advertising on eating behavior. The study found that both children and adults consumed more snacks after viewing food advertisements compared to non-food ads. Children ate 45% more snacks and adults ate more unhealthy snacks after "fun" food ads. However, the critique notes that the study had limitations such as small sample sizes, lack of variety in food types tested, and inability to analyze different ad characteristics. Further research is needed to fully understand the relationship between food ads and eating behaviors.
Introduction to Psychology - Proposal for research on eating disorders and ho...Sarah Lee
Introduction to Psychology - Proposal for research on eating disorders and how they are caused by the sustained high prevalence of the media depicting the ideal female body as excessively thin
Genetics play a significant role in the development of eating disorders according to three studies. Study 1 found that identical twins exhibited more similar internalization of thin ideals and disordered eating than fraternal twins, indicating genetic influences. Study 2 determined that genetics accounted for 40-48% of variances in disordered eating behaviors for both males and females. Study 3 revealed a 38% genetic contribution to restrained eating independent of BMI. However, the influence of genetics relative to environmental factors like media is still unclear according to the conclusions. Further research is needed to fully understand the interplay between genetic predispositions and social influences on eating pathology.
The document summarizes a study examining factors associated with fruit and vegetable intake among college students. It describes the methods used, including a survey of 981 college students assessing demographics, living situations, sleep habits, physical activity, smoking, marijuana use, and fruit/vegetable consumption. Chi-square tests found no significant associations between fruit/vegetable intake and race, living arrangements, sleep, smoking, or marijuana use. Physical activity level was the only factor significantly related to fruit/vegetable consumption.
There is a linear correlation between increased media exposure and the development of eating disorders in both females and males of all ages. Studies have shown that exposure to thin ideals in media can lead to body dissatisfaction, unhealthy weight loss behaviors, and increased risk of anorexia. However, factors like past media exposure, cultural influences, and the type of media consumed also impact the degree of negative body image and risk of eating disorders developed.
The document discusses body image and satisfaction in females. It summarizes previous research that found using the Whole Body Experience Questionnaire improved body satisfaction in females by encouraging consideration of multiple body parts. The current study investigated this effect in dieting and non-dieting females, finding dieters had greater increases in satisfaction after using the questionnaire. However, the study did not attempt to raise body esteem in dissatisfied participants.
This study examined the correlation between stress levels and eating habits in undergraduate students. A survey was administered that included questions about typical food consumption and the Perceived Stress Scale. The study found no significant correlation between deviations from normal eating guidelines and increased stress levels, contrary to previous research. Limitations included a small, non-representative sample and potential issues with self-reported data. While the results did not support the hypothesis, improved methodology in future research could help determine if a relationship exists between stress and eating behaviors in college students.
Studies more firmly tie sugary drinks to obesityMong Lopex
A huge, decades-long study involving more than 33,000 Americans has yielded the first clear proof that drinking sugary beverages interacts with genes that affect weight
This needs assessment examines overweight and obesity rates among children in the Harrison School District Two in El Paso County, Colorado. Interviews with local stakeholders and a review of secondary data revealed high rates of childhood obesity and a lack of access to healthy foods and physical activity opportunities. A sidewalk audit and SOPARC assessment of Meadows Park found the park is underutilized despite being accessible. Implications of the study include proposing additional programs like farmers markets, physical activity classes, and neighborhood improvements to increase access to healthy lifestyle options for children.
Childhood obesity treatment literature reviewAmber Breidel
This document provides summaries of several studies related to childhood obesity treatment:
- One study found no significant differences in anthropometric measures between intervention and control groups for adolescent obesity treatment in Kuwait over 6 months.
- A Swedish study is evaluating the effectiveness of different approaches to treat preschool obesity and expects the treatment will improve both primary and secondary outcomes.
- A study evaluated a group medical visit program for treating obesity in an underserved community and found reductions in BMI z-score and improvements in lifestyle factors and empowerment measures.
- A study found that participants in a two-year multidisciplinary weight management program maintained treatment effects and did not significantly change BMI z-scores between post-treatment and 24
Food taboos among residents at ashongman accra, ghanaAlexander Decker
- The document summarizes a study on food taboos among residents in Ashongman Village, Ghana.
- The study found that 60% of respondents had knowledge of food taboos, though only 37% believed in and adhered to them. Common food taboos included dog (64%) and yam (25%).
- Food taboos were categorized as either permanent or temporary. Reasons for taboos included cultural beliefs (94%), religion (92%), health concerns (80%), and magical thinking (50%). While some taboos were shared across ethnic groups, there was also variation between cultures.
The Placemat Protocol is a novel measure designed to assess preschoolers' developing schemas of healthy meals. It involves children creating two pretend meals using highly realistic toy food models - a preferred meal and a healthy meal. The researcher can then analyze various dimensions of the meals created, such as nutritional content. The study aimed to validate this measure by comparing the nutritional profiles of the preferred vs. healthy meals and examining correlations with other measures of nutrition knowledge and dietary behaviors. Results showed children's healthy meals contained fewer calories, less fat and sugar, and more fiber than their preferred meals, supporting the validity of the Placemat Protocol as a developmentally appropriate way to measure preschoolers' understanding of healthy eating.
1) The study examined factors related to contraceptive use among Latina women in Los Angeles, including cultural expectations, attitudes, and perceived barriers.
2) Surveys were administered to 291 Latina women ages 15-50 at four clinics, in English or Spanish, to assess contraceptive use practices and perceptions of various social and cultural influences.
3) Key factors examined included cultural norms about the value of motherhood, perceived reliability and side effects of contraceptives, embarrassment about obtaining or discussing contraceptives, and perceived barriers to use. Understanding these factors could provide insight into the high birth rate among Latinas in the United States.
This study examined the relationship between three types of parent-reported child maltreatment (neglect, psychological aggression, and corporal punishment) and obesity in preschool children. The study found an association between neglect in the prior year and obesity at age 3, but no association between the other two types of maltreatment and obesity. The results add to evidence that neglect and obesity may share some developmental origins related to mental health conditions. However, the study had limitations such as using parent self-reports and not examining more severe forms of abuse.
Studies more firmly tie sugary drinks to obesityHoward Lane
AP Chief Medical Writer New research powerfully strengthens the case against soda and other sugary drinks as culprits in the obesity epidemic.
A huge, decades-long study involving more than 33,000 Americans has yielded the first clear proof that drinking sugary beverages interacts with genes that affect weight, amplifying a person's risk of obesity beyond what it would be from heredity alone.
This thesis examined the impact of sugar-sweetened beverage intake on energy intake and weight in 12-month-old low-income Hispanic infants. The study divided infants into non-SSB consumers and SSB consumers. It found that non-SSB consumers drank significantly more plain milk, consumed less carbohydrates, had a higher percentage of calories from fat, and consumed less vitamin C than SSB consumers. For infants above the 85th percentile for weight, non-SSB consumers ingested more calories from plain milk/formula. The study suggests limiting sugar-sweetened beverages early in life could help reduce risk of overweight among high-risk Hispanic populations.
