Archaeological Report - Castledermot Town, Co. Kildare (Ireland)

Eachtra Journal

Issue 7 [ISSN 2009-2237]

Archaeological Excavation Report
04E0750 - Castledermot town, Co. Kildare

Medieval town walls and cemetery

Archaeological Excavation Report,
Kildare County Council Sewerage Scheme,
Castledermot town,
Co. Kildare.

August 2010

Client: Kildare County Council

Licence No.: 04E0750
Licensee: Aine Richardson

Contact details:
Ballycurreen Industrial Estate,
Kinsale Road, Cork.
Written by: Aidan Harte and Aine Richardson Tel.: 021 4915850
Fax: 021 4975711
E-mail: info@eachtra.ie
Produced by: Anluan Dunne Web Site: www.eachtra.ie

04E0750 Kildare County Council Sewerage Scheme, Castledermot town, Co. Kildare ISSUE 7: Eachtra Journal - ISSN 2009-2237

Table of Contents Part 1
i List of Figures .................................................................................................... iv
ii List of Plates .....................................................................................................vii
iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ ix
iv Copyright Notice ............................................................................................... ix
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1
2 Site Location & Topography ...............................................................................1
3 Archaeological and historical background ...........................................................1
4 Recent Archaeological Work/Excavations in Castledermot .................................9
5 Background to the present project ......................................................................9
6 Methodology ..................................................................................................... 10
7 Description of Excavation .................................................................................. 11
7.1 Area 1 .........................................................................................................12
7.2 Area 2 .........................................................................................................15
7.3 Area 3 .........................................................................................................20
7.4 Area 4 .........................................................................................................25
7.5 Area 5 .........................................................................................................31
7.6 Area 6 .........................................................................................................36
7.7 Area 7 .........................................................................................................44

8 Discussion .........................................................................................................46
8.1 The Later Medieval Period ...........................................................................46
8.2 The Post-Medieval Period ............................................................................55
8.3 Early Modern and Modern Town ................................................................58

9 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 59
10 Bibliography ......................................................................................................60
11 Figures ............................................................................................................... 62
12 Plates ................................................................................................................ 103

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12 Appendices ....................................................................................................... 119
12.1 Appendix 1: Context Register .....................................................................119
12.2 Appendix 2: Stratigraphic Matrix ...............................................................144
12.3 Appendix 3: Finds Register.........................................................................145
12.4 Appendix 4: Catalogue of Artefacts ............................................................172
12.5 Appendix 5: Pottery Report ........................................................................192
12.6 Appendix 6 Human Remains ....................................................................218
12.7 Appendix 7: Faunal Remains ......................................................................295
12.8 Appendix 8: Archaeobotanical Remains .....................................................304
12.9 Appendix 9: Leather Report .......................................................................326
12.10 Appendix 10: Glass Report .........................................................................334
12.11 Appendix 11: Metal Report ........................................................................338

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i List of Figures
Figure 1: Discovery Series, Sheet 61. Location of development highlighted.

Figure 2: RMP Map of Castledermot (KD040 & KD038) indicating town wall and zone of
archaeological potential.

Figure 3: Line of proposed sewerage pipeline through Castledermot.

Figure 4: Rocque’s map 1758.

Figure 5: Town plan of Castledermot with town wall and location of excavation trench indicated.

Figure 6: Plan of trench with archaeological chainages indicated.

Figure 7: (parts a and b) Distribution of Post-Medieval and Medieval walls, pits and ditches within
excavated trench.

Figure 8: Plan of trench with the location of the excavation plans and sections indicated.

Figure 9: Area 1 Stone-lined drain (C.8).

Figure 10: Area 1 Section of Pits (C.19, C.20, C.21 and C.23).

Figure 11: Area 1 Cross-section of ditch (C.24) northern face.

Figure 12: Area 1 Section of Ditch (C.51) and Pits (C.55 and C.59) and layers (C.53, C.57 and C.58).

Figure 13: Area 1 Section of pit (C.43) and layers (C.3, C.35, C.36, C.37 and C.38).

Figure 14: Area 2 Section of pits (C.300 and C.294).

Figure 15: Area 2 Wall (C.387) cut by stone-lined drain (C.8).

Figure 16: Area 2 Section of wall (C.387) and layers (C. 386 and C.385)

Figure 17: Area 2 Section of two Medieval pits (C.72 and C.73)

Figure 18: Area 2 Section of two pits (C.304 and C.301) cut by stone-lined drain.

Figure 19: Area 2 Pits (C.316, C.323, C.320, C325) post excavation.

Figure 20: Area 2 Section of pits (C.78, C.79).

Figure 21: Area 2 Section of pits (C.63, C.74 and C.67)

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List of Figures cont.

Figure 22: Area 3 Section of two Medieval walls (C269 and C.517) and late pipe intrusion (C.267)

Figure 23: Area 3 Interconnected Medieval wall (C.517 and C.524)

Figure 24: Area 3 Elevation of the south face of wall C.517

Figure 25: Area 3 Section of Medieval walls (C.517, C.524)

Figure 26: Area 3 Walls (C.269 and C.275) and foundation trench (C.272)

Figure 27: Area 3 Ditch section (C.398)

Figure 28: Area 3 Section of Wall (C.517) layers (C.278, C.279, C.280 & C.288) and Ditch (C.281)
and fills (C.292, C.282, C.283, C.284, C.285 and C.286).

Figure 29: Area 3 Section of Medieval Layers (C.369, C. 332, C. 333, C.370, C.371, C.350, C.368).

Figure 30: Area 4 Post-excavation of pits (C.246, C.250 and C.252).

Figure 31: Area 4 Section of pits (C.90, C.87 and C.93).

Figure 32: Area 4 Section of ditch (C.253).

Figure 33: Area 4 Section of ditch (C.229) and pit (C.233).

Figure 34: Area 4 Plan of Medieval pits (C.235, C.237 & C. 238) and Post-Medieval pits (C.246 &
C.233)

Figure 35: Area 4 Section of Medieval pits (C.104 & C.106) and Post-Medieval pits (C.95, C.97 &
C.101).

Figure 36: Area 4 Section of Medieval pits (C.118 & C.113) and Post-Medieval pits (C.111 &
C.109).

Figure 37: Area 4 Section of Post-Medieval pits (C.141, C.146 & C.136)

Figure 38: Area 4 Section of pit (C.150).

Figure 39: Area 5 Plan of postulated South Gate, walls (C.507 and C.215), ditch (C.509) and surfaces
(C.198 and C.199).

Figure 40: Area 5 Section of postulated South Gate, walls (C.507 and C.215) and ditch (C.509/222).

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List of Figures cont.

Figure 41: Area 5 Section of pit (C.164).

Figure 42: Area 5 Linear cut (C.165) associated with pit (C.164).

Figure 43: Area 5 Post-excavation plan of Pits (C.176 and C.178).

Figure 44: Area 6 Skeletons 1-4, 4a, 6-7, 9-21, 23, 25, coffin of skeleton 26, pits (C.434, C.438, C.450,
C.455, C.456, C.457, C.460, C462) and postholes (C476, C478 and C.467).

Figure 45: Area 6 Section of pits (C.450, C.455, C.456, C.457, C.460).

Figure 46: Area 7 Ditch Cut (C.502).

Figure 47: Area 7 Section of pits (C.490, C.492, C.495).

Figure 48: Rotary Quern fragments (04E0750:9:2) and Architectural Fragment (04E0750:-:1).

Figure 49: Pottery: 1 and 2. Castledermot-type ware 04E0750:29:1, 3-7, 9-11, 15-20 and 04E0750:105:15,
16, 25, 26, 29-31, 33, 37, 38, 42-44. 3 and 4 Leinster Cooking ware handles 04E0750:333:16,
26 and 04E0750:333:9, 41. 5. Leinster Cooking ware rim 04E0750:333:2, 12. 6. Leinster
Cooking ware 04E0750:26:1, 2, 5-7, 11.

Figure 50: 04E0750:227:L16 Sole, insole and heel of right welted shoe.

Figure 51: 04E0750:227:L16 Vamp, heel quarters and welt of right welted shoe.

Figure 52: Metal pin 04E0750:265:24.

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ii List of Plates
Plate 1: Romanesque doorway with Round Tower to left rear (KD040-002), from west.

Plate 2: High Cross (KD040-002) from east.

Plate 3: Area 1 Pit C.19 from west.

Plate 4: Area 1 Pit C.20 from east.

Plate 5: Area 1 Ditch Cut C.24 from north.

Plate 6: Area 1 Ditch C.49 in foreground, ditch C.51 in midground and pit C.59 in background from
north.

Plate 7: Area 1 Pit cut C.59 and ditch cut C.51 from south.

Plate 8: Area 1 Drain C.45 from south.

Plate 9: Area 2 Wall C.387, drain C.8 and silt C.386 in left section from east.


Plate 11: Area 2 Pit section C.78 from east..

Plate 12: Area 3 Wall C.517 from west.


Plate 14: Area 3 South elevation of wall C.269.

Plate 15: Area 4 Pit C109 in foreground and pit C.111 in background from north.

Plate 16: Area 4 Pit C.134 from north.

Plate 17: Area 4 Pit C.124 from east

Plate 18: Area 5 Post Medieval Wall C.208 from south east.

Plate 19: Area 5 Cobbled surface C.198 from north

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List of Plates cont.

Plate 20: Area 5 Possible town wall C.215 from southeast.

Plate 21: The Franciscan Friary (KD040-002) from west.

Plate 22: Area 6 Wall C.430 from east.

Plate 23: Area 6 Skeletons 3 and 2, from east (mid-ex).

Plate 24: Area 6 Skeleton 4 from west.

Plate 25: Area 6 Skeleton 9 from east.


Plate 27: Area 6 Skeletons 8 and 7 from east


Plate 29: Area 6 Skeletons 20 and 21 from north.

Plate 30: Area 6 Skeleton 25 (with Skeleton 22 above shoulder) from east.


Plate 32: Area 6 Coffin (of Skeleton 26) with Skeleton 27 in section.

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iii Acknowledgements

Eachtra Archaeological Projects would like to acknowledge the following organisations and
people for their contributions to this project.

Kildare County Council (John Murphy, Water Services team & Roads team) Nicholas O’Dwyer
consulting engineers (Tom Killilea, Project Engineer) Denis Moriarty The Kerries Ltd (engineering
subcontractors) (Colin Scott & Denis Moriarty)
David Walsh Plant Hire Ltd
Rob Lynch, I.A.C. Project Archaeologist for Kildare County Council

The Site Excavation team
Helen Butler, Eugene Curran, Slawomir Chwalek, Antonia Doolan, Daire Dunne, Tony Galvin,
Barry Green, Aidan Harte, Michael Killeavy, Ian Magee, Vera Manning, Fiacc Murphy, Julianna
O’Donoghue, Niall O’Neill, Áine Richardson.

The Post-Excavation team
Sara Camplese, Marion Dowd, Anluan Dunne, Fiachra Dunne, Barry Green, Aidan Harte, Fiacc
Murphy, Enda O’Mahony, Áine Richardson, Robin Turk.

Archaeological Specialists
Abigail Brewer, Neil Fairburn, Linda Fibiger, Caitríona Gleeson, Claire McCutcheon, Margaret Mc-
Carthy, Noël Siver for Margaret Gowan & Company Ltd., Jo Moran.

iv Copyright Notice
Please note that all original information contained within this report, including all original
drawings, photographs, text and all other printed matter deemed to be the writer’s, remains the
property of the writer and Eachtra Archaeological Projects and so may not be reproduced or
used in any form without the written consent of the writer or Eachtra Archaeological Projects.

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1 Introduction
This report comprises the final excavation report related to archaeological excavations undertaken in
Castledermot village, Co. Kildare. Kildare County Council proposed to upgrade the sewerage system
through the town (Figure 1) running from the Lerr River to the south along Abbey St. and Main St. to
Skenagun to the north. The present town contains extensive archaeological remains, both upstanding
and subsurface, of the earlier Medieval town (KD040-002) (Figure 2). Therefore in 2002, an archaeo-
logical assessment of the proposed line of the sewerage trench was carried out (Byrne 2000). This was
followed by a programme of test excavations (Lynch 2002). The results of this work led to a decision
to archaeologically resolve the line of the proposed pipe trench (Figure 3) in advance of commence-
ment of construction works. Eachtra Archaeological Projects excavated the line of the proposed trench
between June and December 2004 under excavation licence number 04E0750. While the excavated
trench was narrow, it offered a lengthy cross-section of the Medieval and Post-Medieval town. The
excavation revealed a number of facets of the town during these periods including the Medieval town
walls and a cemetery. Following archaeological resolution of the trench, it was backfilled to be opened
at a future date for the insertion of the sewerage pipes.

2 Site Location & Topography
Castledermot town (NGR 27800 18475) is situated on the N9 between Carlow and Kilcullen. It is
located in the townland and parish of the same name and in the barony of Kilkea and Moone, Co.
Kildare. The town is situated on low-lying ground (circa. 80m O.D.), near the foothills of the Wicklow
mountains, where a number of tributaries join the Lerr River as it turns south-west to connect with the
River Barrow. Situated less than 10km north-east of Carlow, Castledermot lies in a central location of
a broad vale where the bedrock is granite.

3 Archaeological and historical background
Castledermot comprised a pre-Norman ecclesiastical site which was converted into an Anglo-Norman
town. In addition to this, the town was refounded after 1485 – a time which saw little urban growth
elsewhere in Ireland (Bradley, Halpin and King 1984, 128).

The modern village of Castledermot owes its origin to the development of the Anglo-Norman town
of Thristeldermot, which itself was established adjacent to the important pre-Norman ecclesiastical
settlement of Diseart Diarmada. Castledermot has a rich archaeological legacy from both its Anglo-
Norman and monastic precursors. A history of urban settlement on the site may be divided into three
broad phases: the monastic community of Diseart Diarmada, the Anglo-Norman town of Thristelder-
mot and the post-reformation village of Castle Dermott.

The only evidence of prehistoric activity from Castledermot comprises an Early Bronze Age flat bronze
axe (NMI reg.: E186:19) and a Late Bronze Age bronze sword (NMI reg.: 1945:304) both of which are
located in the National Museum of Ireland (NMI, Topographical Files). However, the nearest possible
related sites are a distance away; a cist site (KD040:041) is recorded at Knockfield to the southeast of

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the village and a standing stone (KD040:040) is located in Ballyraggan townland to the east of Cas-
tledermot (Byrne 2000, 14).

The earliest direct antecedent of the present village was the monastic community of Diseart Diarmada,
founded circa 812 AD by Diarmait or St. Dermot, a grandson of Aed Ron, King of Ulster. The site
of Diarmait’s church lies beneath the current Church of Ireland church of St. James (KD040-002).
Whereas Diseart Diarmada may be translated as ‘Dermot’s Hermitage’, its foundation date is quite late
relative to the hermitage tradition in Ireland (mostly between 400 and 700 AD), typified by such sites
as Glendalough and Skellig Michael. In addition the ascetic communities which developed at these
sites did so in a contemplative environment, isolated from the rest of society. Castledermot, however,
is located in the fertile Barrow valley, in an area with a not inconsiderable volume of extant ringforts,
indicative of established settlement and land use in and around the 9th century. Thus Diseart Diarmada
was not a traditional ‘hermitage’ in a temporal or spatial sense. It was however part of a new concept
of monastic life; the Céile Dé or Culdee movement, of which Diarmait was a leading proponent. The
Culdees were concerned with the growing materialistic and political obsessions of the 9th century Irish
church and sought a more devout approach to religious life. This return to traditional monastic values
can be seen in the name ‘Diseart’, a deliberate association with a more pious past. Perhaps to escape
the control and influence of the church in his native Ulster, Diarmait headed south and, probably for
patronage, settled at Castledermot. The choice of location may have been influenced by its proxim-
ity to Killeen Cormac, 5km to the west, a site with a strong connection to Palladius, the first Roman
bishop in Ireland. Palladius was believed to have left belongings at Killeen Cormac, including his
library and a fragment of the true cross. The site itself has yet to be identified on the ground; however
there are numerous mentions of it in the annals. Also c. 5km to the west of Castledermot was the seat
of the O’Tooles, modern day Kilkea, and centre of their territory called Hy Muiredhaigh (Comerford
1896, 367). The ‘Annals of the Four Masters’ records Diarmait’s death in 823, describing him as ‘an
anchorite, and a distinguished doctor’ (Fitzgerald 1892, 66).

The importance of the community which Diarmait founded within the psyche of the Irish church is
testified to in the volume of references to it in the annals. Although the annals offer a rather narrow
historical insight, they do provide us with an outline of some of the more newsworthy events in the
monastery’s history. They also allow us to reconstruct a possible chronology of the heads of the church
at Diseart Diarmada – be they abbots, bishops or both - and their tenure.

