Final Project

Running head: SLEEP 1
Factors that Influence Quantity and Quality of Sleep in College Students
Angelique Cobb & Rachel Slocum
Spring Arbor University
PSY 352: Research Design
April 26, 2012
angelique.cobb@arbor.edu & rachel.slocum@arbor.edu

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Literature Review
The number of students enrolled in colleges and universities across the
United States has grown steadily over the years. In 1940 only 24.5 percent of
U.S. citizens over the age of 25 had a high school diploma where as in 2008,
27.7 percent had, not only a high school diploma, but a bachelor’s degree or
higher (Julian & Kominski, 2011, p. 2). This statistic shows that more and more
individuals are seeking education beyond high school.
Unfortunately, this ever growing population is also one of the most sleep
deprived groups in the United States (Forquer, Comden, Gabriau, & Johnson,
2008, p. 563). Research also states that the quality of sleep college students
receive is significantly less when compared with the quality of sleep a ‘normal’
adult population receives (Buboltz et al., 2009). These statements alone are
troubling but the fact that sleep deprivation can decrease quality of life and
increase risk taking behaviors further illustrates the importance of understanding
the cause of sleep deprivation in order to avoid it (Marhefka, 2011, p. 21).
The best way to understand the cause of the sleep deprivation that college
students are experiencing is to examine the factors that affect their sleep habits.
After reviewing the literature, it is apparent that there are many factors that affect
the quality and quantity of sleep that college students get but this review only
focused on gender, stress, course load, and academic year.

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Gender
Research regarding the role of gender on sleep is inconclusive because
the studies that have been done have had varied results. Buboltz et al. (2001)
performed two studies with two different samples and came up with two different
results. Both studies were done in order to determine the prevalence of sleep
difficulties among US college students. The first study surveyed 191
undergraduates and from the results of the survey it was determined that females
experience less quality and quantity of sleep than males (Buboltz, Brown, &
Soper, 2001, p. 133). The second survey was given to 741 undergraduates; it
showed that the students’ gender made no difference in quality or quantity of
sleep, completely contradicting the results of his first study (Buboltz et al., 2009,
p. 117). Liguori, Schuna, and Mozumdra (2011, p. 3) performed yet another
study with 820 students from a Midwest university and found that males felt more
rested after waking up than females. This suggests a difference in quality and/or
quantity of sleep depending on gender, making yet another contradiction.
It is apparent that more research needs to be done concerning the role of
gender in sleep. However, the research concerning the role of gender in stress
indicates that it would not be unreasonable to conclude that female college
students do in fact get less sleep than male college students, and the sleep that
they do get is poorer in quality. Kariv and Heiman (2005, p. 74) reported that
males use a task-oriented strategy when dealing with stress, which limits the
amount of stress they experience, while females have more emotional response

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to stress which actually creates more stress. Misra (2012, p. 144) further states
that woman have stronger negative emotional responses to academic stress than
men. According to Verlander, Benedict, and Hanson (1999) these emotional
responses to stress significantly impact the quality and quantity of sleep. So in
keeping with this research, female college students are more susceptible to sleep
deprivation due to how they react to academic stress.
Stress
College is a time for learning and development for college students but
they are also plagued by stress. According to Stone and Archer (1990, p. 539)
“today's college students experience significant pressures that are brought on by
the changing career market and increased competition for jobs.” The stress that
college students experience due to these ‘significant pressures’ interferes with
sleep habits resulting in sleep deprivation. Verlander, Benedict, and Hanson
(1999) state that stress has been shown to have a considerable affect on sleep
patterns resulting in lack of sleep and poor sleep quality. Furthermore, the poor
quantity and quality of sleep that students receive produces more stress resulting
in the student getting even less sleep until eventually it becomes “a self-
perpetuating cycle that students are unaware of and may be unable to alter”
(Buboltz, Brown, & Soper, 2001, p. 133 ).
Course Load
Course load is also a potential factor in the quality and quantity of sleep
that college students get. Students with heavier course loads have been

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observed to experience poorer sleep quantity than students with a lighter course
loads (Gaultney, 2010, p. 91). The lack of sleep that heavier course loads cause
may be explained by the amount of stress these course loads create. In a survey
given to 100 undergraduate students, 73% of the students ranked class workload
as one of the top five highest stressors (Ross, Niebling, & Heckert, 1999). So it is
possible that the more work the student receives, the higher the student’s stress
level; and the higher the student’s stress level, the less sleep the student will get.
Academic Year
The quality and quantity of sleep that college students experience has
also been observed to be influenced by the student’s academic year due to the
amount of stress students at different academic levels experience. Ross,
Niebling, and Heckert state that freshman are particularly prone to stress (1999,
p. 312). However, this statement contradicts a study done by Rawson, Bloomer,
and Kendall (1994). The study was performed on 184 randomly selected college
students and the results showed that academic year does impact the amount of
stress and college student experiences, but upperclassmen were the ones who
experienced more stress, not underclassmen. Another study observed sleep
duration over the course of one semester based on the student’s academic year
and found that “freshman slept over 20 min longer than upper division students”
(Liguori, Schuna, & Mozumdar, 2011, p. 485). Therefore, if stress negatively
affects sleep and upperclassmen are generally more stressed than

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underclassman, it is to be expected that many upperclassman may get less sleep
than underclassmen.
Summary
Research that has been done on the sleep patterns of college students
has indicated that not only are college students not getting enough sleep, the
little sleep that they are getting is poor in quality. In order to understand how to fix
the problem of sleep deprivation in college students, it is important to understand
some of the various factors that impact sleep patterns in college students.
College students’ gender, stress level, course load, and academic year have all
been observed to impact the quantity and quality of sleep that students receive.
College students who experience high levels of stress have been
observed to be more susceptible to poor sleep quantity and quality. Female
college students may be more susceptible to academic stress than male college
students due to their emotional response to that stress. This may result in female
college students having poorer quantity and quality of sleep than male college
students. Furthermore, college students with a heavier course load have been
known to have higher levels of stress which could result in sleep deprivation.
Studies have also shown that underclassman sleep longer than upperclassman
which might be explained by the fact that upperclassman may often experience
more stress than underclassman.
So in conclusion, the manner in which the variables gender, course load,
academic year, and stress affect sleep patterns in college students can be