This document discusses prevention of eating addictions. It begins by establishing links between eating and the brain's reward system, and discusses common eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia. Prevention programs should aim to educate the public on signs and risks while also addressing cultural issues and low self-esteem. Effective prevention addresses societal pressures around thinness and gender roles while building self-esteem. Primary prevention targets youth through educating teachers and using books to promote healthy attitudes. Relapse prevention involves follow-up care and helping those recovering identify personal triggers.
This study assessed behavioral problems among overweight school children in Tarrant County, Texas. Survey data on over 3,500 Caucasian and Hispanic children aged 0-14 was analyzed. Results showed that among Caucasian children, being overweight or obese was linked to behavioral issues like bullying others, exhibiting problematic social behaviors, and experiencing bullying. However, weight status did not significantly predict suspensions for Hispanic children. The study concludes that childhood obesity can negatively impact physical and mental health into adulthood, and suggests further research on academic and social development impacts.
This document provides recipes for 5 healthy snacks for children: Mini Men Marching (celery with peanut butter and raisins), Tasty Tuna Treats (crackers with tuna salad), Wacky Wagon Wheels (peanut butter and jelly roll-ups), Turkey Tomato Toppers (turkey and tomato sandwiches), and Fantastic Fruit Salad. Each recipe is simple and uses 3 steps or less to prepare a snack with nutritious ingredients to keep children fueled after school.
19.6% of children in America ages 6-11 are considered obese. In many communities, the food of choice is Flaming Hot Chips, a snack that is often used as a meal substitute.
How can we increase healthy snack purchases starting from an early age?
The document tells the story of an old lady who swallowed seaweed and then progressively larger sea creatures to eat what she had previously swallowed, including krill, a crab, a shark, and finally an orca, which was too big for her to handle. Each verse describes what she swallowed next and references what she had previously eaten in order to consume the seaweed, though the reason for eating the seaweed is unknown other than it may have given her a weird feeling.
10 steps to protecting your computer to the world of internet.Khalil Jubran
To protect your computer and personal information online, follow these 10 steps:
1. Create a restore point for your computer's clean installation.
2. Keep your Windows operating system and software like Microsoft Office, Adobe Reader, and Flash Player updated.
3. Use antivirus software, firewalls, and anti-spyware programs to block viruses, hackers, and malware.
4. Use parental control tools and private browsing to help children surf safely and keep browsing activities private.
5. Use strong, unique passwords and change them regularly. Back up important data often using cloud backup services or external drives.
A Simple System for including healthy snacks in your day. Snacks help fuel your day, lowering cravings, binges and afternoon slumps. Not too mention improving metabolism and improving health and weight losss results.
Created by Hayley Beckett
With the help of Cindy Hopcroft, Caron Bennier and Jessica Hall
Compiled by Stephen Epis - http://stephenepis.com.au
Designed by Daemien Lim from Fonge - http://fonge.com.au/
Healthy snacking improves overall health, curbs cravings, fights weight gain, regulates mood, boosts brain power and gives you the energy you need to keep going all day
This document discusses factors that influence eating behavior and food choices. It explores how mood, social learning from parents and family, and health concerns can impact attitudes towards food. Several studies are summarized that show: 1) People in negative moods tend to consume more unhealthy snacks; 2) Children's food preferences and habits are influenced by observing and learning from their parents; and 3) Media characters on TV can encourage children to try healthy foods, but not necessarily choose them over salty or sugary snacks.
This document summarizes a research study examining the impact of media's portrayal of female beauty on women's body image perceptions. The study found that increased media exposure was associated with higher levels of body dissatisfaction among college-aged women. Women with greater body dissatisfaction were also more likely to engage in maladaptive behaviors like eating disorders, excessive dieting, and excessive exercise. The study concluded that media does influence college women's body images in ways that can lead to issues like anorexia and bulimia nervosa. However, the study was limited by a small sample size of 31 participants. Further research with larger samples was recommended.
I provided background information and research on child nutrition, and I related it to child development theories and application to research, teaching, and working with children. This research paper encompasses human growth and development by sharing how a child's ecological system impacts their wellbeing, such as food programs, school, or family.
This study examined the correlation between stress levels and eating habits in undergraduate students. A survey was administered that included questions about typical food consumption and the Perceived Stress Scale. The study found no significant correlation between deviations from normal eating guidelines and increased stress levels, contrary to previous research. Limitations included a small, non-representative sample and potential issues with self-reported data. While the results did not support the hypothesis, improved methodology in future research could help determine if a relationship exists between stress and eating behaviors in college students.
Studies more firmly tie sugary drinks to obesityMong Lopex
A huge, decades-long study involving more than 33,000 Americans has yielded the first clear proof that drinking sugary beverages interacts with genes that affect weight
This needs assessment examines overweight and obesity rates among children in the Harrison School District Two in El Paso County, Colorado. Interviews with local stakeholders and a review of secondary data revealed high rates of childhood obesity and a lack of access to healthy foods and physical activity opportunities. A sidewalk audit and SOPARC assessment of Meadows Park found the park is underutilized despite being accessible. Implications of the study include proposing additional programs like farmers markets, physical activity classes, and neighborhood improvements to increase access to healthy lifestyle options for children.
Childhood obesity treatment literature reviewAmber Breidel
This document provides summaries of several studies related to childhood obesity treatment:
- One study found no significant differences in anthropometric measures between intervention and control groups for adolescent obesity treatment in Kuwait over 6 months.
- A Swedish study is evaluating the effectiveness of different approaches to treat preschool obesity and expects the treatment will improve both primary and secondary outcomes.
- A study evaluated a group medical visit program for treating obesity in an underserved community and found reductions in BMI z-score and improvements in lifestyle factors and empowerment measures.
- A study found that participants in a two-year multidisciplinary weight management program maintained treatment effects and did not significantly change BMI z-scores between post-treatment and 24
Food taboos among residents at ashongman accra, ghanaAlexander Decker
- The document summarizes a study on food taboos among residents in Ashongman Village, Ghana.
- The study found that 60% of respondents had knowledge of food taboos, though only 37% believed in and adhered to them. Common food taboos included dog (64%) and yam (25%).
- Food taboos were categorized as either permanent or temporary. Reasons for taboos included cultural beliefs (94%), religion (92%), health concerns (80%), and magical thinking (50%). While some taboos were shared across ethnic groups, there was also variation between cultures.