St. Diarmait, 812-825 (Macairt 1977, 123)
St. Moylerrwayn, …-871 (Murphy 1896, 143)
Eadach son of Seghini, 871-874 (O’Donovan 1854, vol. II, 521)
Maelruain, 874-884 (ibid., 535)
Muirgheas, abbot and bishop, 884-895 (ibid., 553)
Maedcullan, 895-921 (ibid., 609)
Aireachtach, 921-935 (ibid., 635)



Guaire son of Sealbhach, 935-954 (ibid., 655)
Colman, 954-963 (ibid., 687)
Muirigen, 963-967 (ibid., 691)
H Ua Gabhaidh, bishop …-1038 (ibid., 835)
Cuileanan Clean, lector, 1038-1054 (ibid., 865)
Cobhtach, 1054-1074 (ibid., 907)

The somewhat chaotic nature of the church career structure at this time makes it difficult to distin-
guish between the roles of abbot, anchorite, lector and bishop in the community. However, the pres-
ence of all the above is indicative of the growth and success of Diarmait’s mission. This success was
fuelled in part by elite patronage, most likely the O’Toole nobility. Their financial support can best be
seen today in the round tower and the two well preserved high crosses (KD040-002); status symbols
for the monastery and their patrons. However, the monks also had strong contacts with other elite
families. Sneidhuis (died 885) a ‘wise man’ was tutor to Cormac, a future king of Munster, who him-
self was believed to have been buried at Diseart Diarmada (O’ Donovan 1854, vol. I, 835).
Two Viking raids early in the community’s development, in 841 (ibid., 463) and 867 (ibid., 511), cor-
respond to a period of sparse mentions of Diseart Diarmada in the annals, a strong indication that it
was hit hard by these events. Interestingly, the churchyard of St. James boasts a unique Hiberno-Norse
monument; a 10th century hogback stone, a grave marker associated in particular with Northumber-
land (KD040-002). Perhaps it was the grave of a nobleman with Norse pretensions, or indeed a Gae-
licised Norseman? After the Viking destructions, Diseart Diarmada appears to have enjoyed 230 odd
years of relative peace, until 1037, when it became embroiled in the blinding and subsequent killing of
Dunchadh, king of Leinster (O’ Donovann 1854, vol. II, 835). Three years later, amid a period of great
instability in Leinster, it was plundered by the Ui Ceinnseallaigh and prisoners were taken (ibid., 839).
The sanctity of Christian sites was rarely upheld universally in times of war and Diseart Diarmada was
no exception. In 1043 the site was again the scene for more bloodshed as Macraidh, chief of the Ui
Bairrche and his wife, probably enjoying the hospitality of the monks, were killed here by the Ui Bail-
lain (ibid., 843). The period around the years 1037-1043 saw a long and bloody power struggle in the
region which must have had a terrible effect on Diseart Diarmada.
A generation passed before the community bore witness to further violence. In 1076, the Ua Lorcain
massacred the people of Gilla Chomgaill, and in a macabre and rather pagan ritual, brought the heads
of 63 of their victims in procession to a hill south of the church and deposited them there (ibid., 911).
The final pre-Norman reference to the site in the annals records its destruction by fire in 1106 (Mac-
Carthy 1892, vol. II, 77). Although it takes almost another 100 years for the Anglo-Normans to arrive,
the turmoil of the 11th century must have taken its toll on Diseart Diarmada, and we have no further
references to the community in the annals post 1106. Perhaps patronage dried up; its functions were
diminished and hence its importance within the wider church had lessened. Whatever the case, the
prominence it had enjoyed in the 9th and 10th centuries had disappeared. The settlement which de-
veloped around the church underwent a profound change from the 1170s on, once known as Diseart
Diarmada it now became Thristeldermot.



The territory of Hy Muiredhaigh, of which Diseart Diarmada had become the focus, was granted to
Walter de Ridelsford by Richard de Clare (Strongbow) c. 1171 (Comerford 1896, 367), the new over-
lord of the region following his support for Mac Murchada’s infamous struggle for control of Leinster.
What de Ridelsford did next with the settlement is difficult to ascertain. We know from the Roll of
Names attached to the second charter of Dublin c.1172 that there were at least four, and indeed prob-
ably more, Anglo-Norman families settled here, as indicated by the four burghers mentioned:

Reginaldus carnifex [butcher] de Thristeldermod (Gilbert 1870, 31);
Henricus de Thristeldermod (ibid., 38);
Willelmus albus de Tristeldermod (ibid., 38);
Rudulfus de Tristledermod (ibid., 43).

As the make up of the community began to change, so too did the fortunes of the church. The former
prestige which Diseart Diarmada once enjoyed was reduced further in 1207 when its control of its
finances was effectively handed over to the large new convent of St. Mary of Grane (KD040-014)
which St. Dermot established c. 4km to the east of the village (Sweetman 1895, vol I, 53). That said,
the church itself was completely rebuilt sometime during this century, the entrance arch of which is
all that now remains (Harbison 1991, 96-100). Thristeldermot was the only urban settlement in the
district now known as Omeurthy and inevitably began to grow. In 1210, The Hospitalers of St. John
established a hospital (KD038-045) on the northern fringe of the village, indicating to some degree
that the population at this time was sufficient to warrant their presence (Comerford 1896, 364). This
probable population growth led to a growth in trade and while it is quite likely that the village was
accustomed to markets before the Normans, de Ridelsford sought to put such things on an official
footing, obtaining a royal grant to hold a fair there from the 5th to 12th of November annually (Sweet-
man 1895, vol. I, 211). Indeed Thristeldermot must have attracted more settlers and commerce, for in
the following years a second grant for a fair, from the 10th to 17th of June, was taken out by the new
landlords Christina de Mariscis and Ebulo de Geneve in 1248 (ibid., 444). The 1240s also saw the ar-
rival of the Franciscans into a village which was slowly developing into a town. They received 15 marks
from the king, no doubt to cover initial construction costs (ibid., 429).

By the 1280s royal rents from burgage plots in the town were 4l. 36s. 4d., with an additional 1 mark
from the stallage of horses there (Sweetman 1895, vol. I, 561). Although burgage plots were not men-
tioned previously, it is quite likely that at some earlier stage in the 13th century the town of Thristel-
dermot was planned, roads were developed and the typical Norman long, narrow plots apportioned.
Thus by the 1280s the town of Thristeldermot had become firmly established. It also developed official
administrative functions during this period. It played host to the mayor and commonality of Ross (Co.
Wexford), who held an inquisition here in Easter 1286, indicating the presence of some sort of official
hall or building in the town, plus a sufficient infrastructure to accommodate the event (Sweetman
1895, vol. III, 95). During this decade the administration of the town began to receive annual subsi-



dies, beginning in 1281 at 40s (Sweetman 1895, vol. II, 385). Such a town could not have developed
in 13th century Ireland without military protection. However, the first mention of a garrison is in 1287
when subsidies were paid for the ‘army of Trestledermot’ (ibid., 126). This also indicates that some
kind of fortification, barracks and stables were built at this time; though when and where are uncer-
tain. Although O’ Donovan (1854, vol. III, 71) states that Hugh de Lacy built a motte and bailey here
in 1186, his information may have referred to Kilkea 5km to the northwest, where there is an extant
motte, and which later became the site of a larger castle (KD037-017).

The administrative function of Thristeldermot increased on the 28th of April 1297 when regular court
sessions began to be held here (Mills 1905, 100). Except for one case of banditry involving Gaelic
Irishmen - theft of a cart - (ibid., 189), all court cases involved primarily small disputes between in-
dividuals of Anglo-Norman descent. For example, on the 11th of August 1302 William Briskey and
Geoffrey Bobenham were both on trial for fighting, Bobenham was fined the huge sum of 20 marks
and gaoled (ibid., 427). Cases involving violence were rare and seemed to be confined within the settler
community, the worst case of which occurred in 1298 when a group of English settlers from Carlow
robbed and attempted to kill other Englishmen in Thristeldermot (ibid., 199). By and large, the court
proceedings reflect a relatively peaceful and law abiding population.

While the citizens of the town lived in comparative harmony with one another, resentment was con-
tinually festering amongst the native dispossessed Irish population. Insurrection in the region around
1295 (Sweetman 1895, vol. VI, 124) was probably the motivating factor in the application by the
burghers of Thristeldermot for a murage grant from the king in that year. The grant which they re-
ceived to toll goods passing through the town is itself a fascinating historical document, illustrating
the volume of trade which must have passed through Thristeldermot in the 13th and 14th centuries as
illustrated by the following:
Grant to the bailiffs and good men of Thistildormot in aid of enclosing their vill and for the greater
security of those parts that from the day of making these presents until the end of 7 years they may
take in that vill [the following customs] from each seam of corn on sale 1/2d.; each horse and mare,
ox and cow, 1/2d.; each hide of horse mare, ox or cow, fresh salted or tanned, 1/4d.; each cart bearing
meat, salt or fresh, three half pence; 5 fat pigs, 1/2d.; each fresh salmon 1/4d.; 10 sheep goats or hogs,
1/4d;10 fleeces 1d.; each hundred woolfells of sheep or goats, 1/2d.;each hundred skins of lambs, hares,
rabbits, foxes, cats and squirrels, 1/2d.; each horse load of cloth, 1/2d.; each whole cloth 1/2d.; each
hundred of linen cloth, canvas, cloth of Ireland, Galeweythe and worsted, 1/2d.;each hogshead of wine
and cinders, three half pence; each horse load of cinders, 1/2d.; each horse load of honey, 3d.; each
sack of wool, 4d.; each truss of cloth brought by cart, 2d.; each horse load of cloth and of diverse and
minute articles, 1/2d.; each cartload of iron, 1d.; each horse load of iron, 1/2d.; each cartload of lead,
2d.; each cartload of tan, by the week, 1d.; each quarter of woad, 2d.; 2,000 onions, 1/4d.; 8 sheaves of
garlic, 1/4d.; each 1,00 herrings, 1/4d.; each horse load of sea fish, 1/2d.; each hundred boards, 1/2d.;
each quarter of salt, 1/4d.; each whey of cheese and butter, 1/2d.; each cart of firewood or coals, by the
week, 1/2d.; each 1,000 nails, 1/4d.; each hundred horseshoes and clouts for carts, 1/2d.; each quarter



of tan, 1/4d.; each truss of any kind of merchandise coming to the vill an exceeding the value of 2s.,
1/4d.; each hundred gads of steel, 1/2d.; each hundred of Aderdene, 1d.; each hundred of stock fish,
1/3d.; 10 pieces of canvas, 1/4d/; 10 gallons of oil, 1/2d.; each millstone 1/2d. On completion of the 7
years the custom shall cease and be abolished (Sweetman 1895, vol. VI, 106-107).

The wall was likely to have been completed by 1302, enclosing the town in a lozenge shape. Access
was via three gates; the Dublin gate to the north (RMP KD038-045), the Carlow gate to the west
(KD040-002) and the Tullow gate to the south (KD040-002). Nothing substantial of the wall has
survived, save for a small section that was near the Carlow gate. Along the northwest edge of this
lozenge shape the town wall protruded outwards across the width of three burgage plots (Thomas
1992, 50). These properties equate to plots 2 and 3 on Rocque’s map (Figure 4). Thomas (1992) specu-
lates that this protrusion may have accommodated a tower, but is too large and therefore possibly a
more substantial defensive structure (50). The wall neither encompassed the Franciscan Friary nor the
Crouched Friary (St. John’s Hospital), although both were located beside a major gate. The town wall
did enclose the church site at the east and here the wall ‘zig-zags’ to accommodate it (ibid.). A fourth
gate may have been located here. If a fourth gate existed it is likely it was on this east side of the town,
although reference to this only appears in the written record from the late 18th century (ibid.). Never-
theless, the characteristic shape by which the wall defined the area of the town can still be seen in the
town plan today.

The 14th century saw a period of increased growth and importance for the town. The Franciscan friary
(KD040-002) received a large building grant by Thomas, Lord of Ossary in 1302, which is probably
the time from which the extant ruins date from. However 15 years later in 1317, the first major de-
struction of Thristeldermot occurred at the hands of the rampaging Edward de Bruce. The friary was
certainly sacked and it is unlikely that the rest of the settlement escaped a similar fate. Fortunately for
the town, it was located in a strategic position on the road from Dublin to Carlow, Kilkenny and Wa-
terford, and strong desire existed to keep it up and running. Two years after de Bruce, the first King’s
Council was held here (Sayles 1979, 101, 109, 216). Indeed Thristeldermot was the venue for 11 council
meetings of various sorts throughout the century and two parliamentary sessions (Sayles 1976, xiv, xxi,
18, 72, 91, 93-105, 106, 110-117), indicating that it was a relatively secure location with ample provi-
sion of resources, from accommodation, staff, transport and food, to entertain such events. The 14th
century, from what can be gathered from the historical sources at least, was very much a continuation
and perhaps stabilization of the growth enjoyed by the town over the previous 300 years.

The relative peace enjoyed by two generations of citizens following the destruction by de Bruce ended
in the 1390s, when the ever constant threat of insurrection by the native Irish again arose, this time as
a full scale war against the settlers was led by Art MacMurragh, the soi-disant king of Leinster. Two
hundred archers and men at arms were billeted here in 1392 in the course of operations against the
Leinstermen (Graves 1877, 42). Anxious that their town may be targeted by MacMurragh, a massive
ransom of 85 marks was paid out to spare it. However MacMurragh evidently wanted more, and in



1405 the walled towns of Thristeldermot, Carlow and Wexford were burned to the ground (Murphy
1896, 325). For the next 100 years, constant turmoil and the success of Gaelic attacks severely hindered
the development of the town. The lack of any references to court sessions, councils or parliaments in
the years subsequent to MacMurragh’s campaign, strongly indicate that the town had lost it’s major
administrative functions and that much of the territory surrounding it was under Gaelic Irish control.
In 1485 Gerald, Earl of Kildare resident in Kilkea Castle and holder of the manor of Thristeldermot,
obtained a royal grant for the reconstruction of the town’s castle which ‘may be the true means of re-
covering all the waste lands of the county of Carlow to be populated by the king’s subjects’ (Connolly
2002, 71-73). It is quite probable that the years 1405-1485 saw Thristeldermot without any permanent
garrison at all. However, the construction of new fortifications in the town did bring a new measure
of stability, as some years later in 1499 a parliament was held here (Comerford 1896, 365). There are
few references to the town during the following 40 years up until Henry VIII’s suppression of religious
houses, although life quite probably continued as normally as it could; the shops and taverns were
open, fairs were held, the three religious institutions in the town continued to educate, care for and
attend the souls of the citizens. It was a life however that was to be forever changed along with the fate
of the town itself as a result of the events of the 1540s.

Silken Thomas’s famous rebellion of the 1530s ended in disaster for him personally, but also for the
Fitzgerald territories which rebelled with him, of which Castle Dermott was one. The town was sacked
by crown forces, the first occasion the government attacked the settlement, sometime before 1540
(Comerford 1896, 370). This was a cruel blow to the town which had only just recovered from effects
of its last destruction. The damage this brought was compounded when the Hospital of St. John, the
Franciscan Friary and the church were suppressed in 1541. Key elements in the remaining function of
the town were irreparably damaged. The three religious institutions were fundamental to the identity
of what had become known as Castle Dermott, following the rebuilding of the castle in 1485. The
priory bordered the northern edge of the town, the friary - the southern end and the church the eastern
end, each in their own way defining the space of the town. The majority of references after this time
are concerned with the distribution of the lands of the religious houses to wealthy men loyal to the
crown. One solitary description of a court sitting in 1578 is the only mention of any official function of
the town in the 16th and 17th centuries (Hamilton 1867, 144-145). As we have seen before, times of de-
struction led to long periods without any references to the town in the sources. Whereas previously the
town had eventually recovered, it had on those occasions strategic necessity and its function as an ad-
ministrative and religious centre to propel recovery and reconstruction. This time the success of crown
forces in re-establishing control of Leinster removed its strategic importance and to the same extent
its administrative importance. The dissolution of the monasteries was the final act which reduced the
settlement’s status from a formally prosperous town to a run down ruralised village. Whatever recov-
ery was made in the 16th century was obliterated when Castle Dermott was burned to the ground by
Cromwellian forces in 1650. The 1659 census shows the population to have been 240; 68 English and
172 Irish, quite probably a significant decrease on what it had been during it’s heyday in the 14th cen-
tury (Petty 1659, 404). From this time on Castledermot does not figure much in historical records, it



had become a village of relatively little importance, and by this time the total conquest of Leinster was
complete, so at least imminent threats of destruction by Irish or English enemies no longer existed.