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explained by how they interact with each other. The manner in which gender,
course load, and academic year relate to stress in college students have been
observed to directly impact college students’ sleep patterns. All of these factors
and how they relate to one another have been shown to play and integral role in
the sleep quantity and quality that college students receive.
The Present Study
Purpose
The purpose of this present study was to understand factors which
influence the quantity and quality of sleep that college students receive. The
question answered in this present study is, ‘What variables affect the quantity
and quality of sleep a college student gets?’ The following hypotheses were
tested:
Hypotheses
H1: College students who are upperclassmen get less sleep than college
students who underclassmen.
H0: College students who are upperclassmen do not get less sleep than college
students who are underclassmen.
H2: College students with low levels of stress get more sleep than college
students with high levels of stress.

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H0: College students with low levels of stress do not get more sleep than
college students with high levels of stress.
H3: College students taking less credit hours get more sleep than college
students taking more credit hours.
H0: College students taking less credit hours do not get more sleep than college
H4: Male college students get more sleep than female college students.
H0: Male college students do not get more sleep than female college students.
H5: Upperclassmen have higher levels of stress than underclassmen.
H0: Upperclassmen do not have higher levels of stress than underclassmen.
H6: Female college students have more stress than male college students.
H0: Female college students do not have more stress than male college
students.
H7: College students taking more credit hours have more stress than college
students taking less credit hours.
H0: College students taking more credit hours do not have more stress than
college students taking less credit hours.

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H8: College students with higher levels of stress get poorer quality of sleep than
college students with lower levels of stress.
H0: College students with higher levels of stress do not get poorer quality of
sleep than college students with lower levels of stress.

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The following table summarizes the hypotheses as well as the source of
data used for each in the data analysis.
Table 1: Hypotheses and Source of Data
Hypothesis Source of Data
H1: College students
who are
upperclassmen get
less sleep than
college students
who
underclassmen.
Independent variable – Academic year
38. What is you academic year, according to the
Registrar’s records?
Dependent variable – Quantity of sleep
41. On average, how many hours of sleep do you get in a
typical week night?
with low levels of
stress get more
sleep than college
students with high
levels of stress.
Independent variable – The total of responses for stress
items:
1. I have a group of friends I hang out with. (R)
2. I spend time with my family. (R)
4. I get headaches.
7. I feel overwhelmed by the amount of homework I have
to do.
8. I am able to manage my time effectively. (R)
9. I have little control over my daily circumstances.
10. I eat three meals a day. (R)
11. Course work can pile up so high that I often cannot
complete it.
13. I have trouble falling asleep at night.
14. I find myself becoming easily irritated.
15. I spend most of my time doing homework.
17. I get sick
20. I am productive in my daily activities. (R)
23. I get involved in extracurricular activities. (R)
25. I feel anxious.
27. I wait until the last minute to complete assignments.
28. I have trouble focusing.
32. I have trouble remembering certain things.
34. I find myself crying for no reason.
See H1
taking less credit
hours get more
sleep than college
students taking
more credit hours.
Independent variable – Course load
40. How many credit hours are you taking this semester?
See H1

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H4: Male college
students get more
sleep than female
college students.
Independent variable – Gender
36. What is your gender?
See H1
H5: Upperclassmen
have higher levels
of stress than
underclassmen.
Independent variable – Academic year
See H1
Dependent variable – The total of responses for stress
items:
See H2
H6: Female college
students have more
stress than male
college students.
Independent variable – Gender
See H4
items:
See H2
taking more credit
hours have more
stress than college
students taking less
credit hours.
Independent variable – Course load
See H3
items:
See H2
with higher levels of
stress get poorer
quality of sleep than
college students
with lower levels of
stress.
Independent variable – The total of responses for stress
items:
See H2
Dependent variable – The total of responses for quality of
sleep items:
3. I need to take a nap. (R)
5. Getting out of bed in the morning is a struggle. (R)
6. I sleep longer on the weekends than I normally do
during the week. (R)
12. I can wake up without an alarm clock.
16. I go to bed at a consistent time.
18. I require caffeine to stay awake throughout the day. (R)
19. I feel alert throughout the day.
21. I wake up at a consistent time.
22. I wake up feeling refreshed.
24. I sleep through my alarm. (R)
26. I feel tired when I am not busy. (R)
29. I wake up in the middle of the night. (R)
30. I fall asleep when I do not intend to. (R)
31. I pull all-nighters. (R)
33. I fall asleep in class. (R)
35. I wake up before the alarm clock goes off.

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Methodology
Subjects
This study was conducted on campus at Spring Arbor University. Before
this survey was distributed it was reviewed and approved by the Human Subjects
Review Board at the university (see Appendix A2). The surveys were distributed
through a sampling of convenience in the library, dinning commons and
residential housing at different times and on different days.
A total of 69 subjects were surveyed and of those subjects, 34.8% were
male (n = 24), 65.2% were female (n = 45). The majority of the subjects were
White (82.5%) while 12.7% were African American (n = 8), 3.2% were Hispanic
(n = 2), 1.6% was Asian (n = 1). In terms of academic year, 39.7% were
underclassman (n = 27) and 60.3% were upperclassman (n = 41). A majority of
the respondents reported taking a heavy course load (70.2%) while only 29.8%
reported taking a lighter course load (29.8%). The ages of the participants
ranged from 18 – 23, with an mean age of 20.250 (s.d. = 1.164). The mean grade
point average of the participants was 3.406 (s.d = 0.444), with a range of 2.10 -
4.00. The participants reported getting a mean of 6.601 hours of sleep per day
(s.d. = 1.057) with a range of 2.7 - 8.09.