The Placemat Protocol is a novel measure designed to assess preschoolers' developing schemas of healthy meals. It involves children creating two pretend meals using highly realistic toy food models - a preferred meal and a healthy meal. The researcher can then analyze various dimensions of the meals created, such as nutritional content. The study aimed to validate this measure by comparing the nutritional profiles of the preferred vs. healthy meals and examining correlations with other measures of nutrition knowledge and dietary behaviors. Results showed children's healthy meals contained fewer calories, less fat and sugar, and more fiber than their preferred meals, supporting the validity of the Placemat Protocol as a developmentally appropriate way to measure preschoolers' understanding of healthy eating.
1) The study examined factors related to contraceptive use among Latina women in Los Angeles, including cultural expectations, attitudes, and perceived barriers.
2) Surveys were administered to 291 Latina women ages 15-50 at four clinics, in English or Spanish, to assess contraceptive use practices and perceptions of various social and cultural influences.
3) Key factors examined included cultural norms about the value of motherhood, perceived reliability and side effects of contraceptives, embarrassment about obtaining or discussing contraceptives, and perceived barriers to use. Understanding these factors could provide insight into the high birth rate among Latinas in the United States.
This study examined the relationship between three types of parent-reported child maltreatment (neglect, psychological aggression, and corporal punishment) and obesity in preschool children. The study found an association between neglect in the prior year and obesity at age 3, but no association between the other two types of maltreatment and obesity. The results add to evidence that neglect and obesity may share some developmental origins related to mental health conditions. However, the study had limitations such as using parent self-reports and not examining more severe forms of abuse.
Studies more firmly tie sugary drinks to obesityHoward Lane
AP Chief Medical Writer New research powerfully strengthens the case against soda and other sugary drinks as culprits in the obesity epidemic.
A huge, decades-long study involving more than 33,000 Americans has yielded the first clear proof that drinking sugary beverages interacts with genes that affect weight, amplifying a person's risk of obesity beyond what it would be from heredity alone.
This thesis examined the impact of sugar-sweetened beverage intake on energy intake and weight in 12-month-old low-income Hispanic infants. The study divided infants into non-SSB consumers and SSB consumers. It found that non-SSB consumers drank significantly more plain milk, consumed less carbohydrates, had a higher percentage of calories from fat, and consumed less vitamin C than SSB consumers. For infants above the 85th percentile for weight, non-SSB consumers ingested more calories from plain milk/formula. The study suggests limiting sugar-sweetened beverages early in life could help reduce risk of overweight among high-risk Hispanic populations.
This document discusses prevention of eating addictions. It begins by establishing links between eating and the brain's reward system, and discusses common eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia. Prevention programs should aim to educate the public on signs and risks while also addressing cultural issues and low self-esteem. Effective prevention addresses societal pressures around thinness and gender roles while building self-esteem. Primary prevention targets youth through educating teachers and using books to promote healthy attitudes. Relapse prevention involves follow-up care and helping those recovering identify personal triggers.
This study assessed behavioral problems among overweight school children in Tarrant County, Texas. Survey data on over 3,500 Caucasian and Hispanic children aged 0-14 was analyzed. Results showed that among Caucasian children, being overweight or obese was linked to behavioral issues like bullying others, exhibiting problematic social behaviors, and experiencing bullying. However, weight status did not significantly predict suspensions for Hispanic children. The study concludes that childhood obesity can negatively impact physical and mental health into adulthood, and suggests further research on academic and social development impacts.
This document provides recipes for 5 healthy snacks for children: Mini Men Marching (celery with peanut butter and raisins), Tasty Tuna Treats (crackers with tuna salad), Wacky Wagon Wheels (peanut butter and jelly roll-ups), Turkey Tomato Toppers (turkey and tomato sandwiches), and Fantastic Fruit Salad. Each recipe is simple and uses 3 steps or less to prepare a snack with nutritious ingredients to keep children fueled after school.
19.6% of children in America ages 6-11 are considered obese. In many communities, the food of choice is Flaming Hot Chips, a snack that is often used as a meal substitute.
How can we increase healthy snack purchases starting from an early age?
The document tells the story of an old lady who swallowed seaweed and then progressively larger sea creatures to eat what she had previously swallowed, including krill, a crab, a shark, and finally an orca, which was too big for her to handle. Each verse describes what she swallowed next and references what she had previously eaten in order to consume the seaweed, though the reason for eating the seaweed is unknown other than it may have given her a weird feeling.
10 steps to protecting your computer to the world of internet.Khalil Jubran
To protect your computer and personal information online, follow these 10 steps:
1. Create a restore point for your computer's clean installation.
2. Keep your Windows operating system and software like Microsoft Office, Adobe Reader, and Flash Player updated.
3. Use antivirus software, firewalls, and anti-spyware programs to block viruses, hackers, and malware.
4. Use parental control tools and private browsing to help children surf safely and keep browsing activities private.
5. Use strong, unique passwords and change them regularly. Back up important data often using cloud backup services or external drives.
A Simple System for including healthy snacks in your day. Snacks help fuel your day, lowering cravings, binges and afternoon slumps. Not too mention improving metabolism and improving health and weight losss results.
Created by Hayley Beckett
With the help of Cindy Hopcroft, Caron Bennier and Jessica Hall
Compiled by Stephen Epis - http://stephenepis.com.au
Designed by Daemien Lim from Fonge - http://fonge.com.au/
Healthy snacking improves overall health, curbs cravings, fights weight gain, regulates mood, boosts brain power and gives you the energy you need to keep going all day
This document discusses factors that influence eating behavior and food choices. It explores how mood, social learning from parents and family, and health concerns can impact attitudes towards food. Several studies are summarized that show: 1) People in negative moods tend to consume more unhealthy snacks; 2) Children's food preferences and habits are influenced by observing and learning from their parents; and 3) Media characters on TV can encourage children to try healthy foods, but not necessarily choose them over salty or sugary snacks.
This document summarizes a research study examining the impact of media's portrayal of female beauty on women's body image perceptions. The study found that increased media exposure was associated with higher levels of body dissatisfaction among college-aged women. Women with greater body dissatisfaction were also more likely to engage in maladaptive behaviors like eating disorders, excessive dieting, and excessive exercise. The study concluded that media does influence college women's body images in ways that can lead to issues like anorexia and bulimia nervosa. However, the study was limited by a small sample size of 31 participants. Further research with larger samples was recommended.
I provided background information and research on child nutrition, and I related it to child development theories and application to research, teaching, and working with children. This research paper encompasses human growth and development by sharing how a child's ecological system impacts their wellbeing, such as food programs, school, or family.
This document provides a literature review on childhood obesity. It discusses risk factors for obesity like unhealthy eating behaviors, lack of physical activity, stress, and genetics. Unhealthy parenting, lower peer status, and victimization can also influence childhood obesity. Children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and ethnic minority groups have higher obesity rates. Preventing and treating childhood obesity requires understanding these risk factors and their psychological and social consequences.