The earliest known cartographic record relating to Castledermot is an estate map drawn up by Thomas
Emerson in 1690. The town was divided into holdings owned by four property owners, one of which
was the ‘abbey and church lands’ (Horner 1997, 405). While the market place and town walls are rep-
resented, there is no reference to a castle within the town on Emerson’s map (ibid.). This was followed
by another estate map in 1758 created by Rocque under the patronage of the Earl of Kildare (Figure
4). The lozenge plan of the town is much the same as it is today, but the outline of Medieval burgage
plots is much more pronounced. Interestingly, the map records one high cross but not the other.

The built environment of the present village mostly dates to the 19th century, during which time it
enjoyed the redevelopment it lacked for the previous 300 years. However, remnants of the Medieval
significance of the town are still visible, most notably the ruins of the three religious houses and the
street layout of the Medieval town. Main St. and Abbey St., along which the pipe trench ran, were the
main thoroughfares through the Medieval town. Similarly, the pipe trench ran through the present
market square which is also almost certainly the location of the Medieval market place. Burgage plots
would have fronted onto these streets. In 1284, 182 burgages were located in the town with 172 re-
corded for the year 1311 and 160 for 1418 (Byrne 2000, 8). Only the church survives of the original
Franciscan friary. The eastern wall of the friary fronts onto Abbey St. In 1540, the church formed part
of a larger complex including a dormitory, tower, two halls, a kitchen, garden, orchard, a walled carti-
lage and a water mill (ibid., 10). The Romanesque doorway that relates to the 13th century re-building
of St. Dermot’s foundation is now free-standing, in situ, in the grounds of the present-day Church of
Ireland church (Plate 1). The round tower, the top of which was repaired during the 19th century, still
stands and is joined to the north side of the modern church (Fitzgerald 1892, 66-69). Two impressive
High Crosses also survive in the grounds of the church (Plate 2). As mentioned above, the hogback
stone is a Viking age feature and the only known example in Ireland (Lang 1971, 154). This remains
in the graveyard today where it was found during a clean-up in 1967 (Roe 1967, 179). This obscure
location raises questions as to the possible links between Castledermot and Hiberno-Norse towns and
trade routes. Castledermot was certainly known to the Norse, as the recorded Viking raids of 841 and
867 testify. Hogback stones were decorated grave markers in the 10th and 11th centuries, most common
to northern England and Demark. Both the morphology and decorative style of the Castledermot ex-
ample would appear to indicate influences from Cumberland and Yorkshire as opposed to those from
Scandinavia (Lang 1967, 158). To the north of the town, St. John’s Priory and Hospital, as founded by
the Crouched Friars in 1210, can still be seen. The up-standing remains consist of a square tower. At
the south of the town the Franciscan Friary still survives, although in a ruinous state.



4 Recent Archaeological Work/Excavations in Castledermot
Archaeological excavations in recent years have uncovered further evidence of Medieval and Post-Me-
dieval Castledermot. In 1990, a stone-lined well of Post-Medieval date was found to the rear of houses
fronting onto Main Street (O’Brien 1990, 37-8). A greenfield site off Carlow Street revealed a number
of linear cuts and two key-hole shaped features that probably represent corn drying kilns (Scally
1991, 25). In 1995 and 1996, 29 pits were excavated to the west of Main Street (Licence 95E265)
(O’Donovan 1996, 44; O’Donovan 1997, 49-50). At the north of the town, an area west of St. John’s
Priory and Hospital was tested ahead of development (Licence 96E330) (Connolly 1997, 50). Here,
disturbed construction materials and sherds of Late Medieval and Post Medieval pottery were found,
in addition to a possible rough stone foundation and associated mortar surface (ibid.). Further testing
took place at this location in 2000 (Licence 96E330 ext.) (Byrne 2002b, 161). An excavation on Athy
Street, at the west of the town, further revealed the line of the town wall inside which linear cuts and
at least two ditches were found to run roughly parallel to the town wall (Licence 98E0225) (Mullins
2000, 100-101). A second excavation on Athy Street recovered nothing of archaeological significance
(Licence 00E0671) (Lynch 2002, 160). To the south of the Franciscan Friary, Abbey Street, testing
found only what appeared to be 19th century field drains (Licence 00E0418) (Mullins 2002, 160).
Also in 2000, testing was conducted at St. John’s, to the north of the town but little of archaeological
significance was found here (Licence 00E0047) (Byrne 2002a, 161).

5 Background to the present project
The Castledermot sewerage scheme (Figure 3) involves the construction of a wastewater treatment
plant, a 375 mm diameter storm sewer and 225 mm gravity sewer, a 300mm water-main, a pumping
station and a 1000mm diameter rising main. The treatment plant is to be constructed at Dairyfarm to
the southwest of the present village. The pipeline will run from that location along the southern side
of the Lerr River before crossing the river to link in with the existing treatment plant. Sewer pipes are
to be laid from the bridge over the Lerr at the southern end of the town running north through the
centre of Castledermot along Abbey Street, Market Square and Main Street to Skenagun to the north
of Castledermot. The proposed storm sewer trench varies from between approximately 1300mm and
1800mm in width and between 2000mm and 3500mm in depth. Overall, the pipe trench running
through the town measured 726 linear metres in length by between 1.8m and 1.4m in width. The 12
manholes on the route measured approximately 2 m².

A number of areas were identified as of archaeological sensitivity in a desktop assessment carried out by
Martin Byrne in 2000 (Byrne 2000). In the light of Byrne’s work a recommendation for archaeological
testing was made and this was carried out by Irish Archaeological Consultancy Ltd at various places
along the proposed route of the sewerage scheme under Licence 00E0550 (Lynch 2002, 160-61). From
south to north along the route, these five areas comprise: Franciscan Abbey, Carlow Gate, Dublin
Gate, Market Square and St John’s Priory and Hospital. The first test trench (Franciscan Abbey) ex-
cavated produced potential archaeological remains at a depth of 0.40m below Present Ground Level
(PGL). The total depth of archaeological remains was about 0.80m, 1.20m below PGL. The trench



produced human remains representing at least two individuals (Lynch 2002, 160). At Carlow Gate
two trenches were excavated. One of these was taken up entirely with the existing sewer trench; the
other contained no archaeological remains. At Market Square two further trenches were opened and
both contained substantial amounts of Medieval remains, from a depth of c. 0.80m to 1.35m below
PGL (ibid., 161). Two more trenches were opened at the postulated site of Dublin Gate. Medieval
archaeological remains occurred in both trenches, at approximately 0.30m below PGL. The natural
subsoil occurred at a depth of 1.10m below PGL. The final two test trenches were excavated outside
St. John’s Priory and Hospital. One of these contained Medieval material at a depth of 0.36m below
PGL, while the other contained undateable remains at a similar depth (ibid., 161). The results of the
testing programme supported the historical evidence indicating that Castledermot is rich in Medieval
archaeological remains.

In 2000, testing was carried out on the site of the proposed sewage treatment plant at Dairyfarm
(Licence 02E1323) but nothing of archaeological significance was encountered (Mullins 2002, 160).
Likewise, the route of the pipeline east of the town was monitored (Licence 02E1558) but no archaeo-
logical deposits were encountered (Byrne 2002b, 161). Testing also took place to the west (Licence
02E1080) and on the east of Abbey St. (Licence 02E1558) and surprisingly produced nothing of ar-
chaeological significance (ibid., 161).

The project design required that an archaeological excavation be carried out along the line of the pro-
posed pipeline as it continued uninterrupted through the Medieval town (Figure 5). Due to the nar-
row width of the trench, rarely was the entirety of an archaeological feature exposed within the limits
of the trench. This sometimes led to difficulties interpreting archaeological features, as their full extent
and shape could not be established. Essentially however, the excavations consisted of a narrow linear
section through the Medieval and Post-Medieval town.

6 Methodology
Seventy to eighty metres of the development area was cordoned off at a time. This allowed for the
positioning of an open trench, a mechanical excavator and a lorry for the removal of spoil. Denis
Moriarty of The Kerries Ltd was responsible for the management of traffic made necessary by the
cordoned off area. The excavations began at the northern end of the scheme where the least amount of
archaeological material was uncovered during the test excavations. Restrictions on working within 100
m of school boundaries during certain hours during the school term were in place and therefore work
was rescheduled to take place in these areas outside the school term. Consequently, the excavation did
not run continuously from the north to the south. The archaeological chainage applied began at the
north and travelled south (CH A000-A250), but a section was passed over in order to excavate the
area near the school during holidays. This section was also excavated from north to south and given
a separate chainage sequence (CH B000-B316). The section which ran between Chainage A in the
north and Chainage B to the south was labelled sequentially Chainage C (CH C000-C145), and this
was excavated from the south (or CH B0) to the north. The direction was reversed due to time delays



in relocating water supply valves in the market square. Finally, the most southern trench section which
was aligned east-west was labelled Chainage D (CH D000-D016) (Figure 6).

The upper material of the trench was removed by machine using a flat bucket, until the level of archae-
ology or subsoil was reached. A suitably qualified archaeologist monitored this work. In archaeologi-
cally sensitive areas the final removal of non-archaeological sediments was conducted manually. The
archaeological remains were excavated by hand, using a recording system based on scaled drawing,
written notation and photographs. According to the depth of material uncovered, it was necessary in
some cases to use appropriate shoring for the sides of the trench.

When the archaeological remains had been recorded and excavated fully the trenches were backfilled.
Where archaeological work was not completed on a daily basis the trenches were surrounded by bar-
riers and traffic lights system remained in place. Where significant and fragile archaeological remains
were discovered, it was necessary to excavate beyond the limit of the trench. Any such excavation was
agreed in advance with the client and the licensing authorities.

When substantial remains such as Medieval walls were uncovered mitigation measures were decided
in conjunction with the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government Historic
Monuments Section before proceeding.

7 Description of Excavation
The main archaeological features uncovered during excavations comprised ditches, pits, walls and a
number of burials (Figure 7). Several walls corresponded with those indicated on cartographic sources
of the Medieval town. Masonry was uncovered at the postulated locations of both the Dublin Gate
and Tullow Gate.

For the purpose of this report, the excavations have been divided into seven areas running from the
northern end of the pipe trench at the northern end of the town to the southern end: Area 1, Area 2,
Area 3, Area 4, Area 5, Area 6 and Area 7. The breakdown of the trench into seven areas was to facili-
tate a discussion of the archaeological material encountered. The length of each area and the chainages
at which it occurred is summarised in Table 1. Each area is discussed chronologically from the Early
Modern period (years) to the Medieval period (years). Any archaeological features where the date was
unknown were grouped under ‘Miscellaneous’.

Area Chainage Length
1 A0-A93 93 m
2 A93-A210 117 m
3 A210-A250 & C145-C116 69 m
4 C116-C0 & B0-B190 306 m
5 B190-B245 55 m
6 B245-B277 32 m
7 B277-B316 & D0-D15 54.4 m
Table 1 Breakdown of seven areas of excavation trench (see Figure 6)



To further the clarity of the text, primary data has in most cases has been omitted (i.e. dimensions,
distances). This information is easily cross-referenced, using the context number, in the attached ap-
pendices. The overall town plan (Figure 6 and 7) may also be used as a spatial reference tool as all ar-
chaeological features have been displayed in relation to the excavated trench through the town. Levels
above sea level are present on all plans and sections.

7.1 Area 1
(Figures 6-13, Plates 3-8)
This area is the northernmost section of the archaeological excavations undertaken at Castledermot.
The trench was orientated north-south, following the western edge of Main Street. The excavated
trench was 1.4m wide and ran from the northern terminus (Chainage A0) to a point 93m south in
the direction of the town centre (Chainage A93). A total of 53 contexts (detailed in Appendix 1) were
recorded throughout Area 1 and produced evidence of archaeological material from a number of peri-
ods in the form of a stone-lined drain (C.8), eight pits (C.19, C.20, C.21, C.23, C.59 C.43, C.41 and
C.55), a linear cut (C.45) and three ditches (C.24, C.49, and C.51).

The overburden consisted of layers and intrusions of the modern period. The uppermost layers of this
formed the road surface consisting of tar (C.1) and gravel (C.2). Apart from this, four modern pipes,
supplying water, ran east-west through the trench. A further water pipe ran parallel to the trench in
the western baulk (C.34). This fully functioning pipe was visible in section for 33m to a depth of 0.4m
below ground level. These utility services frequently truncated lower archaeological contexts, often to
the level of natural subsoil.
7.1.1 Early Modern
Two distinct features of the Early Modern period were uncovered in this area – a cobbled road surface
(C.3) (Figure 13) and a stone lined drain (C.8) (Figure 9). The fragmented remains of the cobbled road
surface (C.3) were discovered immediately below the present road make up. It was only on the extreme
western side of the trench that this was preserved, probably owing to the original convex profile of the
road surface. The maximum width of the cobbled road was 0.5m and usually much less.

The stone-lined drain (C.8) was aligned north-south and followed the full length of Area 1, continuing
into Area 2 to the south. In places the capstones were found to be 0.3m below the present road surface,
where disturbed material had been backfilled over and around the drain. This backfill (C.7) comprised
redeposited natural as well as archaeological material that had been cut through during construction.
The drain was constructed by first digging a north-south trench (C.8) that followed the natural gradi-
ent. In this, the side stones of the drain had been placed (C.9) (Figure 9). These consisted of partially
dressed granite stones, three of which comprised re-used rotary quern stone fragments (Figure 48). The
capstones (C.4) were angular granite and rectangular in plan (Figure 9). These were larger than the
side stones on which they rested. Occasionally, mortar was found between the capstones. The base of
the drain was not stone-lined in this area and internally the drain was 0.35m wide and 0.45m high.



Silt (C.5) had deposited over a soft stony base (C.10). The silt at the base (C.5) contained 19th century
pottery along with Medieval sherds which presumably originated from the backfilled soil (C.7)
7.1.2 Post Medieval
The stone-lined drain (C.8) truncated four pits (C.19, C.20, C.21 and C.23) uncovered within a 6m
length of trench (Chainage A4-A10 – Figure 10). The largest of these pits (C.19) (Plate 3) contained
two fills; the upper fill (C.15) produced a single sherd of 19th century stoneware and the basal fill
(C.18) contained inclusions of brick. Although not fully exposed within the excavated trench, this
sub-circular pit had an almost linear projecting cut from its south-eastern edge. It can only be specu-
lated that this represented yet another pit extending east. The upper fill (C.15) of the pit (C.19) was the
same as that which filled the next nearest pit cut (C.23). To the south lay two closely set pits (C.21 and
C.20 – Figure 10). One pit (C.21) contained a single fill (C.14) with a single cattle bone. The other pit
(C.20) contained three fills (C.13, C.16 and C.17), one of which (C.17) contained flecks of charcoal
and highly degraded bone (Plate 4).

Dating evidence for these four pits was non-existent, apart from a single sherd of Post-Medieval pot-
tery (04E0750:15:1). Therefore, due to the similarity of the pit fills and their proximity to one another,
a general Post-Medieval date was assigned. The four pits, considering their location, fills and cut shape,
were unlikely to have been utilised for storage of any kind. Furthermore, their function as either cess
pits or general rubbish pits was improbable for the same reasons. No evidence was found to relate these
pits to industrial processes. There was no indication of internal lining or re-cutting of the pits. Only
over pit C.20 does there appear to have been an attempt at sealing the opening which may signify
purposeful termination of use.

South of the pits, a layer of compact dark brown clay (C.11) overlay Medieval contexts. It contained a
single sherd of glazed red earthenware (04E0750:11:1) and may represent the up-cast from the stone-
lined drain cut (C.8). Alternatively, this was possibly an attempt to seal and stabilise the ground over
a large Medieval ditch (C.24).
7.1.3 Medieval
A total of three ditches (C.24, C.49, and C.51), four pits (C.59 C.43, C.41 and C.55) and five layers
(C.60, C.38, C.35, C.57 and C.53) were found in Area 1 relating to the Medieval period (Figures 11-
13). Three ditch cuts (C.24, C.49, and C.51) were found all following a similar alignment.

The northernmost ditch cut (C.24) was aligned north/northwest - south/southeast and a diagonal
length of 14m of this ditch was exposed along the trench (Plate 5). The angle of the ditch did not allow
the full width to be exposed within the trench. This was the most substantial of the Medieval ditches
in this area and contained nine fills (C.25, C.26, C.27, C.28, C.29, C.30, C.31, C.32 and C.33) (Fig-
ure 11). The uppermost three fills (C.25, C.26 and C.27) of the ditch were cut by the Early Modern
stone-lined drain (C.8). The final infill (C.25) contained 11 sherds of Medieval pottery and charcoal
flecks. Five sherds of Castledermot-type pottery came from this context. A further three sherds of Cas-
tledermot type could not be refitted and there was also a single sherd of Leinster cooking ware. This



redeposited natural fill (C.25) also contained two sherds of 18th-19th century glazed red earthenware
but these probably originated from the construction of the stone-lined drain (C.8) and so the fill is a
disturbed Medieval one. This uppermost ditch fill overlay two fills (C.27 and C.26) which both had
inclusions of animal bone, Medieval pottery (Figure 48) and iron nails. They collectively produced
45 sherds of Medieval pottery with a single sherd of Saintoinge ware. This, in conjunction with the
various Irish wares secured a 13th century date for the deposits (C.26 and C.27). The animal bone
recovered (C.27 and 26) mostly comprised large mammal bones and where identifiable these were of
cattle with a smaller percentage of goat bones. The lower of the two fills (C.27) once sieved produced
an abundance of wheat remains, with lesser amounts of barley and oats, alongside many weeds associ-
ated with arable agriculture.