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The table below summarizes the demographics of the participants.
Table 2: Summary of Demographics
Variable N Percent
Gender
Male
Female
24
45
34.8
65.2
Race
White
Hispanic
African American
Asian
52
2
8
82.5
3.2
12.7
Academic Year
Underclassman
Upperclassman
27
41
39.7
60.3
Age
Range = 18-23
Mean score = 20.250
Grade Point Average
Range = 2.10-4.00
Mean score = 3.406
Credit hours
Light Course Load (7-13 credit hours)
Heavy Course Load (15-17 credit hours)
Hours of Sleep
Range = 2.7-8.09
Mean score = 6.601
17
40
29.8
70.2
Instrument
An instrument was created to collect the needed data. There were 42
questions included in this survey (see Appendix A1). The Human Subjects

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Review Board approved the survey for use in this study (see Appendix A2). Four
questions were adapted from Coren’s (1996) The sleep thieves: An eye-opening
exploration into the science and mysteries of sleep (see Appendix A3).
The questionnaire began with a letter of informed consent. The letter
explained the study, as well as the anonymity involved (see Appendix A4). The
letter of consent was then detached from the survey and put in a separate folder
from the completed surveys.
Operational definitions were also established as part of the study. These
definitions help explain each of the variables that were in the hypotheses. The list
below explains the definitions used in this study.
 ‘Stress index’ – A measure of the levels of tension and anxiety felt in
various aspects of one’s life. The index consisted of 19 questions
regarding how one experiences stress in one’s day to day life. All of the
questions used a 5-point Likert scale. The scale ranged from 1 ‘never’ to 5
‘frequently’. The highest possible score was 95 and the lowest was 19.
 ‘Low Stress’ – Those having a low stress level. Scores ranging from
19 – 43 were included in this category.
 ‘High Stress’ – Those having a high stress level. Scores ranging
from 50 – 95 were included in this category.
 ‘Sleep index’ – A measure of the quality of sleep an individual is getting
with regard to how the individual feels after waking up. The index
consisted of 16 questions regarding one’s sleeping patterns and feelings

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after waking up. All of the questions used a 5-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 ‘never’ to 5 ‘frequently’. The highest possible score was 80 and the
lowest was 16.
 ‘Low Sleep’ – Those having poor sleep quality. Scores ranging from
16 – 46 were included in this category.
 ‘High sleep’ – Those having good sleep quality. Scores ranging
from 52 – 80 were included in this category.
 ‘Academic Year’ – The academic year of the respondent. Choices were 1
– ‘Freshman’, 2 – ‘Sophomore’, 3 – ‘Junior’, 4 – ‘Senior’, 5 – ‘5th year
Senior’, and 6 – ‘Other, please specify’.
 ‘Underclassman’ – Respondents who have been attending college
for two years or less. Those who answered ‘Freshman’ and
‘Sophomore’ were placed in this category.
 ‘Upperclassman’ – Respondents who have been attending college
for three or more years. Those who answered ‘Junior’, ‘Senior’, and
‘5th year Senior’ were placed in this category.
 ‘Course Load’ – The number of credit hours the respondent was taking at
the time the survey was taken. The respondents were asked to write the
appropriate number in the space provided. The answers ranged from 7 –
17.
 ‘Light Load’ – Those taking 7 – 13 credit hours were included in this
category.

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 ‘Heavy Load’ – Those taking 15 – 17 credit hours were included in
this category.
Results
As was stated previously, the purpose of this study was to investigate the
factors, which influence the quantity and quality college students receive. Eight
predictions were hypothesized. Each of these and the corresponding data are
presented in this section. Also presented in this section are secondary, additional
findings of interest.
Major Findings
A. Quantity of Sleep in Academic Year
Hypothesis one:
H1: College students who are upperclassmen get less sleep than college
students who underclassmen.
The data related to hypothesis H1 were analyzed. The findings from this
hypothesis are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quantity of Sleep
as a Function of Academic Year
Source df Mean Square F p
Academic Year 1 0.807 0.735 0.394
Error 66 1.099
Total 67

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Table 4: Summary of Quantity of Sleep
Academic Year N Mean* Standard Deviation
Under 27 6.491 1.253
Upper 41 6.713 0.890
*Not significant, p = 0.394
Thus, the research hypotheses H1 cannot be accepted, as statistically significant
quantity of sleep differences were not found (p = 0.394). The mean sleep score
for those responding under to the academic year question was 6.491, while the
mean score for those responding upper to the academic year question was
6.713. Unlike, what was predicted in hypotheses one, those who are
upperclassman do not get less sleep than those who are underclassman.
B. Quantity of Sleep and Stress
Hypotheses two:
H2: College students with low levels of stress get more sleep than college
students with high levels of stress.
The data related to hypotheses H2 were analyzed the finding from this
hypothesis are presented below in Tables 5 and 6.
as a Function of Stress
Stress 1 3.412 2.745 0.104
Error 47 1.243
Total 48

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Stress N Mean* Standard Deviation
Low 15 6.867 0.855
High 34 6.294 1.208
for those responding low to the stress question was 6.867, while the mean score
for those responding high to the stress question was 6.294. Unlike what was
predicted in hypotheses two, those who have low levels of stress do not get more
sleep than those who have high levels of stress.
C. Quantity of Sleep and Course Load
Hypotheses three:
H3: College students taking less credit hours get more sleep than college
The data related to hypotheses H3 were analyzed. The findings from this
as a Function of Course Load
Course Load 1 4.342 3.675 0.060
Error 55 1.182
Total 56

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Course Load N Mean* Standard Deviation
Light Load 17 6.103 1.518
Heavy Load 40 6.706 0.849
for those responding light load to the course load question was 6.103, while the
mean score for those responding heavy load to the course load question was
6.706. Unlike what was predicted in hypothesis three, those taking less credit
hours do not get more sleep than those taking more credit hours. Although there
is no statistically significant difference between quantity of sleep scores, there is
a strong trend that shows that, on average, those who have a lighter course load
get less sleep than those who have a heavier course load.
D. Quantity of Sleep and Gender
Hypothesis Four:
H4: Male college students get more sleep than female college students.
as a Function of Gender
Gender 1 0.305 0.270 0.605
Error 67 1.129
Total 68