Running head: OBESITY PREVALENCE IN THE US 1
OBESITY PREVALENCE IN THE US 2
Obesity Prevalence in the Us
Anuja Sabharwal
Davenport University
Introduction
The topic is the prevalence of the obesity and overweight problems in the United States and its distribution in the different age groups. The dependent variables are the age groups and the independent variable is the obesity problem. The research question is, “Is the problem of overweight and obesity evenly spread among the age brackets in the American society?” The hypothesis for this research is:
· Is obesity the outcome of the food we eat?
· Are there other factors that contribute to the obesity other than food?
· Which group has the highest levels of obesity?
· What is the relation between the age and obesity?
I selected this topic because obesity and overweight is one of the major health problems that face the American public today. The main concern is the risk of the cardiovascular diseases associated with it hence the need to understand it. The two articles selected are research done on the same and provides reliable data for this analysis.
Research Information
About 31.0% of children between the age of 6 and 19 years were at high risk of being overweight. Of this population, 16.0% were found to be overweight. The results also showed continued difference in the obesity pattern and prevalence based on race and sex (Hedley et Al, 2004). The prevalence of overweight cases in the US among the adults and the children is not decreasing. The BMI of the adolescent children in the age of 12 to 19 increased much significantly compared to the other groups. The major themes are the prevalence of obesity as portrayed by the different age groups; the relationship between the body mass index and the body weight; the trends in the obesity distribution patterns in the groups.
The two studies are similar to each other in that they seek to bring out the same conclusion. They both focus on the prevalence of obesity in the different age groups and the pattern of distribution of the overweight problems in the groups. The major difference is the time span for the research. The first one takes three years while the other takes 11 years. The methodology used to conduct the research is different for both studies. They both use the same method of measuring the weight and height to determine the body mass index. The population is selected from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data to identify the population for the study (Ogden et Al, 2012).
Summary
The main findings and conclusions from the review of these articles exhibit a trend in the prevalence of overweight among the different ages, sexes and races. The prevalence of overweight cases in the US among the adults and the children did not decrease but rather increased in the same period. The BMI of the adolescent children in the age of 12 to 19 increased much significantly compared to the other groups.
The le.
Use of Diet Pills and Other Dieting Aids in a CollegePopulat.docxdickonsondorris
Use of Diet Pills and Other Dieting Aids in a College
Population with High Weight and Shape Concerns
Christine I. Celio, MA1
Kristine H. Luce, PhD1
Susan W. Bryson, MS1
Andrew J. Winzelberg, PhD1
Darby Cunning, MA1
Roxanne Rockwell, BA2
Angela A. Celio Doyle, PhD3
Denise E. Wilfley, PhD2,4
C. Barr Taylor, MD1*
ABSTRACT
Objective: The current study examines
diet aid use among college women at
risk for eating disorders and explores
characteristics associated with diet aid
use.
Method: Participants were 484 college
women <30 years from 6 universities in
the San Francisco Bay Area (SF) and San
Diego who were at risk for developing
eating disorders. A checklist assessed
diet pill, fat blocker, diuretic, laxative,
and other diet aid use over the past
12 months.
Results: Thirty-two percent of the col-
lege women reported using a diet aid.
Diet aid use was double the rate in San
Diego (44%) compared with SF (22%) ( p ¼
.000). Weight and shape concerns were
higher among diet aid users than among
nonusers across sites.
Conclusion: A significant number of
college women at risk for eating disor-
ders are using diet aids. We recommend
that clinicians inquire about diet aid use
among college-aged patients. VVC 2006 by
Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Keywords: diet aids; diet pills; college
women; high risk
(Int J Eat Disord 2006; 39:492–497)
Introduction
College women report high levels of body dissatis-
faction and weight concerns.1,2 Concerns about
one’s weight, dieting, and related behaviors are so
prevalent among college-aged women that they
often are considered to be a normative part of the
female college experience.2,3 For instance, in a
study of female college freshmen living in resi-
dence halls, >40% of women who were surveyed
were classified as casual dieters.4 Among a sample
of incoming female freshmen college students at-
tending a summer orientation, approximately 27%
reported dieting for weight control and 22% char-
acterized their dieting as always or often.5 In a pop-
ulation of high school and college women, Tylka
and Subich6 found that many young women re-
ported skipping meals (59%), eating <1,200 calories
a day (37%), eliminating fats (30%) and carbohy-
drates (26.5%) from their diets, and fasting for
>24 hr (26%).
Not only do college women diet by restricting
their caloric intake or avoiding certain categories of
food, but many women also report using over-the-
counter pills, herbal remedies, supplements, laxa-
tives, and diuretics to aid dieting efforts. Many types
of diet aids exist, including traditional diet pills or
appetite suppressants, home remedies such as
apple cider vinegar, and actively dangerous herbal
supplements such as ephedra.7 Diet aid use is con-
sidered to be risky because the safety and efficacy
of diet aids are unknown and are not evaluated by
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.8 Accurate
information about diet aids is limited and Internet
sites make dubious claims of effective ...
The document summarizes a study that examined the relationship between involvement in Greek life (fraternities and sororities), social pressure, and eating behaviors among college students. The study hypothesized that involvement in Greek life would be related to eating behaviors due to increased social pressures. A survey was administered to 69 college students measuring Greek involvement, social pressures, and eating habits. Regression analyses found that Greek involvement significantly predicted eating behaviors but social pressure did not mediate this relationship as hypothesized. The results suggest that other factors beyond social pressure may explain the link between Greek life and eating among college students.
Running head MEDIA INFLUENCE ON BODY IMAGE .docxMARRY7
Running head: MEDIA INFLUENCE ON BODY IMAGE 1
MEDIA INFLUENCE ON BODY IMAGE 2
Media Influence on Body Image
Michele
Argosy University
Media Influence on Body Image
RQ-Does Reality TV influenced perceived body image in the adolescent child?
Null (HO) Reality TV does not influenced perceived body image in the adolescent child.
Research (H1)-Reality TV does influence perceived body image in the adolescent child.
Outline
Annotated Bibliography
Cusumano, D. K. (2001). Media influence and body image in 8-11-year-old boys and girls: a preliminary report on the multidimensional media influence scale. International journal of eating disorders, 29(1), 37-44.
Research conducted by Cusumano on influence of body image from the media used a total of 182 participants; 75 boys and 107 girls, 69% of the boys and girls were white, 18% African American, and 12% were from other races. The participants were given a packet to fill out during regular school hours in a classroom setting. The questionnaire used a three point Likert Scale (1- disagree, 2- Not sure, 3-Agree) the questions were developmentally appropriate for the subjects ages and grade level, large font was used to minimize distractions, and the test consisted of a total of 29 questions to minimize fatigue. The questionnaire consisted of a practice question to warm the children up, as well as to confirm that they understood how to answer the questions. The findings of the research concluded that females have a higher score confirming that girl’s body image is influenced by the media. The research is very pertinent in proving my hypothesis that adolescent girl’s body images are influenced by the media.