The fill (C.28) beneath was thickest at the sides of the ditch, almost disappearing in the centre. This
yellow clayey sand probably represented a slump of the ditch edge during a winter season. This slump
contained no animal bone and insignificant amounts of plant remains. Underlying it, a clay fill (C.29)
again contained Medieval pottery and animal bone and this seemed to be the earliest intentional
deposit. The two sherds of local 13th century pottery that were recovered from this fill (C.29) were
refitted (Figure 48). Cattle bones again dominated the faunal assemblage and part of a human femur
was also recovered. The silty clay directly below (C.31) was dark but naturally formed and no artefacts
or bones were recovered from this fill. It overlay two fills, C.30 deposited along the western edge and
C.32 along the eastern edge. Both fills appeared to be redeposited naturals with only slight differences
and were probably both a product of winter in-wash or weathering.

The basal fill (C.33) was formed by the initial silting up of the base of the ditch. This was due to natural
processes, although a single sherd of Leinster Cooking Ware and two pieces of iron slag were recov-
ered and this dates the primary phase of the ditch to the late 12th or 13th centuries. Cattle, sheep/goat
and horse bones were recovered (C.33) in similar proportions to the fills above, but this basal fill also
produced pig bones.

A second ditch cut (C.49) was found to the south of the above ditch (C.24). This ditch (C.49) was
aligned southeast-northwest and a length of 2.7m was exposed (Plate 6). Due to the alignment of
the ditch within the trench, the complete width was not exposed. It was U-shaped in profile and was
never very substantial. The ditch was filled with two deposits (C.47 and C.48). The upper fill (C.47)
contained iron slag and three cattle bones. The basal fill (C.48) comprised soft silt and had formed
naturally. Approximately 5m south of this, another relatively wide but shallow ditch cut (C.51) was
discovered aligned southeast-northwest (Plate 7). A length of 4m of the ditch and its full width was
exposed. The single ditch fill (C.50 – Figure 12) contained a single sherd of 13th century pottery, a
single piece of iron slag and two metal artefacts.

Four pits (C.59 C.43, C.41 and C.55) (Figures 12 and 13 - Plate 7) found in Area 1 were assigned to
the Medieval period of which one could be interpreted as a rubbish pit. This pit (C.59) lay at the south-



ern end of Area 1 (Plate 7). It comprised a large oval cut which contained two fills (C.52 and C.58)
of sandy silt which collectively produced 13 sherds of Castledermot-type and Leinster cooking wares,
iron slag, an iron nail, animal bone and shells. The majority of the animal bone assemblage was identi-
fied and showed equal quantities of cattle, horse and sheep. No function could be associated with the
remaining three pits (C.43, C.41 and C.55) Two of these (C.43 and C.41) were close to one another
and contained shallow fills (C.42 and C.40). They were oval (C.41) and sub-rectangular (C.43 – Fig-
ure 13) in plan. No datable evidence was recovered in either instance. The northern edge of a fourth
pit (C.55 – Figure 12) had been cut by one of the shallow ditches (C.51). This pit contained a single fill
that again produced nothing that could determine its function. A Medieval date was assigned to this
due to its stratigraphic relationship with the ditch.

Also related to the Medieval period was a possible drainage gully (Plate 8). It comprised a linear cut
(C.45) which contained two fills (C.44 and C.46) that produced animal bone, but nothing indicative
of date. Cattle, horse and goat were poorly represented in the assemblage of animal bone recovered,
but five lamb bones relating to a single individual were found, along with a single bone of domestic
fowl. The silty nature of the fills, as well as the narrowness of the cut, suggested that this functioned
as a drain.

A single Medieval layer (C.60 – Figure 12), at the southern end of Area 1 had been truncated by the
rubbish pit (C.59) and therefore probably represented the old ground surface at the time the pit was
dug.

Several layers (C.38, C.35, C.57 and C.53) that sealed most of the Medieval features were either ar-
chaeologically sterile or heavily disturbed (Figures 12 and 13). Although a single sherd of 13th century
pottery was uncovered from one layers (C.38), their designation to the Medieval period is arguable.
However, the stratigraphic position of the layers supports a Medieval date, particularly in the case of
layer C.53 which also produced a quantity of iron slag. Another layer (C.35) also produced metal ar-
tefacts in the form of nails.
7.1.4 Miscellaneous
The mid point of the length of trench in Area 1 was characterised by an absence of definable features,
instead replaced with numerous layers (C.36, C.37 and C.39) of silt and clay (Figure 13). One of these
layers (C.36) contained an assortment of Early Modern ceramic material a clay pipe stem. These layers
were seemingly sealed beneath layers (C.38 and C.35) which produced Medieval dates. Therefore, the
lower layers (C.36, C.37 and C.39) must have been disturbed.

7.2 Area 2
(Figures 6-8 & 14-21, Plates 9-11)
Area 2 lies north of the market square and to the south of Area 1 and is similarly orientated north-
south (Figure 6). It is defined at its northern end by an east-west wall (C.387) and terminates in the
south at a substantial ditch (C.398) located in Area 3. The trench was 117m in length (between Chain-



age A93 and A210) and was on average 1.8m wide. A total of 97 contexts were recorded (detailed in
Appendix I).

As in Area 1, the overburden consisted of tar and gravels (C.1 and C.2) that formed the road surface
and this covered the entire trench. There was also a 19th century pit (C.63) with two sherds of pottery
(Figure 21), a 19th century drainpipe cut (C.69) and a layer (C.348).
7.2.1 Early Modern
The only feature relating to this period comprised a continuation of the stone-lined drain and its cut
(C.8) encountered in Area 1 (Figure 9). The morphology of the drain did not alter in any way apart
from the addition of angular flags (C.529) to the base (Figure 15). These appear to have substituted the
stony layer (C.10) which existed in Area 1. The drain ran from the northern end of Area 2 for a length
of 51m, where it connected with an identical drain which crossed the trench west to east. Therefore,
the drain (C.8) exited the trench on both the western and eastern baulks.
7.2.2 Post-Medieval
A number of layers (C.385, C.388, C.310 and C.361) and two pits (C.300 and C.314) were either
stratigraphically or artefactually linked to the Post-Medieval period. At the northern end of Area 2,
two layers (C.385 and C.388), cut by the Early Modern drain (C.8), were deemed to be post-Medi-
eval, although no artefacts confirmed this. They appear to have been deposited to level or stabilise the
ground surface and possibly indicated a single phase of deposition. Two further contexts (C.310 and
C.361) were also assigned to this period. A deposit (C.310) sealing a Medieval pit produced no arte-
facts but was stratigraphically well placed. Similarly, a layer (C.361) at the southern end of the trench
produced nothing to imply a date earlier than the post-Medieval period.

The largest of the two pits in Area 2 was clearly used as a rubbish pit (C.300 – Figure 14). This ovate
pit contained three fills (C.306, C.307 and C.308). The basal fill (C.308) contained an assortment of
Medieval and post-Medieval pottery, animal bone, charcoal and a clay pipe fragment. The 13th century
pottery must be residual from elsewhere. While cattle, sheep and pig bones were recovered in small
numbers, so too was a single bone from a dog. The purpose of the remaining pit could not be ascer-
tained. This was a partially exposed pit (C.314) contained a single fill (C.315). This pit was probably
sub-circular; it was quite shallow and the fill produced no datable evidence or indication of function.
7.2.3 Medieval
The Medieval remains in Area 2 comprised a stone wall (C.387), 28 pits (C.72, C.73, C.301, C.304,
C.312, C.316, C.320, C.323, C.327, C.329, C.337, C.331, C.365, C.366, C.67, C.74, C.78, C.79,
C.301, C.296, C.309, C.294, C.325, C.322, C.346, C.352, C.354 and C.356) and three layers
(C.362, C.363 and C.364).

The stone wall (C.387) (Figures 7, 15 and 16) located in the northern part of Area 2 had been badly
cut by, and incorporated into, the Early Modern stone-lined drain (C.8). Materials from the wall may
have been re-used in the construction of the drain. The wall was quite wide but low – only two courses
survived – and was aligned east-west with a slight orientation to the southeast. Constructed of reason-



ably large stones set with mortar, it probably represents the very lowest courses of the northern part
of the Medieval town wall. On the southern side of this wall (Plate 9), a layer of dark silt and stone
(C.386) had built up against it on the western side. This was possibly a surface layer contemporaneous
with the wall, but no artefactual evidence was found.

A complex arrangement of 28 Medieval pits (C.72, C.73, C.304, C.298, C.312, C.316, C.320, C.323,
C.327, C.329, C.337, C.331, C.365, C.366, C.67, C.74, C.78, C.79, C.301, C.296, C.309, C.294,
C.325, C.322, C.346, C.352, C.354 and C.356) were revealed to the south of the town wall (C.387)
and north of the market square, although most were only partially exposed (Figure 7). Of the 28 pits,
only 13 had a recognisable function and these were invariably used as refuse pits. Approximately 10m
south of the wall, two Medieval rubbish pits (C.72 and C.73) were uncovered (Figure 17). Pit C.72 had
three fills (C.68, C.70, and C.71). The middle fill (C.70) comprised a thin silty peat and this and the
basal fill (C.71) were possibly partially removed before the final fill was added. There were no artefacts,
although the basal fill (C.71) did indicate dumping of burnt material in the form of ash and stone. This
pit (C.72) cut a larger rubbish pit (C.73) which contained three fills (C.65, C.62 and C.61) of both
domestic and industrial refuse (Plate 10). A large stone lay at the base of the circular pit (C.73), around
which the basal fill (C.65) had built up and contained a single mammal bone, one piece of Castleder-
mot-type pottery and a metal fragment. The middle fill (C.62) was the most substantial and contained
almost 30 sherds of 13th century pottery of both Castledermot-type and Leinster cooking ware. This
fill (C.62) also produced two pieces of iron slag, two iron nails, animal bone and shell. The incidence
of bone was quite low but cattle made up the majority, then sheep, with pig and horse represented each
by a single bone. The pit was finally sealed with a redeposited natural (C.61) and two sherds of Castle-
dermot-type pottery were found as inclusions, but these may have been contaminants.

A pit (C.304) (Figure 18) on the eastern side of the trench contained two fills (C.305 and C.302). The
substantial basal fill (C.302) contained a cattle bone, an unidentifiable large mammal bone, a piece
of 13th century pottery and a fragment of a clay pipe. The basal fill also contained botanical remains
representing both cereal crops and weeds. The low incidence of plant remains and variety of other
artefacts indicate that this was probably a rubbish pit. This pit (C.304) was cut into the fill (C.303) of
a large rectangular pit (C.301 – discussed below). A shallow pit (C. 298) lay to the south. This was a
sub-circular cut containing a fill (C. 297) which produced Medieval pottery and small quantities of
sheep bone. The pottery here was again of Castledermot-type and Leinster cooking ware. Similarly,
the Medieval pit (C.312), which was truncated to the north, contained a single fill (C.313) of soft silt
with animal bone and a single sherd of Medieval pottery. Again, quantities of animal bone were low
but represented sheep and cattle. The pit cut appeared to have a smaller depression at its centre which
could potentially have had a purpose but its final function was as a refuse pit. Pit C.316 (Figure 19)
was a broad, shallow cut filled with dark silt (C.317). It contained small quantities of cattle and sheep
bones, occasional Medieval pottery and charcoal and plant remains. The plant remains represented the
usual weed elements alongside wheat, barley, oats and rye. However, this pit (C.316) also contained
the largest quantity of iron slag recovered from any of these pits – nine pieces reaching a total weight



of 4.9kg – suggesting that its final usage was as an industrial refuse pit.

A complex of six pits occurred further south in Area 2 (Figure 7). The first of these pits (C.320 - Figure
19) was ovate with a fill (C.319) that contained animal bone, botanical remains, several sherds of lo-
cal 13th century pottery and nearly a dozen pieces of iron slag. The plants represented included weeds,
peas, wheat and oats. The animal bone assemblage was large and 25% was clearly identified as cattle,
with a further 35% identified as large mammal. The remainder of the animal bone comprised sheep/
goat bone and suggests that the pit was used primarily for the disposal of domestic waste. This pit cut
another to the north (C.323 – Figure 19) which was of a similar size and filled with identical mate-
rial (C.318) as was found in pit C.320. The fill (C.318) did, however contain significantly less animal
bone with only a single cattle bone and one bone from domestic fowl identifiable. This fill (C.318) also
contained similar pottery in similar quantities. An ovate pit (C.327) again had a silt fill (C.326) with
occasional charcoal and Medieval pottery. Two sherds of Castledermot-type pottery were found here
(C.326). On the east side of the trench, two closely positioned pits (C.329 and C.337) occurred. The
sub-circular pit (C.329) continued beneath the eastern baulk and contained four fills. The uppermost
fills (C.334, C.335 and C.336) were varying silts possibly used to seal the pit. The basal fill (C.328)
comprised mixed silt with charcoal. This had marginally cut a second pit (C.337) which also had a
silt fill (C.349. These were probably rubbish pits. A large deep and wide sub-circular pit (C.331) lay to
the south. The uppermost fills (C.342 and C.343) were sterile clays and may have represented a re-cut
and backfill, or sealing layers. The basal fill (C.330) consisted of a soft dark material a single sherd of
Leinster cooking ware, some plant remains and iron slag. The basal fill (C.330) therefore places the pit
as early as the late 12th century. The plant remains here were scarce but signified wheat, barley, oats and
rye as well as weed elements. At the southern end, the lowest layer (C.364) also produced three pieces
of iron slag and filled two shallow cuts (C.365 and C.366). The cuts were no more than accentuated
depressions heavily defined by a large boulder located between them. These may have been utilised for
the deposition of industrial refuse but equally more perishable domestic refuse.

The function of the remaining pits in Area 2 (Figures 20 & 21) could not be determined. This was
possibly in part due to preservation levels but also because some were backfilled with sterile material
unrelated to their function. The first of these was a Medieval pit (C.67) that had been partially emptied
and possibly re-cut to accommodate a soft fill (C.64) which contained 7 sherds of Medieval pottery
and three large mammal bones (Figure 21). The original fill (C.76), which also spread over the edges
of the pit, consisted of firm sterile clay. This, it would seem, denoted the disuse and not the function of
the pit. Where this fill/layer spread southwards, it was cut by another pit (C.74 – Figure 21). This deep
pit contained a single soft fill (C.66) which produced a sherd of Medieval pottery and small numbers
of cattle and sheep bones but no indication of function. The pit was truncated by modern intrusions
to the south. Beyond this disturbance were two closely positioned pits (C.78 and C.79) (Figure 20).
The larger of the two was a sub-circular pit (C.78) with a single fill (C.56) that contained sherds of
13th century pottery (Plate 11). The fill (C.56) also produced a quantity of animal bone of which most
could not be identified clearly. Cattle, horse and sheep bones were found in almost equal numbers and



also a single pig bone.

Immediately to the south, pit C.79 also had a single fill of clay (C.75) that produced Medieval pottery
and small quantities of bone representing cattle, horse and sheep (Figure 20). The pottery comprised
three Irish wares which together signify an early 13th century date. A large sub-rectangular pit (C.301)
(Figure 18) was cut by C304, as well as being utilised in the construction of the Early Modern drain
junction (C.8). The pit contained a fill (C.303) of dark silt that included only occasional Medieval pot-
tery which was exclusively13th/14th century. The pit extended eastwards beyond the excavated trench
and no clear function was evident. Another pit (C.296) had a single fill (C.295) from which a single
sherd of Dublin-type coarse ware and two fragments of iron nails were recovered. Only the western half
of this sub-circular pit was exposed within the trench and no function could be assigned. On the east
side of the trench, a narrow pit (C.309) was partially exposed. It contained two fills (C.310 and C.311)
and only the basal layer (C.311) was Medieval and included 13th century pottery and charcoal.