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Gender N Mean* Standard Deviation
Female 45 6.650 0.886
Male 24 6.510 1.336
* Not significant, p = 0.605
Thus the research hypothesis H4 cannot be accepted, as statistically significant
for those responding female to the gender question was 6.650, while the mean
score for those responding male to gender question was 6.510. Unlike what was
predicted in hypothesis four, male college students do not get more sleep than
female college students.
E. Stress and Academic Year
Hypothesis Five:
H5: Upperclassmen have higher levels of stress than underclassmen.
Table 11: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Stress
Academic Year 1 56.342 0.909 0.344
Error 65 61.974
Total 66

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Table 12: Summary of Stress
Academic Year N Mean* Standard Deviation
Under 26 47.923 9.303
Upper 41 49.805 6.827
stress differences were not found (p = 0.344). The mean stress score for
underclassman was 47.923, while the mean score for upperclassman was
49.805. Unlike, what was predicted in hypotheses five, those who are
upperclassman do not have higher levels of stress than those who are
underclassman.
F. Stress and Gender
Hypothesis Six:
H6: Female college students have more stress than male college students.
Gender 1 601.791 11.376 0.001
Error 66 52.898
Total 67

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Gender N Mean Standard Deviation
Female 45 51.244 6.840
Male 23 44.957 8.071
*Statistically significant, p = 0.001
Thus, the research hypothesis H6 can be accepted, as statistically significant
differences were found (p = 0.001). As was predicted in hypothesis six, females
reported higher levels of stress on average, than males. The mean score for
females was 51.244, indicating a high level of stress. The mean score for males
was 44.95, indicating a low level of stress.
G. Stress and Course Load
Hypothesis Seven:
H7: College students taking more credit hours have more stress than college
students taking less credit hours.
Course Load 1 81.011 1.382 0.245
Error 55 58.639
Total 56

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Course Load N Mean* Standard Deviation
Light Load 17 50.706 5.956
Heavy Load 40 48.100 8.255
stress differences were not found (p = 0.245). The mean stress score for those
taking a light course load ( 7-13 credit hours) was 50.706, while the mean score
for those taking a heavy course load (15-17 credit hours) was 48.100. Unlike,
what was predicted in hypotheses seven, those taking a heavier course load did
not have more stress than those taking a light course load.
H. Quality of Sleep and Stress
Hypothesis Eight:
H8: College students with higher levels of stress get poorer quality of sleep than
college students with lower levels of stress.
Table 17: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quality of Sleep
Stress 1 940.500 22.174 0.000
Error 47 42.414
Total 48

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Table 18: Summary of Quality of Sleep
Stress N Mean Standard Deviation
Low 15 59.800 5.199
High 34 50.294 6.996
Thus, the research hypothesis H8 can be accepted, as statistically significant
differences were found (p = 0.000). As was predicted in hypothesis eight, those
who reported high stress did have poorer sleep quality on average, than those
who reported low stress. The mean quality of sleep score for those who had a
low stress level was 59.800, indicating a higher sleep quality. The mean quality
of sleep score for those who had high stress was 50.294, indicating a lower sleep
quality.
Additional Findings
Besides looking at the main hypotheses, additional tests were done to
discover new relationships in the main data. Two additional findings looked at
quality of sleep as a function of quantity of sleep and gender. The third and fourth
additional finding looked at quantity of sleep and stress as a function of time
management. The last additional finding examined stress as a function of quality
of sleep.
When looking at quality of sleep as a function of quantity of sleep,
statistically significant differences were found in quality of sleep mean scores for
those who got six hours or less of sleep and those who got seven hours or more
of sleep (p = 0.010). The mean quality of sleep score for those who got six hours

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or less of sleep was 50.565, while the mean score for those who got seven hours
or more of sleep was 55.366 (see Appendix B). This indicates that the more
sleep the respondent got the higher the respondents’ sleep quality was.
Quality of sleep score differences were also found as a function of gender
(p = 0.029). Females had a mean quality of sleep score of 52.111, while males
had a mean quality of sleep score of 56 (see Appendix B). This indicates that
males have a higher quality of sleep than females.
Although none of the variables examined in the hypotheses seem to have
a statistically significant relationship to quantity of sleep, further investigation
revealed that time management does have a statistically significant relationship
with quantity of sleep (p = 0.001). Thos who responded poor to the time
management question reported getting an average of 6.022 hours of sleep on a
typical weeknight while the those who responded good to the time management
question reported getting an average of 6.891 hours of sleep on a typical
weeknight. According to this finding, students who manage their time poorly get
less sleep than students who manage their time well.
Another variable that time management had a statistically significant
relationship with was stress (p = 0.007). Those who responded poor to the time
management question had an average stress score of 52.652 while those
responding good to the time management question had a mean stress score of
47.311 (see Appendix B). This indicates that students who are good at managing
their time have less stress than those are not good at managing their time.

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The last finding indicated that those with low sleep quality have a higher
stress level than those with high sleep quality (p = 0.001). The mean stress score
for those who responded low to the quality of sleep question was 54.714, while
the mean stress score for those who responded high to the quality of sleep
question was 46.591 (see Appendix B).
Table 19: Summary of Results for Major Findings
Hypotheses Results
who are
upperclassmen
get less sleep than
college students
who
underclassmen.
Quantity of Sleep and Academic Year
p = 0.394
Those who are upperclassman do not get less sleep
than those who are underclassman.
with low levels of
stress get more
sleep than college
students with high
levels of stress.
Quantity of Sleep and Stress
p = 0.104
Those who have low levels of stress do not get more
sleep than those who have high levels of stress.
taking less credit
hours get more
sleep than college
students taking
more credit hours.
Quantity of Sleep and Course Load
p = 0.060
Those taking less credit hours do not get more sleep
than those taking more credit hours.
H4: Male college
students get more
sleep than female
college students.
Quantity of Sleep and Gender
p = 0.605
Male college students do not get more sleep than
female college students.