Lawrie, Z., Sullivan, E. A., Davies, P. W., & Hill, R. J. (2006). Media influence on the body image of children and adolescents. Eating disorders, 14(5), 355-364.
Lawrie, Sullivan, Davies, and Hill conducted a study using 925 students; 634 girls and 291 boys from both private and public schools. Ages ranging from nine years of age to 14 years of age using a “Sociocultural Influence Questionnaire” a five section questionnaire consisting of 62 questions filled out by students during class time. Three main questions were “do the media give the idea that you should be slimmer? Do the media give the idea that you should gain weight? Do the media give the idea that you should be more muscular? Answers were assessed using a Likert-type scare with five responses: strongly agree, agree, unsure, disagree and strongly disagree. The answers were then transformed into a score ranging from one to five; a score of one equals to strongly agree, five strongly disagree. An overall low test score would indicates greater agreement that the media does influence, a high score would indicate that there is minimal agreement that the media influences adolescents. Conclusion of this stud ...
This summary provides the key points from the document in 3 sentences:
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This document summarizes research on childhood obesity, food marketing, and parental influence on children's food consumption. It discusses debates around who is to blame for rising obesity rates, with food advertisers and parents often criticized. The document reviews literature on "pester power" and children's persuasiveness. It questions assumptions that advertising always leads to purchases against parents' judgment or that parents prioritize health. The study explored these issues through research with New Zealand children on advertising exposure, snacking preferences, and parental mediation.
This study examined the relationship between parent and child media exposure, child dietary intake, and child perceptions of healthy meals in the context of household food security. The study found:
1. For food-secure households, greater parent and child commercial TV viewing predicted increased child intake of obesogenic foods and decreased intake of fruits and vegetables.
2. For food-insecure households, the relationships between parent and child TV viewing and child dietary intake were less clear.
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4. Food insecurity did not significantly moderate the relationships between media exposure and child dietary intake or meal
This document summarizes a study that examined the relationship between parent and child media exposure, preschooler dietary intake, and preschooler perceptions of healthy meals, taking into account the potential moderating role of food insecurity. The study found that greater child and parent commercial TV viewing was associated with more obesogenic dietary intake for children in food-secure but not food-insecure households. Child commercial TV viewing also predicted a greater proportion of energy-dense foods in children's imagined healthy meals. The findings suggest food insecurity may moderate the effects of food marketing on children.
This study examined body image perceptions among Mexican mothers and their kindergarten-aged children. The majority of participants were overweight or obese. Most mothers were dissatisfied with their own body size, but over half of children were satisfied with their mothers' figures. Children also tended to perceive their mothers as thinner than how the mothers perceived themselves. The results suggest that high obesity rates in Mexico may be normalizing excess weight and limiting recognition of overweight as a health risk among both children and mothers. Recommendations include family-focused health education to raise awareness of risks associated with high BMI and a balanced approach to obesity prevention that promotes health rather than weight loss.
Group Identity and Unhealthy Food Consumption among College Students: the The...inventionjournals
Theresearch suggests that peers on campus are important reference groups for college students’ unhealthy behavior, including unhealthy eating behavior. Guided by the Theory of Normative Social Behavior, the current study examined the role of group identity in the descriptive norms and unhealthy food consumption link. The results suggest that the magnitude of the association between descriptive norms and unhealthy food consumption was greater as group identity with same-sex students on campus became stronger. The findings demonstrate that students were likely to model unhealthy food consumption of same-sex peers on campus.
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Taste status, food environment, and BMI were examined. 41 participants tasted a bitter solution to determine taste sensitivity and completed a food environment questionnaire. Height and weight were measured to calculate BMI. A 2x3 ANOVA found no significant relationship between taste sensitivity, food environment, and BMI. While this study found no relationship, using GIS technology to better assess food environment may provide different results in future studies.
The document summarizes several studies related to body image. It then describes a study conducted by the author that investigated whether 30 participants (15 male, 15 female) found "normal" or "skinny" women to be more attractive. Participants viewed pictures of normal and skinny women and completed a survey. Results showed no gender difference in preferences. Two-thirds found normal women more attractive, though the difference was not significant. Participants did significantly rate normal women as healthier looking. The study had limitations with a small sample size but provides insight into perceptions of attractiveness.
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120 students participated in a survey about body image consisting of questions on knowledge, physical activity, environment, and attitude. The majority were sophomores aged 21, with 76 living off-campus and 44 on-campus. Results showed that knowledge of nutrition and exercise recommendations was highest for grains and fruits/vegetables, and lowest for oils. 31.7% engaged in low-impact activity 8+ times a week, with 63.3% of off-campus students attending the gym more than on-campus (26.7%). Females and younger students relied more on friends/family for health info and had less knowledge. The study aims to determine the dominant factor influencing body image and support past findings
Similar to Final Research Project Paper on Snacking and Gender (20)
Final Research Project Paper on Snacking and Gender
1. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 1
Gender Differences in Attitudes toward Healthy and Unhealthy Snacking
Mackenzie Kibbe and Stephanie Romig
Grand Valley State University
2. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 2
Abstract
Past research has shown the presence of gender differences in attitudes toward healthy and
unhealthy snacking. Furthermore, there is evidence suggesting that snacking attitudes are
influenced by exposure to food in picture form. We sought to test whether gender and pictures on
a survey would influence attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. We hypothesized that
females would express more ambivalence toward unhealthy snacking than males and that
attitudes toward snacking would be more positive when subjects took a survey with pictures of
unhealthy snacks than when they took a survey with pictures of healthy snacks. We also
predicted an interaction effect, hypothesizing that females that took a survey with pictures of
unhealthy snacks would have significantly more positive attitudes toward eating unhealthy
snacks than would males taking the same survey and males and females taking a survey with
pictures of healthy snacks. College students at Grand Valley State University were asked to fill
out a survey with pictures of either healthy or unhealthy snacks that assessed their attitudes
toward snacking. The results indicated six gender effects, four survey effects, and five interaction
effects. Given the prevalence of snacking in the United States, the topic of attitudes toward
healthy and unhealthy snacking is relevant, and thus warrants future research to see if the effects
found in the present study replicate.
Keywords: attitudes toward snacking, snacking, gender, pictures on a survey,
3. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 3
Gender Differences in Attitudes toward Healthy and Unhealthy Snacking
Introduction
In the United States, there has been a shift away from the traditional consumption of three
large meals a day toward snacking, or “eating smaller amounts of food more frequently”
(Chaplin & Smith, 2011). While snacking has been defined in a variety of ways, “the majority of
papers define a snack relative to a meal as ‘food or drink consumed other than during main meal
times’” (Chaplin & Smith, 2011). Snacking intake has increased considerably for adults, from
71% in 1977 to 97% in the period of 2003-2006 (Piernas & Popkin, 2010a). A similar trend is
present in children: in the period of 1977-1978, 74% of children snacked, while this number
increased to 98% in the period of 2003-2006 (Piernas & Popkin, 2010b). These findings suggest
that snacking represents an important piece of American eating habits.