At the mid-point of the trench in Area 2 was a shallow oval pit (C.294) containing a fill (C.293) of
dumped silt with inclusions of charcoal, a single piece of metal and Medieval pottery (Figure 14).
This had been compacted and was truncated by a modern pipe at the south. The ground was heavily
disturbed between this pit and the next pit to the south (C.312 – detailed above). A shallow rectan-
gular pit (C.325 – Figure 19) was cut by C.320 to the south. This was filled with silt (C.324), which
contained iron slag and two sheep bones. It cut a second pit (C.322) which had a slightly different fill
(C.321) with two sherds of Castledermot-type pottery. This area was also very much disturbed by a
modern pipe running along the western side of the trench. Further to the south, a pit (C.346) cut a
large rubbish pit (C.331 – detailed above). The fills (C.344 and C.345) within this pit (C.346) were
also similar to those found at the top of the large rubbish pit (C.342 and C.343); however, no datable
evidence was found in either of these two pit fills (C.334 and C.345). The pit (C.346) cut through
layers (C.347 and C.351) extending south. These same layers were also cut through further to the
south by a large pit (C.352). The cut extended both east and west beyond the limits of the trench but
the fills suggest that this was a pit. This cut held four fills (C.353, C358, C.359 and C.360). The basal
fill (C.360) was sealed by a sandy fill (C.359) over which silt (C.358) that contained pottery and one
small piece of iron slag was deposited. The pottery consisted of three sherds of Leinster cooking ware
and two sherds of Castledermot type and thus a probable 13th century date. While much of the animal
bone was unidentifiable, some was classified as cattle and sheep. The uppermost fill (C.353) produced
no artefacts and possibly acted as a disuse/sealing layer. Pit (C.354) was a sub-rectangular cut that
contained a pebbly sand fill (C.355). To the south, an oval pit (C.356) had also been cut through by
the large pit (C.352). The fill (C.357) produced a single sherd of Medieval pottery but was otherwise
quite sterile.

Medieval layers were uncovered at the southern end of Area 2. These layers (C.362, C.363 and C.364)
were deposited horizontally and the middle pebbly/sand layer (C.363) divided the other two which
were both of clay and contained 13th century pottery. They also both produced faunal remains; upper



clay layer (C.362) contained small numbers of sheep and pig bones while the lower layer (C.364) had
a single pig bone and three large mammal bones.

7.3 Area 3
(Figures 6-8 & 22-29, Plates 12-14)
Area 3 encompassed the market square, crossing the central point of the town, and was defined ar-
chaeologically by a large ditch (C.398) at the north end and a substantial wall (C.269) (Figure 6 and
22) at the south. This section of trench was 69m in length (between Chainage A210 and C116) and an
average of 1.8m wide. The trench was orientated north-south and a total of 66 contexts were recorded
(detailed in Appendix I). Many of these represented layers but also four walls (C.269, C.275, C.517
and C.524), a single pit (C.372) and two ditches (C.398 and C.281) were found (Figure 27). As in
Areas 1 and 2, the overburden here consisted of the modern road surface (C.1 and C.2) and a number
of modern layers, pipes and walls (C.368, C.367, C.287, C.525, C.239 and C. 271).
7.3.1 Early Modern
Due to the constant use of this area in recent times, few archaeological remains associated with the
Early Modern period were uncovered. However, in the south of the area (Figure 22), a large intrusion
(C.267) was found to be the fill over an east-west ceramic pipe. This intrusion consisted of disturbed
Medieval material which had been backfilled. The pipe backfill (C.267) was of compacted stone, mor-
tar and clay.

7.3.2 Post-Medieval
At the mid-point of Area 3, another large intrusion was found which consisted of a rubble layer (C.291)
overlying a deep and wide deposit (C.290) of sand and gravel. The base of this was below the required
invert level, but had cut well into natural subsoil. No datable evidence was found for this intrusion,
but owing to its size and regularity, the sterile nature of the fill and its absence from the cartographic
record, it was probably of Post-Medieval date or possibly even later.

Also dating to this period were layers (C.265 and C.264) located in the south of Area 3, C.265 overlay
C.264 (Figure 22). These strata were obviously deposited after the Medieval walls (C.269 and C.517
– Figure 22) had become defunct. The layers (C.265 and C.264) were highly disturbed and contained
12 sherds of Post-Medieval pottery (18th century), 35 clay pipe fragments and numerous metal arte-
facts, including 15 pieces of iron slag and a copper pin (Figure 52) and also a bone handle. The clay
pipe fragments consisted of 27 stem pieces and 11 bowls. Most of the metal pieces were iron nails. In
addition, large quantities of faunal remains were recovered from the two layers (C.264 and C.265).
While 37.5% of these could not be identified to species, cattle accounted for 43% and sheep were also
represented. One of these layers (C.264) produced two bones of domestic fowl along with five fish
bones (cod). The other layer (C.265) also contained two domestic fowl bones but also five bones of an
adult cat and a single sawn tip of an antler from red deer. Neither wild animals nor marine fish were
found in any of the other areas of the excavation and this highlights the diversity found at the market
place. Further diversity of this location can be identified from a comparison between the archaeologi-



cal test trenches (Lynch 2002) and the pipeline trench evidence. Test trenches 4 and 5 at the west
of the market square revealed varying stratigraphy and the presence of a metalled surface in trench
4 (ibid. 10). This surface produced 18th century pottery, but was not found in either trench 5 or the
excavation covered in this report.
7.3.3 Medieval
The Medieval remains from the centre of the town consisted of substantial walls (C.517, C.524, C.269
and C.275), two ditch cuts (C.398 and C.281), a pit (C.372) in addition to dumped layers and disused
ground surfaces (C.519, C.520, C.521, C.522, C.526, C.400, C.399, C.403, C.402, C.379, C.406,
C407, C.405, C.404, C.375, C.377, C.378, C.376, C.380, C.369, C. 332, C. 333, C.370, C.371,
C.350, C.368, C.288, C.278, C.279 and C.280).

The Medieval walls were situated in the south of Area 3. The first of these Medieval walls (C.517) was
orientated east-west and cornered at the west of the trench with a wall (C.524) extending south (Figure
23, plate 12). This right angled corner was clearly interwoven and both walls were contemporaneous.
The east-west wall (C.517) comprised a total of 11 courses of granite stone set in sandy mortar (Figure
24). The stone size varied but was more substantial on the north face and here only six courses were
apparent. This wall (C.517) was situated on a slight terrace that had been cut into the sloping natural
subsoil to the north (C.289). Underlying the Medieval layer (C.288), the natural subsoil (C.289) had
subsequently collapsed southwards, compressing the original cut fill (C.523) against the wall. There-
fore, this east-west wall (C.517) had partially been beneath the original ground level to the north. The
connecting north-south wall (C.524) lay mostly outside the exposed area of the trench and tapered
into the baulk to the southwest, 1.7m from the corner (Figure 22). The upper courses of this wall were
less disturbed than those of the east-west wall (C.517) and appeared to be slightly finer and well fitted,
but the full elevation could not be exposed due to layers banked up against it. No trace of a batter was
evident on either wall. Both walls were very substantial and must have been quite significant during
the Medieval period. Overlying the walls was a layer of disturbed rubble (C.525) (Figure 22), presum-
ably originating from the underlying masonry.

The wall (C.269) in the southern part of Area 3 (Figure 26) was aligned east-west and formed a corner
with a north-south wall (C.275) on the eastern side. The east-west wall (C.269) was well faced, up to
six courses high and was constructed with granite stones of various sizes and shapes set with mortar
(Plates 13 & 14). On the southern side of this wall (C.269), a foundation trench was found (C.272)
which cut into natural subsoil (Figure 26). This contained a fill (C.270) that produced Medieval pot-
tery, glass, four cattle bones, a bone from a dog and a single piece of iron slag. This was somewhat dis-
turbed however, as a single sherd of 18th century mottled ware had found its way into the fill (C.270).
The other eight sherds were of 13th century date. This was broadly comparable with the fill (C.523) that
was found between the natural and north face of wall C.517. The north-south wall (C.275) extended
northwards and was only exposed here as the trench width had been extended to facilitate a proposed
manhole. The two walls were of similar height but the north-south wall (C.275) appeared to have been
an addition and was not as neatly constructed. It mostly consisted of sub-rounded granite boulders,



mortared and packed into place and these were not interwoven with the east-west wall. Both of these
walls (C.269 and C.275) were truncated by modern pipe cuts along both section faces. The walls were
not excavated and have been preserved in situ (Plates 13 & 14).

On the south of the walls (C.517 and C.524) in the northern part of the trench a number of layers
(C.519, C.520, C.521, C.522 and C.526) had built up against the corner, inside the angle created by
the intersecting walls (Figure 22). The uppermost layer (C.519) consisted of stones with frequent mor-
tar. Underlying this, a burnt layer (C.520) that contained Medieval pottery and fragments of plaster
overlay two layers (C.521 and C.522) of silt and redeposited natural that contained mortar. The pottery
from the burnt layer (C.520) comprised a single sherd of Leinster cooking ware of late 12th century/13th
century. A lense (C.526) of burnt material occurred below this at the base of the wall (C.517). These
layers were truncated by the later insertion of a pipe to the south (C.267). Beyond this intrusion, the
burnt layer (C.520) continued as C.274, getting shallower and then thicker again as it abutted the wall
to the south (C.269 – Figure 22). The rubble and stone layer (C.519) appeared to continue as debris
layers (C.268) which also terminated at the southern wall (C.269). Although truncated, the burnt lay-
ers (C.520 and C.274) appeared to relate to in situ burning between the two east-west walls (C.269
and C.517) and the presence of plaster seemed to support this. The scarcity of finds would also indicate
that this may not have been accidental. The overlying rubble debris layers (C.519 and C.268) were also
contained between the east-west walls (C.269 and C.517). This suggested that the walls (C.517, C.524
and C.269) were contemporaneous and had probably burned internally before they were demolished.

At the north end of Area 3 (Figure 7), a large ditch cut (C.398 - Figure 27) aligned east-west was dis-
covered and a length of 1.8m was exposed as well as its complete width. It contained six fills (C.390,
C.394, C.395, C.396, C.397 and C.401) all of which consisted of silt except for the uppermost fill
(C.390) which was possibly a sealing layer and contained four sherds of Medieval pottery, one of which
came from a French jug. This fill (C.390) also spread to the north and south of the ditch and acted as
a significant ground levelling layer (Figure 27). One of the middle fills (C.395) produced 6 sherds of
local Medieval pottery. This fill (C.395/4) indicated various plant remains of weeds along with lower
incidences of oats and barley. Below this, another fill (C.396) contained plant remains which were
possible more representative of the economy. Here (C.396), the various weeds were present but also
abundant oats with less barley and wheat. The basal fill (C.397) of the ditch was similar to the other
fills in that it contained charcoal flecks and 13th century pottery. This layer also produced iron slag,
as did the sandy lense below it (C.401). The ditch cut (C.398) was sharpest on the north side where
layers (C.391, C.392 and C.393) had been deposited to the north while the ditch was partially filled.
These surface layers (C.391, C.392 and C.393) had in part slumped into the ditch (C.398). Their likely
purpose was to stabilise the northern ground surface before the deposition of C.390 and were thereby
contemporaneous with the use of the ditch. Only a single iron artefact was recovered from one of these
layers (C.392). The southern edge of the ditch cut (C.398) was a gentle slope.

Forty-three metres to the south of ditch (C.298) another Medieval ditch cut (C.281) was revealed (Fig-



ure 28). Only the southern side of this ditch survived and it was aligned roughly northeast-southwest.
Just 1.8m of the ditch was exposed and its full width could not be ascertained. The southern side of
the ditch cut (C.281) appeared to have a stepped element to it. The ditch cut contained six fills (C.292,
C.282, C.283, C.284, C.285 and C.286) mainly consisting of various soft silts deposited horizontally
(Figure 28). Two fills (C.282 and C.284) produced animal bone; the uppermost fill (C.284) also
contained three sherds of Medieval pottery. The animal bones present in the fills (C.282 and C.284)
comprised largely unidentifiable remains although a single bone of cattle, horse and dog were noted.
Two layers (C.282 and C.283) produced identifiable plants remains. These comprised mostly of wheat,
then barley and oats, with associated arable weeds. A single occurrence of rye was noted (C.282).

Underlying a Medieval layer (C.369) was the only defined pit (C.372) within Area 3, approximately
half of which was exposed. The pit contained two fills (C.373 and C.374) both of which produced
flecks of charcoal but insufficient amounts to form any conclusion as to its original function. It is likely
that the pit was backfilled with relatively sterile material once out of use.

The remaining layers encountered in Area 3 (C.400, C.399, C.403, C.402, C.379, C.406, C.407,
C.405, C.404, C.375, C.377, C.378, C.376, C.380, C.369, C. 332, C. 333, C.370, C.371, C.350,
C.368, C.288, C.278, C.279 and C.280) represented the continuous use of the area during the Me-
dieval period and provided a backdrop for the more distinguishable features found (Figure 29). The
northern ditch (C.398) had truncated two earlier layers (C.400 and C.399) to the south. These lay-
ers produced no datable evidence apart from their stratigraphic position. The uppermost of the two
(C.400) consisted of a burnt stratum that contained wheat, oats, wild radish and other weeds. These
layers (C.400 and C.399) appeared to have been dumped into a natural depression (C.800) while
C.399 extended further south before terminating against layers C.403 and C.402. These layers (C.403
and C.402) were also banked up against naturals to the south, but it seemed likely that the natural
depression (C.801) had been cut and redefined at the northern edge. These charcoal flecked layers
(C.403 and C.402) overlay two other layers (C.379 and C.406). One peaty layer (C.406), which
contained only occasional flecks of charcoal, had slumped down the southern slope of the natural
depression (C.801) while the other layer (C.379) produced significant quantities of cattle and sheep
bones. This layer (C.379) also contained four sherds of 13th century local pottery and also three pieces
of iron slag and a nail. These layers (C.402, C.403, C.406 and C.379) were in turn associated with
further deposits (C.407, C404 and C.405). Collectively, the deposition of these layers (C.379, C.404,
C.407, C.403, C.405, and C.402) probably served to fill the depression (C.801) while simultaneously
disposing of burnt materials. Stratigraphically, all the layers were Medieval but they did not produce
datable artefacts.

One of the deposits (C.379) that had slid into the above natural depression (C.801) and continued
south below a soft silt layer (C.375 - same as C.390) and both contained Medieval pottery and animal
bone (see above). The botanical remains from this layer (C.375) also signified wheat, oats and barley
along with many weed elements. The upper layer C.375 also included a piece of iron slag. Two lenses



(C.377 and C.378) of ash and charcoal were deposited within, and during, the build up of layer C.375,
highlighting individual deposition events. One of theses lenses (C.377) indicated an abundance of
dock weed and insignificant amounts of cereal crops. Underlying the substantial layer (C.375), two
more layers (C.376 and C.380) again filled a natural hollow (C.802) which may have been accentu-
ated and cut at the northern edge. The lower of these (C.380) was naturally formed silt, while the
other (C.376) contained charcoal and one piece of iron slag which was presumably dumped. It also
contained a quantity of wheat, oats and peas and relatively little else.

To the south, a substantial layer (C.369) occurred that was comparable to the previous sealing lay-
ers (C.375 and C.390) and contained a sherd of Medieval pottery which is possibly late 12th century
(Figure 29). Natural subsoil sloped down from this point (Chainage A230) southwards and levelled
off at about 2.8m below the present ground surface. Here, five layers (C.332, C.333, C.370, C.371
and C.350) were found between this point and the mid-point of the trench where they had been trun-
cated by Post-Medieval gravel (C.290). Two of these layers (C.350 and C.333 – Figure 29) contained
animal bones identified as cattle and sheep. A pipe cut (C.367) had removed much of the higher layers
(C.368 and C.369). As the natural slope fell away to the south, a layer of redeposited natural (C.370)
overlay a layer of pebbles and sand (C.371) which had been deposited to stabilise or elevate the ground
surface (Figure 29). Two brown silty layers (C.332 and C.333) overlay this and stretched southwards.
Together, these layers (C.332 and C.333) contained 125 sherds of Medieval pottery, eight pieces of iron
slag, two iron nails and one small copper piece. The lower of the two layers (C.333) produced Leinster
cooking ware (Figure 49), many sherds of Castledermot-type and two sherds of Redcliffe supplying a
mid to late 13th century date. This rich layer (C.333) preserved plant remains representing a dominance
of wheat, then oats and barley. There was occasional evidence of peas and rye along with weeds associ-
ated with agriculture. The upper layer (C.332) produced 53 sherds. These were the same as were found
in the lower layer but also Medieval French wares. This layer (C.332) must have been disturbed to
some degree as two of the pottery sherds were of 18th century date. In addition the two layers contained
recognisable faunal remains represented pig, cattle and sheep in that order Evidently, the layers were
somewhat disturbed but appear to represent an active Medieval market place. They overlay a firm clay
layer (C.350) that contained charcoal and filled the undulations found on the natural surface.