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H5: Upperclassmen
have higher levels
of stress than
underclassmen.
Stress and Academic Year
p = 0.344
Those who are upperclassman do not have higher
levels of stress than those who are underclassman.
H6: Female college
students have
more stress than
male college
students.
Stress and Gender
p = 0.001*
Female college students have more stress than male
college students.
taking more credit
hours have more
stress than college
students taking
less credit hours.
Stress and Course Load
p = 0.245
Those taking a heavier course load did not have more
stress than those taking a light course load.
with higher levels
of stress get
poorer quality of
sleep than college
students with
lower levels of
stress.
Quality of Sleep and Stress
p = 0.000*
Those who have higher stress levels get poorer
quality of sleep than those who have lower stress
levels.
*Statistically Significant

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Below is a chart summarizing the results for the additional findings of the study.
Table 20: Summary of Results for Additional Findings
Variables Results
Quality of Sleep and Quantity of Sleep
p = 0.010*
Thus, those who get more sleep have
a higher sleep quality.
Quality of Sleep and Gender
p = 0.029*
Thus, males have a higher quality of
sleep than females.
Quantity of Sleep and Time
Management
p = 0.001*
Thus, those with good time
management get more sleep than
those with poor time management.
Stress and Time Management
p = 0.007
Thus, those who are good at
managing their time have less stress
than those who are not good at
managing their time.
Quality of Sleep and Stress
p = 0.001*
Thus, those with a low sleep quality
have a high stress level.
*Statistically significant

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Discussion
The present study looked at a number of variables which influence
quantity and quality of sleep in college students. These variables included stress,
academic year, gender, and course load. Eight hypotheses regarding the
relationship between these variables were generated and tested. Of the eight
hypothesized relationships, two were to be statistically significant. The
relationship between quantity and quality of sleep (p = 0.000) and the relationship
between stress and gender (p = 0.001) were both statistically significant. Five
additional relationships were explored: stress as a function of quality of sleep (p =
0.001), quality of sleep as a function of gender (p = 0.029), quantity of sleep as a
function of time management (p = 0.001), stress as a function of time
management (p = 0.007), and quality of sleep as function quantity of sleep (p =
0.010). All three relationships were statistically significant.
One of the hypotheses that was statistically significant was hypotheses H8,
which stated that college students with higher stress levels get poorer quality of
sleep than college students with lower stress levels (p = 0.000). The connection
between stress and quality of sleep was examined further using stress as a
function of quality sleep. This relationship was also statistically significant,
meaning college students with poorer quality of sleep have higher stress levels
than college students with higher quality of sleep (p = 0.001). These findings are
consistent with the “self-perpetuating cycle” that Buboltz, Brown, & Soper (2001)
discussed in their research. Students with high stress levels get poor quality of

SLEEP 30
sleep, which in turn produces more stress resulting in even poorer sleep quality
until the student is in a downward spiral leading to extreme sleep deprivation.
Contrary to the predictions of hypotheses H2, stress did not seem to have
a statistically significant effect on student’s quantity of sleep as it did on quality of
sleep (p = 0.104). One explanation for this lack of statistical significance is how
well the students were managing their time. According to the answers given to
question 8 of the survey, a majority of the respondents (66.7%) felt that they
were able to manage their time effectively at least fairly often (see Appendix A1).
Furthermore, effective time management was seen to play a statistically
significant role in the quantity of sleep the respondents received, with those
having better time management also receiving more sleep (p = 0.001). So a
majority of the respondents were able to manage how much sleep they got
despite the amount of stress they were experiencing.
Like stress, academic year was not found to play a statistically significant
role in the quantity of sleep the respondents received, as was evidenced by the
findings of hypotheses H1 (p = 0.394). This too can be explained by the fact that
a majority of respondents felt that they could manage their time affectively and
therefore could manage the amount of sleep they got regardless of academic
year.
Not only did academic year not have a statistically significant relationship
to quantity of sleep but it also did not have a statistically significant relationship to
level of stress, contrary to what was predicted in hypotheses H5 (p = 0.344). So

SLEEP 31
upperclassman do not experience more stress than underclassman. One
explanation for this result is the fact that the survey was only measuring what the
respondents’ perceived their stress level to be, which could depend on many
different stressors. Underclassman might feel high levels of stress because they
are trying to adjust to a new experience and more is expected of them.
Upperclassman might feel high levels of stress because they are beginning to
worry about the future and are facing more responsibilities. So the lack of
variance in the level of perceived stress in underclassman versus upperclassman
may be explained by the different stressors the two groups face. Upperclassman
and underclassman may experience different stressors that produce the same
level of stress.
Course load was another variable that did not result in a statistically
significant difference in the quantity of sleep the respondents received (p =
0.060). However, there was a strong trend that indicated that students taking less
credit hours got less sleep than students taking more credit hours. This outcome
conflicts not only what was predicted in hypotheses H3, but also the research
done by Gaultney who found that students taking a heavier course load got less
sleep than students taking a lighter course load (2010, p. 91). One reason for this
result could be that students taking fewer credit hours might socialize more
resulting in them getting less sleep. Another possible reason for this outcome
could be the existence of an outlier in the data analyzed. One respondent who
was taking 7 credit hours reported only getting an average of 3 hours of sleep on

SLEEP 32
a typical weeknight. This response may have resulted in the strong trend seen
here.
Course load also had no statistically significant relationship to the level of
stress the respondent was experiencing, which conflicts with the predictions
made in hypotheses H7 (p = 0.245). Ross, Niebling, and Heckert stated that
course load was one of college students’ highest stressors but that did not seem
to be the case with the respondents in this study (1999). This is another case
where the respondents’ ability to manage their time might have been the reason
for the lack of statistical significance. If the respondents were truly able to
manage their time as well as they said they could and an individual’s stress level
is linked to their ability to manage their time, as was shown in the additional
findings, than the respondents would most likely have been able to limit the
amount of stress they experienced despite the weight of their course load.
In keeping with the research findings of Misra (2012), the relationship
between stress and gender was statistically significant (p = 0.001). As was
predicted in hypotheses H6, it was found that female college students do in fact
experience more stress than men. Although the higher levels of stress that
female college students experience did not seem to effect the quantity of sleep
the students received, as was evidenced by the results of hypotheses H4 (p =
0.605), it was found through further investigation that the higher stress levels did
effect the female college student’s quality of sleep, with female college students
having poorer sleep quality than males (p = 0.029). This additional finding is in