Attitudes toward snacking are significantly impacted by gender. Studies illustrate that
women are more ambivalent toward unhealthy snacking, perceiving it as less healthy, but more
pleasant, than men (Charles and Kerr, 1986; Pliner & Chaiken, 1990; Rolls et al., 1991; Grogan
et al., 1997). Women also express more concern than men do about gaining weight from eating
unhealthy snacks (Grogan et al., 1997). Based on research by Charles and Kerr (1986), Fursland
(1987), Bovey (1989), and Orbach (1993), women’s ambivalence toward unhealthy snacking
may be due to “conflicting cultural messages aimed at women…suggesting that sweet snacks are
‘naughty’… ‘but nice’” (Grogan et al., 1997). The intentions behind these ‘naughty but nice’
snacks negatively impact women by making them feel limited to healthy snack options, even
when they prefer unhealthy snacks (Weijzen et al., 2009).
Women themselves attribute social pressure as the source of conflict in their mindsets
about eating unhealthily (Charles & Kerr, 1986). Indeed, it appears that American society places
4. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 4
pressure on women when it comes to their eating habits, as women are perceived as more
feminine (Chaiken & Pliner, 1987; Fursland, 1987; Mori, Chaiken, & Pliner, 1987; Pliner &
Chaiken, 1990; Bock & Kanarek, 1995) and more attractive (Stewart et al., 1973; Polivy et al.,
1986; Silverstein, et al., 1986) when they eat less. As a result, women feel much more social
pressure than do men to not eat unhealthy snacks (Charles & Kerr, 1986; Chaiken & Pliner,
1987; Pliner & Chaiken, 1990).
Individuals express different attitudes toward images based on the content of these
images (Fichter & Jonas, 2008). Similarly, attitudes toward snacking are impacted by exposure
to food in picture form, such as through television advertisements. Children express more
positive attitudes toward unhealthy foods after watching television (Dixon et al., 2007).
Additionally, children’s food choices are strongly linked to the foods they see advertised on
television (Borzekowski & Robinson, 2001; Coon et al., 2001). There is a correlation between
hours children spend watching television and the number of requests they make to their parents
for advertised foods (Taras et al., 1989). Thus, for children, simply seeing a food product
advertised on television increases their desire to eat that food. Given that in a study of 80 food
commercials aimed at children, 49% advertised energy-dense foods high in fat, while a mere
1.3% (one commercial) endorsed vegetables, it seems likely that the foods children request are
unhealthy (Maher et al., 2006).
In light of previous research, we wished to assess gender differences in attitudes toward
healthy and unhealthy snacking, and were interested to see whether or not social pressures play a
role in shaping these attitudes. Furthermore, we planned to study the influence pictures of
healthy and unhealthy snacks have on snacking attitudes. We also sought to test if there was an
5. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 5
interaction effect between subject gender and pictures of snacks on a survey on attitudes toward
snacking.
Methods
Participants
100 participants were recruited from Grand Valley State University’s Allendale campus.
50 students, 25 male and 25 female, completed Version A of the survey, which included pictures
of recognizably healthy foods, including an apple, cucumber slices, pretzels, strawberries, and
carrot sticks (see Appendix). Similarly, 50 students, 25 male and 25 female, were given Version
B of the survey, which included pictures of recognizably unhealthy foods, including a chocolate
chip muffin, chips, a lollipop, a snack cake, and popcorn (see Appendix). All pictures of food
items on each of the surveys were on a white background and were free of labels and brand
names. Participants were randomly selected from the Kirkhof Center. This location should have
produced a random selection of students, which could be generalized to the student population at
Grand Valley State University.
Materials
All participants completed a paper survey. There were two versions of the survey.
Version A featured pictures of recognizably healthy foods: an apple, cucumber slices, pretzels,
strawberries, and carrot sticks, while Version B had pictures of recognizably unhealthy foods: a
chocolate chip muffin, chips, a lollipop, a snack cake, and popcorn (see Appendix). Both
versions of the survey included the same 10 statements that assessed participants’ attitudes
toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. Participants were asked to rate the statements on a Likert
scale from 1 to 7, with 1 representing strongly disagree and 7 representing strongly agree.
6. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 6
Participants were also asked to circle their gender. In order to accommodate for the
gender diversity of students at Grand Valley State University, participants had the option to mark
“Female,” “Male,” or “Gender Non-Conforming” for their gender. None of the participants
recruited for the present study selected “Gender Non-Conforming” for their gender.
Procedure
Participants – fifty female and fifty male – were approached in the Kirkhof Center and
asked to complete a survey assessing attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. They
were informed that the research was being conducted for an Advanced Research in Psychology
class at Grand Valley State University. Participants were assured that their information would be
kept confidential. Students who consented to participating in the study were asked to complete
the survey. Twenty-five females and 25 males completed Version A of the survey and 25
females and 25 males completed Version B of the survey. Once the participants finished the
survey, their surveys were collected and they were thanked for their time.
Hypotheses
Previous research has shown gender differences in attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy
snacking. Moreover, there is evidence that exposure to pictures of healthy and unhealthy foods
influences individuals’ attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking. Thus, in the present
study, we developed three hypotheses.
According to our first hypothesis, female subjects will express more ambivalent attitudes
toward eating unhealthy snacks than males, perceiving them to be less healthy but more pleasant,
and will feel more societal pressure discouraging them from eating unhealthy snacks than will
males.
7. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 7
Our second hypothesis is that subjects taking a survey with pictures of unhealthy snacks
will have more positive attitudes toward unhealthy snacking than will subjects taking a survey
with pictures of healthy snacks.
Lastly, our third hypothesis predicts an interaction effect between subject gender and
pictures of snacks on a survey on attitudes toward snacking. Females taking a survey with
pictures of unhealthy snacks will have significantly more positive attitudes toward eating
unhealthy snacks than will males taking the same survey and males and females taking a survey
with pictures of healthy snacks.
Results
The data were compiled and analyzed through SAS, a computer program. The analyses
found six main effects of subject gender on attitudes toward snacking, four main effects of
pictures on a survey on attitudes toward snacking, and five interaction effects between subject
gender and pictures on a survey on attitudes toward snacking.
A main effect of subject gender was found for statements 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, with
females showing more agreement with these statements than males. A main effect of subject
gender was found for Statement 4 (S4), which stated “I feel guilty when eating unhealthy
snacks.” For S4, F(1,96) = 6.70, p<.05. Females expressed more guilt when eating unhealthy
snacks (M=4.32, SD=2.09; Table 1) than did males (M=3.36, SD=1.97; Table 1).