The southern ditch (C.281 – Figure 28) described above and its fills were sealed by a layer (C.288)
generally comparable to the previous Medieval sealing layers (C.369, C.375 and C.390). This layer
contained 10 sherds of Castledermot-type Medieval pottery and occasional flecks of shell. It ran south
to the north face of the first Medieval wall (C.517) in Area 3. Above C.288, three layers (C.278, C.279
and C.280) abutted this wall. The uppermost of these layers (C.278) comprised collapse from the wall
(same as C.525) and this overlay very late deposits of stones and Medieval refuse.

[N.B. The trench section where the walls were encountered was opened on two separate occasions. They were
not excavated initially due to the possibility of preservation in situ. When this was deemed impossible, the
trench was re-opened. To ensure that recording was not compromised, new context numbers were assigned.



Essentially, several contexts received duplicate numbers. The various context numbers were cross-referenced
at the post-excavation stage. Numbers may therefore appear confusing without consultation with the context
register (Appendix 1) or Stratigraphic Matrix].

7.4 Area 4
(Figures 6-8 & 30-38, Plates 15-17)
Area 4 was the longest trench section and stretched from the southern wall of Area 3 (C.269) to a
large pit (C.164) in Area 5. It therefore sampled the southern area of Castledermot town and was
orientated north-south. It ran a total length of 306m, between Chainage C116 and B190, and was on
average 1.8m wide (Figure 6). A total of 118 contexts were recorded (detailed in Appendix I) and these
represented two ditches (C.253 and C.229), 32 pits (C.252, C.246, C.87, C.90, C.95, C.97, C.109,
C.111, C.118, C.120, C.126, C.134, C.136, C.258, C.233, C.146, C.141, C.169, C.262, C263, C.235,
C.237, C.238, C.101, C.93, C.106, C.113, C.257, C.250, C.124, C.150 and C.156) and a linear cut
(C.132). The overburden, as in the other areas, consisted of the road surface tar (C.1) and associated
bedding gravel (C.2) and these covered the entire length of the trench. Beneath these, further modern
intrusions in the form of modern pipes (C.239, C.107, C.157 and C.158) were recorded.
7.4.1 Early Modern
Two features that related to the Early Modern period were found in Area 4. Both had been noted in
previous areas. The first of these was a cobble surface (C.3) which probably related to an early road
surface also found in Areas 1 and 2. As before, this was only preserved on the western side of the trench
due to the profile of the surface. In Area 4 it was more extensive than before, preserved for lengths of
69m (Chainage B21 – B90) and 17m (Chainage B95 – 112). The second Early Modern feature in Area
4 was the stone-lined drain (C.8) which was also exposed in Areas 1 and 2. In Area 4, the drain was
assigned a different context number (C.81) but all other aspects of the feature remained the same. The
only exception was that the drain was deeper than before, as would be expected with a gravity drain.
The drain ran north-south and entered the trench from the western baulk (Chainage C40) but drifted
across to the eastern side of the trench. It continued into Area 5; over 230m of the drain was encoun-
tered in Area 4. The capstones (C.4) and the side-stones (C.9) were revealed at a number of locations
throughout the trench and matched previous descriptions of the drain (see Area 1). The base of the
drain remained covered with flagstones as had last been recorded in Area 2.
7.4.2 Post-Medieval
This period was represented by 18 pits (C.252, C.246, C.87, C.90, C.95, C.97, C.101, C.109, C.111,
C.120, C.126, C.134, C.136, C.258, C.233, C.146, C.141 and C.169) which began to occur at Chain-
age C46 (Figures 7, 34-37). The northern portion of Area 4 was very disturbed by a parallel pipe cut
(C.239), below which redeposited natural (C.803) overlay natural subsoil. This redeposited natural
could have been deposited during any period and contained no finds. Ordinarily, the features in this
area were either truncated by the stone-lined drain (C.81) or were only partially exposed within the
limits of the trench.

Of the 18 pits examined, 13 could be assigned a specific function and these invariably served as rub-



bish pits. Two pits (C.252 and C.246) of similar size were in close proximity to one another (Figures
30 and 34). The first pit (C.252) cut the other and contained two fills (C.247 and C.248). Both fills
produced clay pipe fragments and the lower fill (C.248) had inclusions of brick and stone. The both
fills (C.247 and C.248) also produced significant quantities of cattle bones and to a lesser extent sheep
bones. The second pit (C.246) contained four fills (C.242, C.243, C.244 and C.245) and was sealed
by a fifth (C.241). All of these, including the sealing layer, had been truncated by the previous pit
(C.252). The sealing layer (C.241) was similar to a lower fill (C.243), which probably also acted as a
sealing fill. The basal fill (C.245) was also quite sterile. The other fills (C.242 and C.244) were more
organic and contained inclusions of burnt material. Only one fill (C.243) produced Post-Medieval
pottery dating to the 18th century and this pit was most likely a refuse pit, possibly for the disposal of
organic matter (i.e. cess).

Over 30m to the south, two possible refuse pits occurred (C.90 and C.87 – Figure 31). The first pit
(C.90) contained a single fill (C.83) and had been re-cut (C.87). The pit fill (C.83) contained charcoal,
animal bone, two small pieces of iron slag and Post-Medieval pottery. The animal bone comprised
three cattle bones, a fragment of horse pelvis and eight unidentifiable medium sized mammals. The
ceramics found were two sherds of 18th century pottery and a roof tile of similar date. The re-cut pit
(C.87), which truncated C.83, contained two fills (C.82 and C.88) of pebbly sand with metal and
animal bone over a thin layer of redeposited natural (C.806). One of these fills (C.82) also contained
cattle bones and the only instance of rabbit bone.

Further refuse pits (C.95 and C.97) occurred beneath the cobble layer (C.3). The first of these (C.95)
was an irregular pit cut filled with sand (C.94) that contained mortar, charcoal, a single sheep bone
and an iron nail. This appeared to have been a general rubbish pit. The second pit (C.97) (Figure 35)
contained two silt fills (C.96 and C.84) both of which contained cattle bone and an assortment of
Medieval and Post-Medieval ceramics. The pottery in the upper fill (C.96) was mostly 18th century but
also included local Medieval wares. The lower layer (C.84) produced three Medieval sherds and only a
single sherd of black glazed ware. The early pottery would appear to have been residual in this instance.
The basal fill (C.84) also contained a number of sheep and large unidentified mammal bones. The fills
indicated its general use as a rubbish pit. The southern part of the pit was truncated by an east-west
water pipe. Further south, a pit (C.101) (Figure 35) that contained two fills (C.103, C.102 and C.100)
of sandy silt the lower of which produced assorted post-Medieval and Medieval pottery. Again the pot-
tery included three sherds of Medieval date and a single sherd of 18th century. This pit also contained
a clay pipe stem and sparse cattle bone and was probably used as a rubbish pit.

A further two pits (C.109 and C.111 – Plate 15, Figure 36) lay in close proximity to one another
beneath a deposit of sandy silt (C.86). The first pit (C.109) was sub-rectangular and contained a fill
(C.108) that produced mortar, glass, a clay pipe fragment and four sherds of Post-Medieval pottery, but
also 4 sherds of Medieval pottery. Two glass fragments found with iridescent surfaces and one of these
(04E0750:108:2) had a raised edge which suggested that the ‘muff’ method had been used in produc-



tion. Therefore, a date of range of late Medieval to Post-Medieval can be applied to this glass. Another
sub-rectangular pit (C.111) contained a similar fill (C.110) that produced a fragment of clay pipe, glass,
and two sherds of 18th century pottery, brick and an iron key. These pits were found at approximately
the same depth and all contained fills easily interpreted as Post-Medieval rubbish.

Another pit of similar depth (C.120) again lay directly under the cobbles (C.3) and contained three
fills (C.119, C.121 and C.127). This was truncated in the centre by electricity cables. The two largest
fills (C.119 and C.121) produced a quantity of animal bone and over 25 domestic and industrial metal
artefacts dating to the Post-Medieval period. The upper fill (C.119) produced a single glass fragment
probably of Post-Medieval date (04E0750:119:11) and this was complimented by five sherds of 18th cen-
tury pottery. It also contained seven clay pipe fragments. The middle fill (C.121) produced 23 sherds
of pottery, five of which were Medieval and most likely residual. Similarly, the glass was an assortment
of probable Medieval (04E0750:121:80) and Post-Medieval (04E0750:121:81/82). It also produced 34
clay pipe stems and two bowls. The faunal remains here (C.121) showed a high incidence of cattle but
sheep and pig were also represented. The basal fill (C.127) was a sandy redeposited natural. This pit
was obviously used for the disposal of materials but the middle fill included disturbed material. Where
the cobbles (C.3) ended, a shallow pit (C.126) lay directly below the road gravels (C.2). This was filled
with stony clay (C.125) that contained six sherds of Post-Medieval pottery, two iron nails and a clay
pipe fragment, cattle bones, a single bird bone and was also a rubbish pit.

Forty five metres to the south, a pit (C.134) with a single fill (C.133) produced animal bone, four
sherds of Post-Medieval pottery and a single sherd of Medieval pottery, two large pieces of iron slag
and charcoal (Plate 16). The small quantity of animal bone represented sheep and goat. This was sealed
by redeposited natural (C.803) which might signify that it served as a domestic rubbish pit. Alterna-
tively, the redeposited natural may have been thrown up from the drain cut (C.81).

Approximately 20 metres south, a sub-rectangular pit cut (C.136) (Figure 37) contained four fills
(C.135, C.137, C.147, and C.148). Only a small portion of this relatively deep pit was exposed in the
trench. All the fills comprised clay and the top and bottom fills (C.135 and C.148) contained sherds
of pottery. The top fill (C.135) produced only 18th century pottery and three clay pipe stems while the
basal fill (C.148) produced one sherd of Medieval pottery and a single clay pipe stem. However, this
Medieval sherd must have been residual as four other types of pottery and a roof tile were recovered
dating the fill to the late 18th century. The sealing fill (C.135) contained an abundant faunal assem-
blage of which most could not be identified to species. Cattle were most frequently represented, then
sheep, with a single pig bone recognised. Beneath, another fill (C.137) contained three cattle bones
and an iron nail while the lowest fills (C.147 and C.148) produced insignificant amounts of bone, only
one of which could be identified as cattle. The fill (C.147) which overlay the basal fill (C.148) may have
comprised redeposited natural subsoil. This again may suggest that it functioned as a rubbish pit even
though the fills were not particularly rich.



In all, five pits (C.258, C.233, C.146, C.141 and C.169 – Figures 7, 34 and 37) from the Post-Medieval
horizon contained fills which denoted disuse as opposed to a specific function. The first of these was a
pit (C.258) which lay beneath Post-Medieval deposits. This was an elongated shallow cut containing
a single fill (C.259) of redeposited natural. It produced no datable evidence and implied no specific
function. An oval pit (C.233 – Figure 33 and 34) contained two fills (C.231 and C.232) both of which
consisted of clays. Flecks of mortar and brick were evident in the upper fill (C.231) and sparse remains
of cattle and horse bones evident in the lower fill (C.232) but nothing clearly indicative of date or
function was recovered.

A further two pits (C.146 and C.141) (Figure 37) were sealed by the same compact fill (C.129). This
fill of silty sand (C.129) contained faunal remains and cattle, horse and sheep were identified. It also
produced four iron nails. The smaller of the two pits (C.141) - which may have been truncated by the
larger pit - contained three fills (C.138, C.139 and C.140). The fills were unusual in that they com-
prised redeposited natural over clay fills; the middle fill (C.139) contained a clay pipe stem and a pipe
bowl. The redeposited natural fill (C.138) implied that it had sealed perishable materials, but this does
not seemed to have been the case. Pit C.146 possibly cut through the upper layers of the previous pit.
This was filled by four deposits (C.142, C.144, C.145 and C.143), two of which were sandy fills tipped
from the sides (C.142 and C.144).One of these fill (C.144) produced a single cattle bone. The basal
fill (C.145) appeared to have silted up naturally while the thickest fill (C.143) contained only a single
Post-Medieval pottery sherd and a slate. The fills did not indicate any obvious function. The final pit
in Area 4 associated with the Post-Medieval period was C.169. This was an oval or linear cut with a
single fill (C.168) of clay and stones which provided no evidence as to the pit’s function.
A large proportion of the post-Medieval pits in Area 4 did not possess the preservation levels necessary
for full interpretation. However, the majority of the pits appear to have been used for the disposal of
domestic and industrial refuse.
7.4.3 Medieval
Evidence relating to the Medieval period was concentrated within a 100m length in the centre of
Area 4 (Figures 7, 34-36). Medieval remains comprised two ditch cuts (C.253 and C.229) and 13 pits
(C.262, C263, C.235, C.237, C.238, C.93, C.106, C.118, C.113, C.257, C.250, C.150 and C.124).
In every instance, features were truncated by the drain (C.81) or only partially exposed within the
trench.

The first ditch (C.253) identified in Area 4 was aligned east-west and contained three fills (C.254,
C.255 and C.256) (Figure 32). The orientation was somewhat uncertain as only a length of 1.15m was
exposed within the trench, but the full width was traced. The northern edge of the cut was gradual
but irregular, while the south side was vertical. The upper fill (C.254) contained 16 sherds of Medieval
pottery. The middle fill (C.255) similarly produced almost 50 sherds of pottery and two iron nails.
The Medieval pottery was mostly of Castledermot-type but a single sherd of Post-Medieval pottery
was also recovered from this fill (C.255) and must be considered a contaminant. The basal fill (C.256)
was softer than those above it (C.255 and C.254) but contained very similar artefacts, including two



sherds of 13th century pottery. This basal fill also produced two iron nails and an unidentifiable piece
of metal. Clay pipe fragments were also present and are likely contaminants. The three fills (C.254,
C.255 and C.256) produced abundant faunal remains. Cattle were again most dominant, then sheep,
pig and horse. One bone from domestic fowl was also recovered from the basal fill (C.256). The func-
tion of the ditch (C.253) was not obvious, especially owing to the difference between the north and
south edges and its general location within the town. It was clear however, that the disuse of this ditch
occurred during the Medieval period and possibly related to enclosing elements developed prior to the
town walls.

Less than 30m to the south, another ditch cut (C.229 – Figure 33) was encountered which contained
two fills (C.228 and C.230). It was heavily truncated by both an east-west drain (C.805) and the
stone-lined drain (C.81). The ditch cut (C.229) was aligned east-west with vertical sides. Only a length
of 1m was exposed (east-west) but the full width was visible. Both fills seemed to have been tipped
in from the northern side and consisted of clays together containing over 20 sherds of 13th century
Castledermot-type pottery. The upper fill (C.228) also produced animal bone and where preservation
allowed, these were identified as cattle.

The majority of the Medieval pits in Area 4 (C.262, C263, C.235, C.237, C.238, C.93, C.106, C.118
and C.113) appeared to have been used as rubbish pits (Figures 31 and 34-36). Two of these (C.262
and C.263) were filled with very similar material. The northern pit (C.262) had a fill that contained no
datable evidence but was comparable to the single fill (C.260) contained in the larger pit (C.263). This
pit fill (C.260) produced a sherd of Medieval pottery and shell. It also had a lense of organic material
within the fill and large stones were located at the base. The size, shape and fill of the pit suggested
it may have functioned as some form of disposal pit. Three pits (C.235, C.237, and C.238) lay to the
south and all contained the same fill (C.234) (Figure 34). These pits collectively produced 10 sherds of
13th/14th century Medieval pottery, as well as a single piece of iron slag, a threaded nail, animal bone
and flora material. The faunal remains found mostly represented cattle with only traces of sheep and
horse. This general fill (C.234) contained plants remains of almost equal amounts of wheat, barley and
oats with lesser quantities of weeds represented. The pit in the centre (C.237) contained a further two
fills (C.236 and C.240) both of which produced small quantities of Medieval pottery. The upper of
these (C.236) contained blackberry seeds but little else. The basal fill here also contained a glass frag-
ment of Medieval date (04E0750:240:2) but also a clay pipe fragment. The pits seemed to have been
filled with dumped material.

To the south, a pit (C.93 – Figure 31) contained three fills (C.80, C.91, and C.92). The uppermost fill
(C.80) contained two sherds of Medieval pottery, three clay pipe fragments, 10 small pieces of iron
slag and a slate (04E0750:80:1). Faunal remains were also recovered and identified as cattle with a
single pig bone. The lower fills contained stones and flecks of mortar, possibly signifying the disposal
of construction material.