SLEEP 33
keeping with the research done by Liguori, Schuna, and Mozumdra who found
that male college students reported feeling more rested after waking than female
college students (2011, p. 3). These outcomes are also in keeping with the
research findings previously mentioned. As was stated earlier, the respondent’s
stress level was not found to affect the quantity of sleep the respondents
received but rather the quality. So if the female respondents experienced more
stress than male respondents and higher levels of stress result in poor sleep
quality, but not poor sleepquantity, it is to be expected that the female
respondents had a poorer sleep quality than the male respondents, but not
poorer sleep quantity.
Limitations
This study had one major limitation, which was the sample used. The
sample used was a significant limitation within the study. While analyzing the
factors that influence quantity and quality of sleep in college students, the sample
came from a small, liberal arts college. This sample, while important, cannot be
generalized to other U.S. college students. This was further complicated by the
fact the study only had 69 subjects. If more participants had been involved, it is
possible there might have been more statistically significant relationships found
between quantity and quality of sleep and the variable in each hypothesis.
Another limitation is the unequal proportion of male and female
participants. The fact that we had more female respondents than male

SLEEP 34
respondents could explain why hypothesis four was not statistically significant.
Quality of sleep did depend on gender because females experience more stress
than males, but gender was not found to have an effect on quantity of sleep.
However, if there was a more equal amount of male and female respondents
than we might have seen a statistically significant difference in quantity of sleep
as well as quality of sleep.
Implications
The present study is very beneficial for future research. As the study of
research on quantity and quality of sleep continues to grow, this study could be
used to help generate a more comprehensive research study on the factors
which influence quantity and quality of sleep in college students. By doing so,
new methods for improving quantity and quality of sleep in college students could
possibly develop. This information could also be beneficial to college students
suffering from sleep deprivation. Knowing how factors such as gender, stress,
academic year, and course load affect the quantity and quality of sleep college
students get is essential in understanding the sleep deprivation college students
are experiencing.
The findings of this study can be utilized by higher education. Knowing
how stress affects the quantity and quality of sleep that college students receive
could help college personnel develop programs and strategies for their students
in order to help them manage their stress and in so doing, improve the students’
overall quantity and quality of sleep. If these programs were established,

SLEEP 35
students would be able to learn healthy methods to deal with stress, methods
that could be utilized not just in the college setting but later on in work and family
settings, thereby decreasing their susceptibility to sleep deprivation both during
college and after they graduate.
Equally important is the fact that female college students may be
experiencing more stress than male college students, due to the fact that they
may deal with academic stress in an emotional manner. Making them aware of
this fact and giving them strategies to help them manage their stress in a less
emotional way, could help them improve the poor quality of sleep that they might
be experiencing.
Future Research
Future research is necessary in the area of investigating the factors which
influence quantity and quality of sleep in college students. It would be advisable
for future research to use a larger sample size which included participants from a
wide variety of colleges and universities. Because this study was confined to a
small liberal arts university, the results may not necessarily apply in all cases. If
more colleges were included in future research, the findings may be more
applicable to the general college student population.
It would also be beneficial for future research to be done using different
variables such as internet usage and time management. The variables used in
the present study were ones that students might not necessarily be able to
control such as academic year and gender. The results of future research in this

SLEEP 36
area would be more useful to students if it were done using variables that they
could manipulate in their own lives to improve their sleep habits.
The present study also raises several questions which should be
investigated in future research. For instance, in this study, only two of the
findings were statistically significant. Because of this, it would be vital to discover
why certain results did not have the predicted outcome, such as the relationship
between academic year and stress (p = 0.344). To remedy this problem, it is
advisable for future research to not only use a larger sample size, but to include
more stress items on the questionnaire.
Summary
The present study attempted to investigate the factors which influence
quantity and quality of sleep in college students. These factors include gender,
academic year, course load, and stress. Understanding how these variables
might contribute to poor quantity and quality of sleep among college students will
be beneficial for students, parents, and college personnel.
The literature review highlighted how college students who experience
high levels of stress have been observed to be more susceptible to poor sleep
quantity and quality. Female college students were observed to be especially
vulnerable to sleep deprivation due to the emotional manner in which they dealt
with academic stress. Upperclassmen and students taking more credit hours

SLEEP 37
were also seen to experience poor sleep quantity and quality due to the amount
of stress they were under.
From the information gleaned in the literature review, it was necessary to
examine whether there were any statistically significant relationships between
quantity and quality of sleep in college students and the variables mentioned
above. College students from the main campus of Spring Arbor University were
asked to complete a 42 item questionnaire. From their responses, the instrument
was able to establish a quality of sleep index and stress index which would be
used to help find relationships between these indexes and the subjects’ sleep
patterns. Operational definitions were also established from this instrument.
In this study, eight hypotheses were investigated to determine factors
which influence quantity and quality of sleep in college students. Only two of the
eight hypotheses were statistically significant while statistically significant
relationships were not found between quantity of sleep as a function of academic
year (p = 0.394), quantity of sleep as a function of stress (p = 0.104), quantity of
sleep as a function of course load (p = 0.060), quantity of sleep as a function of
gender (p = 0.605), stress as a function of academic year (p = 0.344), and stress
as a function of course load (p= 0.245). These results indicated that the quantity
of sleep college students get is not affected by academic year, stress, course
load, or gender. They also indicated respondents’ stress level was not affected
by academic year or course load. Some possible explanations for these findings

SLEEP 38
are population used and sample size. Because of these factors, it could be
possible the results were unable to show statistically significant relationships in
all eight hypotheses.
This study had several implications. Knowing how these factors contribute
to quantity and quality of sleep in college students could help college personnel
develop programs and strategies for college students which could in turn help
college students lower their stress level. By giving college students healthy
strategies for managing their stress, college personal could help decrease the
cases of sleep deprivation on their campuses.
Finally, future research is necessary to help determine the factors which
influence quantity and quality of sleep in college students. Future research is
encouraged to use a larger sample size from many institutions with diverse
student bodies. By doing so, major findings can be generalized to the larger
population. It is also important for future research to use different variables such
as internet usage and time management in the study, which college students can
manipulate. It would also be interesting to see if there is statistically significant
relationship between academic year and stress.