Statement 6 (S6), which stated “I am more concerned about my weight when eating
unhealthy snacks,” also showed a main effect of subject gender. For S6, F(1,96) = 5.26, p<.05.
Females indicated more concern about their weight when eating unhealthy snacks (M=4.62,
SD=2.07; Table 1) than did males (M=3.70, SD=2.13; Table 1).
8. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 8
A main effect of subject gender was found for Statement 7 (S7), which stated “I feel
uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when others are eating healthy snacks.” For S7, F(1,96) =
10.43, p<.05. Females revealed more discomfort about eating unhealthy snacks when others are
eating healthy snacks (M=4.34, SD=1.89; Table 1) than did males (M=3.18, SD=2.09; Table 1).
Statement 8 (S8), which stated “I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks,” showed a main
effect of subject gender as well. For S8, F(1,96) = 4.69, p<.05. Females indicated feeling more
pressure to eat healthy snacks (M=4.32; SD=1.99; Table 1) than did males (M=3.50, SD=2.11;
Table 1).
Statement 9 (S9) also showed a main effect of subject gender. S9 stated “I will not eat
unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.” For S9, F(1,96) = 4.10, p<.05.
Females expressed less willingness to eat unhealthy snacks unless their friends were (M=3.92,
SD=1.84; Table 1) than did males (M=3.20, SD=2.19; Table 1).
A main effect of subject gender was found with Statement 10 (S10), which stated “Others
judge me when I am eating unhealthy snacks.” For S10, F(1,96) = 9.15, p<.05. Females said that
they felt judged more when eating unhealthy snacks (M=4.04, SD=2.01; Table 1) than did males
(M=2.90, SD=1.79; Table 1).
A main effect of survey type was found for statements 2, 3, 7, and 9. Subjects taking the
healthy survey rated statements 2 and 3 more highly than did subjects taking the unhealthy
survey. Subjects taking the unhealthy survey, on the other hand, rated statements 7 and 9 more
highly than did subjects taking the healthy survey.
Statement 2 (S2), which stated “Eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems,”
indicated a main effect of survey type. For S2, F(1,96) = 20.19, p<.05. Subjects taking the
9. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 9
healthy survey expressed that eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems more (M=5.34,
SD=1.56; Table 2) than did subjects taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.66, SD=2.11; Table 2).
A main effect of survey type was also found for Statement 3 (S3), which stated
“Unhealthy snacks taste better than healthy snacks.” For S3, F(1,96) = 12.07, p<.05. Subjects
taking the healthy survey indicated that unhealthy snacks were more pleasant than healthy snacks
(M=5.34, SD=1.70; Table 2) more than subjects taking the unhealthy survey (M=4.04, SD=2.05;
Table 2).
For Statement 7 (S7), which stated “I feel uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when
others are eating healthy snacks,” there was a main effect of survey type. For S7, F(1,96) = 6.56,
p<.05. Subjects taking the unhealthy survey revealed more discomfort about eating unhealthy
snacks when others are eating healthy snacks (M=4.22, SD=1.84; Table 2) than did subjects
taking the healthy survey (M=3.30, SD=2.19; Table 2).
A main effect of survey type was also found for Statement 9 (S9), which stated “I will not
eat unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.” For S9, F(1,96) = 13.78,
p<.05. Subjects taking the unhealthy survey expressed less willingness to eat unhealthy snacks
unless their friends were (M=4.22, SD=1.88; Table 2) than did subjects taking the healthy survey
(M=2.90, SD=2.01; Table 2).
We found interaction effects between subject gender and pictures on a survey on attitudes
toward snacking for statements 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9. Female subjects taking the healthy survey rated
statements 4, 5, 6, and 8 more highly than did subjects in the other conditions (female-unhealthy,
male-healthy, and male-unhealthy). Male subjects taking the unhealthy survey, on the other
hand, rated statement 9 more highly than subjects in the other conditions (female-healthy,
female-unhealthy, and male-healthy).
10. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 10
An interaction effect was found for Statement 4 (S4), which stated “I feel guilty when
eating unhealthy snacks.” For S4, F(1,96) = 21.51, p<.05. Females felt more guilty about eating
unhealthy snacks when taking the healthy survey (M=5.12, SD=1.79; Table 3) than did males
taking the healthy survey (M=2.44, SD=1.71; Table 3), males taking the unhealthy survey
(M=4.28, SD=1.79; Table 3), and females taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.52, SD=2.10; Table
3).
There was also an interaction effect for Statement 5 (S5), which stated “I avoid unhealthy
snacks.” For S5, F(1,96) = 5.59, p<.05. Females taking the healthy survey avoided unhealthy
snacks more (M=4.32, SD=2.10; Table 4) than did males taking the healthy survey (M=2.76,
SD=2.01; Table 4), males taking the unhealthy survey (M=4.00, SD=2.06; Table 4), and females
taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.64, SD=1.96; Table 4).
An interaction effect was found for Statement 6 (S6), which stated “I am concerned about
my weight when eating unhealthy snacks.” For S6, F(1,96) = 9.56, p<.05. Females expressed
more concern about their weight when taking the healthy survey (M=4.96, SD=2.15; Table 5)
than did males taking the healthy survey (M=2.80, SD=2.00; Table 5), males taking the
unhealthy survey (M=4.60, SD=1.89; Table 5), and females taking the unhealthy survey
(M=4.28, SD=1.97; Table 5).
Statement 8 (S8), which stated “I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks,” also had an
interaction effect. For S8, F(1,96) = 19.23, p<.05. Females felt more pressure to eat healthy
snacks when taking the healthy survey (M=5.08, SD=1.63; Table 6) than did males taking the
healthy survey (M=2.60, SD=1.78; Table 6), males taking the unhealthy survey (M=4.40,
SD=2.06; Table 6), and females taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.56, SD=2.06; Table 6).
11. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 11
An interaction effect was found for Statement 9 (S9), which stated “I will not eat
unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.” For S9, F(1,96) = 17.33, p<.05.
Males taking the unhealthy survey expressed less willingness to eat unhealthy snacks unless their
friends were (M=4.60, SD=1.85; Table 7) than did females taking the unhealthy survey (M=3.84,
SD=1.86; Table 7), females taking the healthy survey (M=4.00, SD=1.85; Table 7), and males
taking the healthy survey (M=1.80, SD=1.53; Table 7).
Discussion
Overall, females agreed more with statements 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 than did males.
Females were guiltier, more self-conscious, and felt greater pressure from society and their peers.
Our findings support part of our first hypothesis, as females felt more societal pressure
discouraging them from eating unhealthy snacks than males. These results, however, did not
support the other part of our first hypothesis, as females did not express more ambivalent
attitudes toward eating unhealthy snacks than males. One possible reason for this could be that
the statements to support this part of the hypothesis were not significant enough to yield the
predicted result. Another potential cause could be that both males and females find unhealthy
snacks pleasant.