Further south, a pit (C.106) contained two Medieval fills (C.104 and C.105) of dark silt and brown
clay (Figure 36). These contained 29 sherds of 13th century pottery (Figure 49), over 1kg of iron slag,
iron nails and animal bone. Although much of the faunal material could not be identified, the major-
ity represented sheep, then pig, cattle and horse. Low incidences of cereal crops and weeds were also
recovered from one of the fills (C.104). The abundance and variety of material recovered from the
fills would seem to indicate this functioned as a general rubbish pit. To the south of this, a Medieval
pit (C.118) had cut another pit (C.113) (Figure 35). This cut (C.118) contained a soft clay fill (C.117)
which produced a single cattle bone and a single sherd of local Medieval pottery. Truncated, the pit
C.113 contained four fills (C.115, C.116, C.114, and C.112). The upper fills were of clay and sand
(C.115, C.116 and C.114) and had been tipped over the silt basal fill (C.112) which contained animal
bone, a sherd of Medieval pottery, and clay pipe fragments. The animal bone consisted of cattle, sheep
and pig. It appeared to signify a general rubbish pit.

Only four pits (C.257, C.250, C.150 and C.124) that were assigned to the Medieval period could not
be interpreted. The first of these was a small pit (C.257) that had been filled by the middle fill (C.255)
of the ditch (C.253 – Figure 32) and therefore was Medieval in date but no obvious function could be
assigned. Similarly, a pit (C.250) to the south contained a single fill (C.251) that produced one sherd of
local Medieval pottery and meagre amounts of wheat, oats and barley. The pit cut was shallow and an
obvious function could not be assigned. A large pit (C.150 – Figure 38) near the mid point of Area 4
was heavily truncated by a water mains and the stone-lined drain (C.81). The surviving portion of the
pit was only 0.7m wide but it contained five fills (C.159, C.149, C.151, C.152 and C.153) to a depth of
1.1m from its edge. The final fill (C.159) was deposited on the southern side of the pit and contained 16
sherds of Medieval pottery, one of which was Leinster cooking ware and the remainder Castledermot-
type pottery, together providing a 13th/14century overlap. The pit was sealed with a layer of redeposited
natural (C.149) and this contained both a sherd of Castledermot-type pottery and animal bone. The
animal bone represented cattle, but also horse and sheep. Beneath this, a sterile lens (C.151) covered
the primary fills (C.152 and C.153) of clay which collectively contained a variety of nine sherds of 13th
century pottery. These fills mostly consisted of sands and clays with little indication of the pits origi-
nal use, although the basal fill (C.153) did produce cattle bone, some sheep bone and a metal nail. In
the south of Area 4, another pit (C.124 – Plate 17) contained two fills (C.122 and C.123). The upper
stony fill (C.122) produced a single sherd of Medieval pottery and two sheep bones and this sealed silt
(C.123) which contained a cattle bone.

The Medieval pits encountered in Area 4 were morphologically similar to those that were deemed Post-
Medieval in date. However, the Medieval pits did not show the same consistency of depth and the
fills were slightly more organic in content. The existence of the Early Modern drain (C.81) may have
impacted upon the level of preservation encountered across the area. Nevertheless, it is highly plausible
that the majority of the Medieval pits related to the disposal of domestic refuse.
7.4.4 Miscellaneous
Two features uncovered could not be assigned a particular period. The first of these was an east-west



linear cut (C.132) that was filled by three deposits (C.128, C.130 and C.131). All fills signified that
this was a drainage gully and a single metal object and five animal bones, one identified as horse, were
recovered. The second feature was a pit (C.156) which contained a single fill (C.155) that produced a
piece of iron slag and three cattle bones. Although heavily truncated, it is likely that this pit was used
during either the Post-Medieval or later Medieval period.

7.5 Area 5
(Figures 6-8 & 39-43, Plates 18-20)
Area 5 covered a section of trench in the south of the town adjacent to the modern convent. This was
the general area where it was speculated that the southern expanse of the Medieval town wall would
be intersected. The trench, orientated north-south, was 55m long (between Chainage B190 and B245)
and usually 1.8m wide (Figure 6). A total of 72 contexts were recorded and these represented three
walls (C.208, C.215 and C.507), two ditches (C.216 and C.509), five pits (C.164, C.176, C.178 and
C.202) a linear feature (C.165) and 33 layers (C.160, C.172, C.203, C.182, C.183, C.204, C.205,
C.217, C.408, C.409, C.410, C.411, C.412, C.413, C.173, C.175, C.200, C.192, C.506, C.224,
C.221, C.198, C.199, C.195, C.194, C.528, C.184, C.185, C.186, C.188, C.189, C.190 and C.191).
The overburden consisted of the road surface tar (C.1) and the associated road make-up (C.2) and
these covered the entire length of the trench as before. Beneath these layers were a number of modern
pipes, including a large north-south water drain (C.527). The pipe occupied the same trench space as
the stone-lined drain (C.8/C.81) once had, replacing the Early Modern drain (C.8/C.81) in 1947 ac-
cording to local information. This large pipe continued into Areas 6 and 7.
7.5.1 Early Modern
The stone-lined drain (C.8/C.81 – Figure 9) continued into Area 5 for 45m (see Area 4 above for de-
scription). Where this abruptly stopped, it was replaced by the large modern ceramic pipe (C.527).
7.5.2 Post-Medieval
In Area 5 (Figure 7), the Post-Medieval period was represented by a wall (C.208), the fills of two
ditches (C.225, C.227, C.226, C.223 and C.217), three pits (C.164, C.176 and C.202), a linear fea-
ture (C.165) and 23 layers (C.160, C.172, C.203, C.182, C.183, C.184, C.185, C.186, C.408, C.409,
C.410, C.411, C.412, C.413, C.173, C.175, C.218, C.219, C.220, C.200, C.192, C.224 and C.221)

An insubstantial wall (C.208) aligned north-south had right angled protrusions extending east from
both ends (Plate 18). This wall was mortared and reached a maximum height of two courses. A single
sherd of Post-Medieval pottery was recovered from the mortar and dated from the 18th century. The
wall was narrow and it is unlikely that it was ever structural. It overlay a cobbled surface (C.198 – Fig-
ure 39) that occurred between the two Medieval walls (C.215 and C.507).

The two ditches (C.509 and C.216) were filled with Post-Medieval material but were not necessarily
originally cut during this time. The more southern of the two (C.216) was aligned northwest-southeast
and was relatively wide but very shallow. The clay fill (C.217) contained no datable material and only
a single sheep bone was found. Therefore, the entire ditch and fill had to be stratigraphically assigned



to the post-Medieval period, although it may be more closely associated to the Medieval period. The
second ditch (C.509 – Figure 39) located 6m away, was much more substantial. It was aligned east-
west and ran parallel to the wall (C.507). The southern edge of the ditch was relatively steep while the
other edge of the ditch was largely defined by the Medieval wall (C.507) (Figure 40). On this northern
side, the ditch had been cut a short distance south of the wall (C.507) so as not to undermine it. The
southern edge the ditch had also cut through a post-Medieval layer (C.221). The date of the truncated
layer (C.221) is dubious however as it was based on a single sherd of pottery. The full width of the
ditch was exposed and the base was flat. The ditch had been back-filled with Post-Medieval material
and contained four fills (C.225, C.227, C.226 and C.223). On the southern side, a sterile sand fill
(C.226) was banked up against the ditch edge and was possibly formed by weathering. This overlay
the basal fill and suggested that the basal fill (C.223) remained exposed for some time. The basal fill
(C.223 – Figure 40) comprised dark soft silt with occasional straw and contained clay pipe fragments
(04E0750:211:7-11 and 04E0750:223:1), a fragment of metal pot, leather and bone. The occasional
bones recovered were identified as cattle and sheep with two horse bones. The leather from this basal
layer (C.223) related to welted shoes of mid-16th to late 17th century. Seven soles (partial and complete),
six upper fragments, an insole, heel covering, two welt fragments and five cut offs were recovered from
this layer (C.223). An outer sole (04E0750:223:L1) found here had indications of a stacked heel which
would provide a 17th century date. All of these pieces were positioned closed to the Medieval wall
and probably represent disposal of waste from a nearby cobbler’s. The overlying fill (C.227) was also
highly organic and also produced leather shoes and leather off-cuts deposited against the Medieval
wall (C.509). Within the organic material plants species were mostly of wild weeds, some of which are
edible (e.g. blackberry and sloe) with small quantities of cereal grains. Two almost complete leather
shoes (04E0750:510:L16 and L17) were recovered and while worn showed no sign of repair. Both
shoes were of approximately the same date, mid-late 17th century, and were composite pieces which
used different hides. Five pot sherds were recovered, one of which was residual Medieval, and the other
four were 18th century in date (04E0750:510:2-5). The ditch was finally filled with brown clay (C.225)
which contained four sherds of post-Medieval pottery, a clay pipe stem and a single sheep bone. The
fill (C.225) also produced two sherds of residual Medieval pottery. The ditch cut (C.216), however, was
clearly associated with the Medieval wall (C.507) 14m to the north (described below).

The three pits (C.164, C.176 and C.202) were not uniform and only the final pit could be assigned a
function (C.202). One of these pits (C.164 – Figure 41) was associated with a linear cut (C.165 - Figure
42). The pit was large and contained four fills (C.161, C.162, C.163 and C.167 – Figure 41). Stone-lin-
ing (C.174) occurred on the base at the southern end. This lining (C.174) was in a rubble state, possibly
due to the insertion of the north-south drain (C8/C.81). As the stone lining reached the south side
of the pit, it was built-up against the inside of the cut and consisted of flat angular granite set with
mortar, not unlike a wall construction. Where this stone lining had not remained, a thick fill of silt
(C.167) lay at the base. This contained animal bone and a piece of glass. The occasional animal bone
comprised cattle, horse, sheep and pig while the single sherd of glass recovered (04E0750:167:1) had
a diamond cut edge and so must post date the start of the 16th century. The horse bones represented a



single unbutchered individual, part of which was probably redeposited in this fill. Overlying this was
a fill (C.163) of clay that contained late 17th/18th century pottery. The fill above (C.162) comprised a
lens of burnt clay that produced three sherds of 18th century pottery. The fill (C.162) also produced
floral material representing much weeds and wild plants, with only very limited amounts of cereal
crops recorded. This was sealed with firm brown clay (C.161). This clay (C.161) produced animal bone,
assorted pottery, clay pipe fragments and metal including a hook. The pottery sherds signified a late
17th/18th century date with two residual sherds of Medieval pottery. One of the clay pipe fragments
also signified a late 17th century date (04E0750:161:10). An odd linear cut which joined at the north
(C.165) probably acted as a drain which flowed into the large pit (C.164) (Figure 42). This was filled
with sterile clay (C.166) while the large pit was not yet backfilled. The function of both these features
was unclear. They were clearly associated for a time and it is likely that the large pit (C.164) had been
back filled with material unrelated to its original use, as no obvious interpretation presented itself.

An elongated pit (C.176 – Figure 43) was also found that was filled with sterile clay (C.177) from
which no datable evidence was recovered. The function was unclear due to an absence of diagnostic
evidence. The pit was orientated east-west and underlay a clay layer(C.172) which produced Post-Me-
dieval pottery, with one residual Medieval sherd. The final pit (C.202) also underlay this layer (C.172)
but overlay the collapsed Medieval wall (C.215). This shallow pit was filled with sand (C.201) that
produced large and medium mammal bone and underlay silt (C.200) which contained similar bone.
This pit appeared to have been used for the disposal of refuse.

Over 20 layers (C.160, C.172, C.203, C.182, C.183, C.184, C.185, C.186, C.408, C.409, C.410,
C.411, C.412, C.413, C.173, C.175, C.218, C.219, C.220, C.200, C.192, C.224 and C.221) were
recorded from Area 5 dating to the post-Medieval period. The most significant are outlined here. The
northern pit (C.164) was sealed by a layer (C.160 – Figure 41) of sterile brown clay. This layer was
comparable to another clay layer (C.172) further south which contained Post-Medieval pottery. This
large layer (C.172) produced relatively little animal bone one of which was identified as sheep. A lense
of redeposited natural (C.203) within the layer produced small quantities of large mammal bone. Un-
derlying this, a layer of redeposited natural (C.182) overlay grey sand (C.183) that contained metal. Be-
neath this were further layers (C.184, C.185 and C.186) of silt, the middle of which (C.185) produced
two 18th century sherds from mottled ware tankards. The large layer (C.172) also covered a greyish
brown layer (C.173) which contained sheep and horse bone along with an assortment of Post-Medieval
pottery and a single residual sherd of Medieval pottery. It also contained a single piece of iron slag. This
in turn overlay C.175, which again contained residual pottery but also 18th century sherds. A sandy
stone layer (C.192) was also beneath C.172 and covered the pit C.202. Over the ditch fill (C.217) were
clay layers (C.218, C.219 and C.220) and the lowest and largest of these layers (C.218) overlay a silty
clay layer (C.221) which produced 18th century pottery and an unusual bone assemblage. Only two (of
four) bones were identified to species. One bone was of neo-natal pig, the other a clavicle of a human.
This layer (C.221) was also cut by the ditch (C.222/C.509). A light brown sterile layer overlay C.218.
A variety of clays (C.408-C.413) extended southward to the end of Area 5, none of which produced



datable material.
7.5.3 Medieval
The Medieval period in Area 5 comprised two walls (C.215 and C.507), a pit (C.178) and 13 layers
(C.204, C.205, C.207, C.214, C.198, C.199, C.195, C.194, C.528, C.188, C.189, C.190 and C.191)
which lay between, and north of, the two walls.

The walls (C.215 and C.507) lay approximately 3m from one another; the northern wall aligned
northwest-southeast and the southern wall was orientated east-west (Figures 7 and 39). These probably
represented a small portion of a gate or entrance complex within the southern section of the Medieval
town wall. The first wall (C.215) was cut by two modern pipes as well as the north-south drain (C.81).
The wall (C.215) itself probably represented the foundation courses as the stones are mostly of large
sub-rounded granite rubble set within a matrix of sandy mortar (Plate 20). No facing was apparent
and three courses of the wall survived. This wall (C.215) was obviously effected by the passing of the
north-south drain (C.81) but the southern end of the wall, while truncated by two pipes, appeared to
have held its original line. This indicated a possible east-west limit or face to the wall. Banked against
the eastern side of the wall (C.215) and directly below C.172 was a thin layer of stones (C.204) over-
lying the redeposited natural (C.205) with unidentifiable animal bone. A later pit (C.202) had been
cut through these layers. The layers contained Medieval ceramics; C.204 had a single sherd of Lein-
ster cooking ware, while C.205 contained a sherd of Castledermot-type pottery and a fragment of
ridge-tile, both of 13th century date. Another two layers (C.207 and C.214) beneath were also banked
against the wall and contained stones and mortar. One of these layers (C.207) also produced a sherd of
Leinster cooking ware. These four layers (C.204, C.205, C.207 and C.214) were amongst the stones
of the wall (C.215) and may relate to construction and subsequent usage.

Three metres to the south, the second wall (C.507) occurred. This was aligned east-west and may have
represented the southern part of the gate or entrance complex. While the wall was quite wide, only
a short length was exposed. The wall consisted of up to four courses. The upper courses consisted of
large sub-angular granite set with sandy mortar while the remaining courses below comprised large
rounded granite set within a matrix of silt. In plan (Figure 39), it seemed that there were three linear
sets of masonry running east-west but only the middle of this wall (C.507) was present to a substantial
depth (Figure 40). The outer stones may therefore have comprised wall facing, built up around a cen-
tral core. The northern edge of this wall was almost parallel with the wall edge to the north (C.215).
The alignment and facing of the walls would therefore present the possibility of a staggered gateway
and the opening between the two walls might represent the route of the Medieval road. Immediately
to the south of the southern wall (C.507), a substantial ditch cut (C.509) was revealed (Figure 40). This
ditch has had to be considered Post-Medieval due its contents. This however, signifies disuse and not
the original construction of the ditch. The ditch cut (C.509) did appear to truncate a post-Medieval
layer on the south (C.221) but this date is arrived at from a single sherd of pottery which could possibly
have been a contaminant.



The ditches (C.216 and C.509 - described above) were most likely cut during the Medieval and were
clearly associated with the walls encountered.

The only pit (C.178 – Figure 43) in Area 5 which was of Medieval date lay approximately 0.7m south
of a Post-Medieval pit (C.176). The pits were similarly elongated. The Medieval pit (C.178) had two
brown clay fills (C.180 and C.181), the uppermost of which (C.180) contained two sherds of Medieval
pottery; one sherd of Leinster cooking ware and one sherd of Dublin-type cooking ware, both of 13th
century date. It also contained a single clay pipe fragment. This pit was orientated east-west and under-
lay a redeposited natural (C.179) which separated the pit from Post-Medieval layers above (C.172).