SLEEP 39
References
Buboltz. W. C., Brown, F., & Soper, B. (2001). Sleep habits and patterns of
college students: A preliminary study. Journal of American College Health,
50(3), 131-135. doi: 10.1080/0744848010959617
Buboltz, W., Jenkins, S. M., Soper, B., Woller, K., Johnson, P., & Faes, T.
(2009). Sleep habits and patterns of college students: An expanded study.
Journal of College Counseling, 12(1), 113-124. http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80
/login?url= http://search. proquest.com/docview/754032188?
accountid=13998
Coren, S. (1996). The sleep thieves: An eye-opening exploration into the science
and mysteries of sleep. New York, NY: New York Free Press.
Forquer, L. M., Camden, A., Gabriau, K. M., & Johnson, C. M. (2008). Sleep
patterns of college students at a public university. Journal of American
College Health, 56(5), 563-565. http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=
http://search.proquest.com /docview/213072079?accountid=13998
Gaultney, J. F. (2010). The prevalence of sleep disorders in college student:
Impact on academic performance. Journal of American College Health,
59(2), 91-97. http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://
search.proquest.com/docview/755635084?accountid=13998
Julian, T., & Kominski, R. (2011). Education and synthetic work-life earnings
estimates. American Community Survey Reports, ACS-14. Retrieved

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February 12, 2012, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/acs-
14.pdf.
Kariv, D., & Haiman, T. (2005). Task-oriented versus emotion-oriented coping
strategies: The cases of college students. College Student Journal, 39(1),
72-84. http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.
ezproxy.arbor.edu/docview/236553507?accountid=13998
Liguori, G., Schuna, J., & Mozumdar, A. (2011). Semester long changes in sleep
duration for college students. College Student Journal, 45(3), 481-492.
http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/
900315740?accountid=13998
Marhefka, J. K. (2011). Sleep deprivation consequences for students. Journal of
Psychosocial Nursing, 49(9), 20-25. doi:10/3928/02793695-201108-02/02
Misra, R. (2004). Academic stress among college students: Comparison of
American and international students. International Journal of Stress and
Management, 11(2), 132-148. doi: 10.1037/1072-5245.11.132
Ross, S. E., Niebling, B. C., & Heckert, T. M. (1999). Sources of stress among
college students. College Student Journal, 33(2), 312-317.
http://web.ebscohost.com. ezproxy.arbor.edu/ehost/detail?vid
=4&hid=105&sid=2dd49eed-e778-4ced-87de224a731e8c88%40
sessionmgr12&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZw1zaXRl#db
=ofs&AN=507635214

SLEEP 41
Rawson, H. E., Bloomer, K., & Kendall, A. (1994). Stress, anxiety, depression,
and physical illness in college students. The Journal of genetic
Psychology, 155(3), 321-330. http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=
http://search.proquest.com/ docview/228521544?accountid=13998
Ross, S. E., Niebling, B. C., & Heckert, T. M. (1999). Sources of stress among
college students. College Student Journal, 33(2), 312-317.
http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.arbor.edu/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid
=15&sid=3e507656-c0d6-433e-b151-4307f1eb46c2%40sessionmgr14
&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=ofs&AN=507
635214
Stone, G. L., & Archer, J.,Jr. (1990). College and university counseling centers in
the 1990s: Challenges and limits. Counseling Psychologist, 18(4), 539-
539. http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url= http://search.proquest.com/
docview /203265873?accountid=13998
Verlander, L.,A., Benedict, J. O., & Hanson, D. P. (1999). Stress and sleep
patterns of college students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 88(3), 893-898.
http://ezproxy. arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/
docview/215393398?accountid=13998

SLEEP 42
Appendices
Appendix A1: Questionnaire
Appendix A2: Human Subjects Review
Appendix A3: Adapted Questions
Appendix A4: Letter of Informed Consent
Appendix B: Tables
Appendix C: Power Point Slides

SLEEP 43
Appendix A1
Questionnaire
Section I:
Please read the fallowing items and rate as they apply to your life using the scale
shown below
1 – Never
2 – Rarely
3 – Occasionally
4 – Fairly Often
5 – Frequently
1. I have a group of friends I hang out with. ..........................1 2 3 4 5
2. I spend time with my family..................................................1 2 3 4 5
3. I need to take a nap. .............................................................1 2 3 4 5
4. I get headaches. ....................................................................1 2 3 4 5
5. Getting out of bed in the morning is a struggle for me. ...1 2 3 4 5
6. I sleep longer on the weekends than
I do during the week. ............................................................1 2 3 4 5
7. I feel overwhelmed by the amount of
homework I have to do. ........................................................1 2 3 4 5
8. I am able to manage my time affectively. ..........................1 2 3 4 5
9. I have little control over my daily circumstances..............1 2 3 4 5
10. I eat three meals a day.........................................................1 2 3 4 5
11. Course work can pile up so high that I
often cannot complete it. ......................................................1 2 3 4 5
12. I can wake up without an alarm clock. ...............................1 2 3 4 5
13. I have trouble falling asleep at night...................................1 2 3 4 5
14. I find myself becoming easily irritated................................1 2 3 4 5
15. I spend most of my time doing homework.........................1 2 3 4 5
16. I go to bed at a consistent time. ..........................................1 2 3 4 5
Never
Rarely
Occasionally
FairlyOften
Frequently