Subjects taking the healthy survey rated statements 2 and 3 more highly than did subjects
taking the unhealthy survey, whereas subjects taking the unhealthy survey rated statements 7 and
9 more highly than did subjects taking the healthy survey. Thus, the healthy survey caused
participants to have more worries about their health, while it also made them crave unhealthy
snacks more. The unhealthy survey, on the other hand, caused participants to feel more
uncomfortable about eating unhealthy snacks when others were eating healthy snacks or no
snacks at all. For the most part, our findings do not support our second hypothesis; subjects
12. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 12
taking a survey with pictures of unhealthy snacks did not have more positive attitudes toward
unhealthy snacking, except for in the case of statement 2. This lack of effect is likely due to the
guilt that the unhealthy images create in the participants. It could also be the result of the pictures
being printed in black and white; perhaps this made the snacks less appealing overall. Another
possibility is that subjects may not have paid attention to the pictures when taking the survey.
Lastly, it could be that the effects of the pictures were not strong enough.
An interaction effect between subject gender and survey type on attitudes toward
snacking was found with statements 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9. Females taking the healthy survey agreed
more with statements 4, 5, 6, and 8 than did participants in the other conditions (female-
unhealthy, male-healthy, and male-unhealthy). Surprisingly, males taking the unhealthy survey
agreed more with statement 9 than did participants in the other conditions (female-healthy,
female-unhealthy, and male-healthy). This indicates that males taking the unhealthy survey are
less willing than participants in the other conditions to eat unhealthy snacks unless their friends
are.
Our findings do not support our third hypothesis, as females taking a survey with pictures
of unhealthy snacks did not have significantly more positive attitudes toward unhealthy snacking
than did males taking the same survey. The interaction effects of statements 4, 5, 6, and 8 show
that females taking a survey with pictures of healthy snacks had significantly more negative
attitudes toward unhealthy snacking. Thus, it seems that seeing pictures of healthy snacks elicits
guilt in females. Perhaps females perceive pictures of healthy snacks as a form of societal
pressure encouraging them to eat healthy snacks. The interaction effect of statement 9 is
interesting because it goes in the opposite direction of what we predicted. Males taking the
unhealthy survey felt more pressure from their peers to eat healthy snacks. Perhaps the wording
13. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 13
of the statement was confusing, thus resulting in this effect. We are not entirely sure what is
causing this effect, given that it is inconsistent with our other interaction effects.
Our sample selection may have influenced our results, which generalized only to the
student population at Grand Valley State University, a small, mostly white liberal arts college.
We may find different effects in a random sample of the entire population, as such a sample
would be more diverse, with individuals of different ages, races, ethnicities, and so forth. The
research that we referenced when creating this study used such a sample, and they found the
predicted effects. Perhaps we would find these effects, too, with a larger, more diverse sample.
Overall, the present study found effects of gender and effects of survey type on attitudes
toward snacking. Furthermore, the results also indicated interaction effects between gender and
survey type on attitudes toward snacking. Given the results of the present study, as well as the
fact that snacking seems to represent an important piece of Americans’ eating habits, the topic of
attitudes toward healthy and unhealthy snacking warrants future research (Piernas & Popkin
2010a; Piernas & Popkin, 2010b). Perhaps further research would find evidence for the
hypotheses that were not supported by our study and stronger evidence for those hypotheses that
were. It is important, too, to see if the results found in this study replicate. Furthermore, we
would be interested in looking into the interaction effect on statement 9 that did not make sense,
where males taking the unhealthy survey indicated that they felt more pressure from their friends
to eat healthy snacks. This effect may be due to the wording of the question, and future research
could indicate whether or not this is the case. Ultimately, given the apparent transition toward
snacking in the United States, it is important that Americans’ attitudes toward healthy and
unhealthy snacking be researched.
14. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 14
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Table 2
Main Effects of Survey Type
Healthy M(SD) Unhealthy M(SD)
S2 5.34(1.56) 3.66(2.11)
S3 5.34(1.70) 4.04(2.05)
S7 3.30(2.19) 4.22(1.84)
S9 2.90(2.01) 4.22(1.88)
19. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 19
Table 3
Results for Interaction Effects on Statement 4
Males M(SD) Females M(SD)
Healthy 2.44(1.71) 5.12(1.79)
Unhealthy 4.28(1.79) 3.52(2.10)
20. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 20
Table 4
Results for Interaction Effects on Statement 5
Males M(SD) Females M(SD)
Healthy 2.76(2.01) 4.32(2.10)
Unhealthy 4.00(2.06) 3.64(1.96)
21. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 21
Table 5
Results for Interaction Effects on Statement 6
Males M(SD) Females M(SD)
Healthy 2.80(2.00) 4.96(2.15)
Unhealthy 4.60(1.89) 4.28(1.97)
22. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 22
Table 6
Results for Interaction Effects on Statement 8
Males M(SD) Females M(SD)
Healthy 2.60(1.78) 5.08(1.63)
Unhealthy 4.40(2.06) 3.56(2.06)
23. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 23
Table 7
Results for Interaction Effects on Statement 9
Males M(SD) Females M(SD)
Healthy 1.80(1.53) 4.00(1.85)
Unhealthy 4.60(1.85) 3.84(1.86)
24. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 24
Appendix
Version A
Please rate the statements below to the best of your ability using the following scale: 1-strongly
disagree, 2-disagree, 3-somewhat disagree, 4- neither agree nor disagree, 5-somewhat agree, 6-
agree, & 7-strongly agree. Please circle only one answer.
Gender (circle one): Male Female Gender Non-Conforming
1. I prefer unhealthy snacks over other snack options.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. Eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. Unhealthy snacks taste better than other snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. I feel guilty when eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. I avoid unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I am concerned about my weight when eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Questions continued on back
25. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 25
7. I feel uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when others are eating healthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I will not eat unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. Others judge me when I am eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
26. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 26
Version B
Please rate the statements below to the best of your ability using the following scale: 1-strongly
disagree, 2-disagree, 3-somewhat disagree, 4- neither agree nor disagree, 5-somewhat agree, 6-
agree, & 7-strongly agree. Please circle only one answer.
Gender (circle one): Male Female Gender Non-Conforming
1. I prefer unhealthy snacks over other snack options.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. Eating unhealthy snacks causes health problems.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. Unhealthy snacks taste better than other snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. I feel guilty when eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. I avoid unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I am concerned about my weight when eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Questions continued on back
27. Running head: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD SNACKING 27
7. I feel uncomfortable eating unhealthy snacks when others are eating healthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. I feel pressure to eat healthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I will not eat unhealthy snacks unless my friends are eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. Others judge me when I am eating unhealthy snacks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7