SLEEP 44
17.I get sick. ....................................................................................1 2 3 4 5
18. I require caffeine to stay awake throughout the day........1 2 3 4 5
19. I feel alert throughout the day. ............................................1 2 3 4 5
20. I am productive in my daily activities..................................1 2 3 4 5
21. I wake up at a consistent time .............................................1 2 3 4 5
22. I wake up feeling refreshed. ................................................1 2 3 4 5
23. I get involved in extracurricular activities...........................1 2 3 4 5
24. I sleep through my alarm. ....................................................1 2 3 4 5
25. I feel anxious..........................................................................1 2 3 4 5
26. I feel tired when I am not busy ............................................1 2 3 4 5
27. I wait until the last minute to complete assignments. ......1 2 3 4 5
28. I have trouble focusing. ........................................................1 2 3 4 5
29. I wake up in the middle of the night....................................1 2 3 4 5
30. I fall asleep when I do not intend to....................................1 2 3 4 5
31. I pull all-nighters. ...................................................................1 2 3 4 5
32. I have trouble remembering certain things........................1 2 3 4 5
33. I fall asleep in class...............................................................1 2 3 4 5
34. I find myself crying for no reason........................................1 2 3 4 5
35. I wake up before my alarm clock goes off.........................1 2 3 4 5
Section II:
Please respond to the fallowing questions as they apply to you
36. What is your gender? 1 – Female 2 – Male
37. What was your age, in years, on your last birthday?
Never
Rarely
Occasionally
FairlyOften
Frequently

SLEEP 45
38.What is your academic year, according to the Registrar’s records?
1 – Freshman 4 – Senior
2 – Sophomore 5 – 5th year Senior
3 – Junior 6 – Other, please specify:
39. What is your current cumulative grade point average (GPA) as of Spring,
2012?
40. How many credit hours are you taking this semester?
41. On average, how many hours of sleep do you get on a typical week night?
42. What race do you most identify yourself with?
1 – White, non-Hispanic
2 – White, Hispanic
3 – African American, Black
4 – Asian
5 – Other, please specify:
- Thank You -

SLEEP 46
Appendix A2
Human Subjects Review: Spring Arbor College
Request for approval of 352 research proposal
Title of study:
Factors that Influence Quantity and Quality of Sleep in College Students
Researcher: Angelique Cobb and Rachel Slocum
Faculty sponsor: Dr. Jan Yeaman, Department of Psychology
Question or problem to be investigated:
This present study will look at factors which influence the quantity and quality of
sleep among students at Spring Arbor University. It will attempt to identify factors
that cause poor sleep quantity and sleep quality among college students. The
factors that will be examined are stress, course load, academic year, and gender.
Purpose and/or benefit of study:
Because sleep is a crucial component of a college student’s success, the
findings of this study could be beneficial for improving the quantity and quality of
sleep the student receives, therefore improving the student’s overall success. By
understanding the specific factors that influence sleep among college students,
better sleep habits can be established.
Subjects:
 Description of desired sample:
At least 40 (and no more than 70) students from the main campus.
 Methods of selecting subjects:
Subjects will be obtained using a sample of convenience. Questionnaires will be
distributed to students at various times and in various places on the main
campus.

SLEEP 47
Possible risks to subjects:
There are no perceived risks to subjects. Subjects will voluntarily participate and
can discontinue at any point during the survey.
Plan or method for carrying out study:
The present study will use a survey questionnaire. Subjects will be approached
by us and asked to participate.

SLEEP 48
Appendix A3
Coren, S. (1996). The sleep thieves: An eye-opening exploration into the science
and mysteries of sleep. New York, NY: New York Free Press.
4. Getting out of bed in the morning is a struggle for me.
11. I can wake up without an alarm clock.
23. I sleep through my alarm.
29. I fall asleep when I do not intend to.

SLEEP 49
Appendix A4
Letter of Informed Consent
Welcome and thank you for responding to the invitation to participate in
this research project conducted by Angelique Cobb and Rachel Slocum at Spring
Arbor University.
The questionnaire that you will complete today will greatly assist this
college and others like it to understand issues related to sleep among college
students. Knowing this information will make it possible to provide insight on
numerous variables.
Your responses to all questions will be completely anonymous. Do not
put your name on the answer sheet. The data collected for the study will only
be considered as a group data pool. You will hand in the signed statement of
informed consent separately from your questionnaire. No one associated with
the college, including us, will be able to identify neither any individual's
questionnaire nor their responses to specific questions.
This study involves no deceit and no risk or discomfort to you for
participating. You may change your mind about participating at any time. A
report of the results of this study may be submitted to a professional publication
or conference at a later time.
If you are willing to participate, you need to sign the Statement of
Informed Consent below:
THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS STUDY.

STATEMENT OF INFORMED CONSENT
I have read the above information about this research study. My signature below
indicates that I voluntarily agree to participate as a subject in this study, based on
the information above.
Today’s Date __________________
Signature ________________________________________________

SLEEP 50
Appendix B
A. Quality of Sleep and Quantity of Sleep
as a Function of Quantity of Sleep
Quantity of Sleep 1 339.570 7.015 0.010
Error 62 48.406
Total 63
as a Function of Quantity of Sleep
Quantity of Sleep N Mean* Standard Deviation
Six hours or less 23 50.565 6.207
Seven hours or more 41 55.366 7.337
B. Quality of Sleep and Gender
Gender 1 236.715 4.999 0.029
Error 67 47.350
Total 68
Gender N Mean* Standard Deviation
Female 45 52.111 6.475
Male 24 56.000 7.599

SLEEP 51
C. Quantity of Sleep and Time Management
as a Function of Time Management
Time Management 1 11.594 12.077 0.001
Error 67 0.960
Total 68
Table 26: Summary of Quantity of
Time Management N Mean* Standard Deviation
Poor 23 6.022 1.294
Good 46 6.891 0.781
D. Stress and Time Management
As a Function of Time Management
Time Management 1 434.197 7.832 0.007
Error 66 55.437
Total 67
Time Management N Mean* Standard Deviation
Poor 23 52.652 6.527
Good 45 47.311 7.865

SLEEP 52
E. Stress and Quality of Sleep
Table 29: Summary of Analysis of Variance on
Stress as a Function of Quality of Sleep
Quality of Sleep 1 700.851 13.564 0.001
Error 56 51.670
Total 57
as a Function of Quality of Sleep
Quality of Sleep N Mean* Standard Deviation
Low Sleep 14 54.714 6.988
High Sleep 44 46.591 7.248

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