A number of layers occurred between the Medieval walls (C.507 and C.215). The upper layers consist-
ed of a cobbled surface (C.198 – Plate 19) overlying a mix of mortar and stone (C.199), which clearly
indicated a surface of some kind. The relationship between this surface and the insubstantial wall
(C.208) described above was unclear. However, it is highly plausible that the cobbled surface was the
final road surface between the two larger walls (C.507 and C.215). No evidence was recovered above or
within the cobbles (C.198) suggested that this was a domestic surface. Underlying the cobbled surface,
brown silt (C.195) containing glass and metal with animal bones, plant remains and human remains
(C.194) was encountered. The animal bone recovered showed a high incidence of cattle with small
amounts of pig. The botanical remains indicate a general insubstantial assortment of weeds, wheat,
barley, oats and rye. The human remains consisted of skull fragments and a humerous and it is likely
that these were disturbed from Area 6, immediately to the south. One of the pieces of metal was a key.
The glass recovered was ‘grisaille’ common in the early gothic period. The four fragments, two deco-
rated (04E0750:195:1 and 4), therefore date from the late 13th / early 14th century. Underlying this, a
thick layer of grey clay (C.528) had probably been deposited after the walls had been constructed so as
to provide stability to the ground surface (Figure 40).

North of the wall complex, layers (C.188, C.189, C.190 and C.191) had levelled the sloping natural
ground surface up to the wall (C.215). These consisted of silt (C.190), mortar (C.189) and redeposited
naturals (C.188 and C.191). The latter layers (C.188 and C.191) contained sherds of 13th century pot-
tery and the lowest layer (C.190) contained ten sherds of Castledermot-type Medieval pottery, but also
three sherds of 18th century mottled ware. Due to the relatively tight stratigraphy here, it is likely that
these three post-Medieval sherds were contaminants from the Early Modern drain (C.8/C.81). This
lowest silt layer (C.190) also produced faunal remains representing cattle and horse. These layers ran
along the eastern side of the wall (C.215) to where they were truncated by the drain (C.8/C.81).

[N.B. The trench section where the two walls were located, was opened on two separate occasions. They were
not excavated initially due to the possibility of preservation in situ. When this was deemed impossible, the
trench was re-opened. To ensure that recording was not compromised, new context numbers were assigned.
Essentially, several contexts received duplicate numbers. The new context numbers were matched with the
earlier numbering system at the post-excavation stage. A full list of these duplications can be found in the



context register (Appendix 1)].

7.6 Area 6
(Figures 6-8 & 44-45, Plates 21-32)
Area 6, generally orientated north-south, ran adjacent to the eastern gable of the Medieval friary (Plate
21) and south of the Medieval town walls, between Area 5 to the north and Area 7 to the south. The
trench was 32m long (between Chainage B245 and B277) and had an average width of 1.8m (Figure
6). A total of 98 contexts were recorded and these represented a wall (C.469), six pits (C.460, C.462,
C.429, C.438, C.455, and C.456), three stakeholes (C.467, C.478 and C.476), 29 layers (C.408,
C.418, C.420, C.481, C.471, C.474, C.472, C.473, C.419, C.482, C.422, C.466, C.444, C.445,
C.446, C.459, C.447, C.431, C.432, C.414, C.439, C440/C.441, C.447, C.451, C.452, C.448, C.465,
C.454, and C.470) and 26 human burials (Skeleton 1, Skeleton 2, Skeleton 3, Skeleton 4, Skeleton
4a, Skeleton 6, Skeleton 7, Skeleton 8, Skeleton 9, Skeleton 10, Skeleton 11, Skeleton 12, Skeleton 13,
Skeleton 14, Skeleton 15, Skeleton 16, Skeleton 17, Skeleton 18, Skeleton 19, Skeleton 20, Skeleton 21,
Skeleton 22, Skeleton 23, Skeleton 25, Skeleton 26 and Skeleton 27) (Figure 44).

As in the previous areas, the overburden in Area 6 comprised road surface tar (C.1) and gravel (C.2)
overlying a number of east-west water pipes. The largest intrusion consisted of the modern north-south
drain (C.527) which ran along the entire eastern side of this trench.
7.6.1 Post-Medieval
The Post-Medieval period in Area 6 comprised two walls (C.430 and C.469), two pits (C.460 and
C.462) and eight layers (C.408, C.418, C.420, C.481, C.474, C.472, C.473 and C.419) that sealed
Medieval deposits.

The first wall (C.430 – Plate 22) encountered was quite insubstantial. It consisted of large granite rub-
ble which survived to a maximum height of two courses. This drystone wall was aligned northwest-
southeast with a projection to the northeast. The projection only consisted of two stones and may have
been collapse from the main length of wall. The remaining section did not extend far enough to the
east to have been affected by the north-south drain (C.527). Therefore, from the portion exposed, it is
likely that this had always been a low, poorly constructed wall and did not appear to correlate with the
lines of the friary. It is possible that this wall was commissioned in order to demarcate the cemetery
(see below), which was by then out of use. A second wall (C.469) was discovered when the trench was
extended westward to uncover all of Skeleton 20. It (C.469) comprised an insubstantial drystone wall,
orientated north-south and was on average just one course high. Two sherds of pottery found within
the wall (C.469) dated its construction to the Post-Medieval period, circa 17th/18th century, although
one sherd was transition ware (15th/16th century). In addition to this a single piece of metal was recov-
ered from the wall and this is likely to be a coin (04E0750:469:1).

Neither of the two pits (C.460 and C.462) found in Area 6 could be fully interpreted due to the am-
biguous nature of their fills. The first pit (C.460 - Figure 44 part c) contained a single silt fill (C.461)



that produced no datable evidence. The second pit (C.462 – Figure 44 part d) contained two fills
(C.463 and C.464) of grey clay which produced a single sherd of glass and metal. The glass had an
iridescent surface which signified a late Medieval/ Post-Medieval date. The upper fill (C.463) also con-
tained two sherds of 18th century pottery. The associated layers (C.408, C.418, C.420, C.481, C.471,
C.474, C.472, C.473 and C.419) collectively sealed the Medieval cemetery. These layers were quite
sterile and comprised clay (C.408), silts (C.418, C.420, C.481, C.471 and C.474), sand (C.472), stones
(C.473) and redeposited natural (C.419). A single sherd of pottery was the only artefact recovered
throughout these layers and came from C.481. This sherd of pottery was transition ware dated to the
15th/16th century. The same layer also contained a high incidence of cattle bone and less sheep bone. It
is likely that the absence of cultural material signified the continued importance or reverence attached
to the area.
7.6.2 Medieval
The entire length of Area 6 exposed part of a Medieval burial ground (Figure 44 parts a-d). A total
of 26 skeletons were recorded (Skeleton 1, Skeleton 2, Skeleton 3, Skeleton 4, Skeleton 4a, Skeleton
9, Skeleton 6, Skeleton 7, Skeleton 8, Skeleton 10, Skeleton 11, Skeleton 12, Skeleton 13, Skeleton 14,
Skeleton 15, Skeleton 16, Skeleton 17, Skeleton 18, Skeleton 19, Skeleton 20, Skeleton 21, Skeleton
22, Skeleton 23, Skeleton 25, Skeleton 26 and Skeleton 27). Apart from the burials, four pits (C.429,
C.438, C.455 and C.456) were recorded and three stake-holes (C.467, C.478 and C.476) were evident
at the southern part of Area 6.

Two main concentrations of burials were found: occurring between Chainage B246 and B255 and
between Chainage B262 and B270. The cemetery layout was clearly that of rows which ran north-
south, parallel to the east gable of the friary. Six individual burials lay within grave cuts. These were
orientated east-west, head to the east. Skeletal remains that proved too fragmentary to be regarded in
situ were also recovered. Some of these disarticulated remains probably represent earlier remains which
were truncated at a later date.

The first three burials in the northern section of Area 6 (Figure 44 part a) - Skeleton 1, Skeleton 2 and
Skeleton 3 - were all contained within grave cuts (C.417, C.421 and C.425) which were orientated east-
west. The remnant of the grave cut (C.417) of Skeleton 1 was just 0.20m deep and contained two fills
(C.415 and C.416) which had been backfilled. The predominant fill (C.415) was archaeological sterile
with low incidences of cereal grain and weeds. The underlying fill (C.416) comprised dark silt that
contained an iron nail, pottery and two fragments of glass. The glass fragments are tinted pale green
and have grooved edges signifying a Later Medieval date (04E0750:417:1 and 2). The pottery sherds all
date to the 19th century and must be considered contaminants from the time the early modern drain
(C.81) was inserted. The nail may represent the presence of a coffin. This fill (C.416) was possibly the
same as the overlying fill (C.415) but had been altered by the decomposition of the human remains.
The skeleton (Skeleton 1) was largely disarticulated but the skull and upper torso were in a general east-
west alignment. The skull had survived in an upright position and the position of the disarticulated
bone was biased to the southern side of the grave cut, perhaps reflecting the natural slope of the area.



A drain cut (C.527) had severely truncated the lower half of the skeleton. The remains were that of a
young adult female.

The second grave cut (C.421) lay 1.5m to the south of Skeleton 1. The cut (C.421) was quite narrow
and shallow (0.55m and 0.22m respectively). It contained two fills (C.423 and C.424) overlying the
skeleton (Skeleton 2). The upper fill (C.423) was probably natural subsoil which had been backfilled
over the skeleton. The underlying fill (C.424) was darker and contained decayed stone and occasional
corroded iron nails. This fill (C.424) surrounded the skeletal remains (Skeleton 2) and the majority of
bones between the skull and pelvis were in situ (Plate 23). The skull was inclined slightly forward and
faced north-east. The left arm lay alongside the torso but the hand portion was absent. The right arm,
bent at the elbow, rested at the pelvis with finger bones in this general vicinity. The skeleton was that
of a male of approximately 40 years of age and 1.7m in height. This grave was aligned with those of
Skeleton 1 and Skeleton 4 and the grave (C.425) of Skeleton 3 lay approximately 0.6m to the south.

The sub-rectangular grave cut (C.425) of Skeleton 3 was of deeper and wider (0.40m and 0.75m) than
those described above and a greater length was exposed (1.2m). The trench was extended 0.3m further
west in order to fully expose the remains (Plate 23). The skull of Skeleton 3 was inclined forward and
the arms were extended. The grave cut contained a single fill (C.426) overlying and surrounding the
skeleton which consisted of dark silt oxidised staining possibly indicating the presence of a coffin. It
also contained very low quantities of plant remains and human remains that did not relate to Skeleton
3. These backfilled bones included a skull, mandible and femur and occurred over the right shoulder
of Skeleton 3. The burial remains were that of a male, again approximately 40 years of age and was
slightly taller (0.02m) in stature than skeleton 2. The natural subsoil underlying both Skeleton 3 and
Skeleton 2 had been stained to a dark reddish brown.

The fourth burial (Skeleton 4 – Figure 44 part a) was not contained within a cut, but had been placed
on a mortar surface (C.439) and covered over with a mantle or layer of brown silt (C.422). This mantle
of soil (C.422) contained a single sherd of 13th century Castledermot-type pottery. The remains had
been disturbed by the drain (C.527) to the level of the pelvis (Plate 24). The burial was that of a childs,
5-6 years old. The body was supine, orientated east-west and the skull had been turned to the side
and faced south. The arms were extended. The skull was 0.5m from the western baulk of the pipeline
trench. There was some disturbance and several bones were discovered directly south of Skeleton 4
which comprised juvenile and adult bones.
Several human bone fragments were found (Skeleton 4a) in the same stratum near the western trench
edge (Figure 44 part a). These associated fragments related to a second individual and comprised skull
and upper body fragments. These equated to a child of about 2 years. Again this occurred in conjunc-
tion with disarticulated adult remains.

The burial of a young adult female (Skeleton 9 - Figure 44 part a) was also discovered beneath the same
mantle or layer of silt (C.422) at the same level as the infant burial (Skeleton 4). The mortar surface



(C.439) on which the infant burial lay had petered out and Skeleton 9 lay on natural subsoil (Plate
25). The torso of Skeleton 9 was poorly preserved and all skeletal remains below the pelvis had been
truncated by a drain (C.527). The skull was on its side and faced south. The heavily compressed torso
comprised scapula, vertebrae, clavicles, ribs and fragments of humerus. The pelvis by contrast was well
preserved and contained a number of small bones. These were to be identified as neonatal bones. The
skeleton appeared to have been disturbed to the south, possibly by the cut of a pit (C.438). Skeleton 9
was aligned with Skeleton 3 and Skeleton 6.

The grave cut (C.434) that contained Skeleton 6 lay south of the pit (C.438) that appears to have dis-
turbed Skeleton 9 (Figure 44 part b). Approximately half of the grave was exposed within the trench
(Plate 26). The grave cut (C.434) was sub-rectangular and aligned east-west and contained a single
fill (C.435). This fill was soft and contained traces of highly corroded iron nails (04E0750:515:1 and
2). This was not dissimilar to the overlying layer (C.444). The skeleton (Skeleton 6) had been heavily
compacted and so preservation was poor. The skull lay on its side and faced south. The upper arms
were extended alongside the torso and the ribs had been badly compressed. While the sex of the re-
mains could not be determined it was between 16 and 20 years of age. Disarticulated human bone
from adult, adolescent and juvenile were all found in association with Skeleton 6.

Another badly compressed skeleton (Skeleton 7) was located immediately to the south (Figure 44
part b). This individual had no associated grave cut but was covered by a layer of dark brown clayey
silt (C.444). The material directly over the skeletal remains (C.511) produced a single sherd of Castle-
dermot-type pottery of 13th century date and very sparse botanical remains. The skull had collapsed
inwards. Both arms were extended along either side of the torso but the hand and humerus of the right
arm were absent (Plate 27). The torso was relatively intact. These remains were probably of a female
over 25 years old, possibly nearer 40 years. This burial lay upon a layer of pebbly sand (C.445) that
covered an earlier burial (Skeleton 10).
This lower burial (Skeleton 10) did not have an associated grave cut but lay on a layer of grey silt
(C.446). The lower part of this individual had been truncated by the drain (C.527) and only the upper
part of the body survived. It was severely compacted and because of this, most of the remains were
fragmented although generally in their correct anatomical position. These skeletal remains were that
of a young adult male and some of the ribs indicated tuberculosis or a related illness at the time of
death.
Another severely truncated burial lay to the south (Skeleton 8 – Figure 44 part b). This had no as-
sociated grave cut and lay within the same layer (C.444) that covered Skeleton 7 (Plate 27). Aligned
east-west, Skeleton 8 appeared to be aligned with Skeleton 6, Skeleton 9 and Skeleton 3. This row of
interments tapered towards the modern drain (C.527) as it travelled south, so only the skull and a few
fragments of clavicle and vertebrae of Skeleton 8 survived. The skull lay on its side and faced south;
the upper surface of the skull had collapsed inwards. These remains were of a probable male over 25
years of age.



In this part of the pipeline trench, the concluding burial (Skeleton 11 – Figure 44 part b) was contained
within a sub-rectangular grave cut (C.450), 0.4m deep. This burial occurred at a far greater depth than
the previous burials at 1.5m below the present ground surface (C.1). The grave cut contained a single fill
(C.449) which also spread south over the edge of the cut (Figure 45). The lowermost 0.2m of the grave
cut was waterlogged and as a result, the skeletal remains were in a good state of preservation. Skeleton
11 was partially disarticulated and incomplete as the modern drain (C.527) had truncated the lower
leg area. However, due to the saturated conditions and the natural break of slope southwards, the arms
and much of the torso had moved drastically to the south. The skeleton is probably that of a female
and the degree of joint disease indicated an older adult, perhaps 45 years of age or older. Approximate
stature of the remains was 1.6m. Skeleton 11 did not correlate with the other burials in this northern
section of Area 6 (Skeleton 1, Skeleton 2, Skeleton 3, Skeleton 4, Skeleton 4a, Skeleton 9, Skeleton 6,
Skeleton 7, Skeleton 8, Skeleton 10) and was stratigraphically earlier than those closest to it.

The southern concentration of burials in Area 6 occurred between Chainage B262 and B270. These
internments were separated from those described above by a modern pipe and two pits (C.455 and
C.456 – Figure 44 part c). All these burials were aligned east-west. The first burial (Skeleton 12 – Plate
28) in the group was not contained in a grave cut but lay on natural subsoil. A mantle of soft black
silt (C.466 – Figure 45) had been deposited over the individual and this was stratigraphically earlier
than the adjacent pits (C.456 and C.457 – dated to the 13th century). The pipeline trench had to be
extended 0.4m west in order to fully expose the skull (Skeleton 12). The skull was inclined slightly to
the southeast and was well preserved. The remainder of this extended skeleton was largely intact. The
skeletal remains were of a female, about 40 years old, with a stature of about 1.6m.

One other burial (Skeleton 13 – Figure 44 part c) occurred in line with Skeleton 12 and was badly
truncated by a modern drain (C.527). The upper half of Skeleton 13 survived in relatively good con-
dition covered by a layer of dark silt (C.459). The torso had been compressed and the right arm had
drifted southwards. The fractured skull was inclined forward slightly and faced southeast. The skull
contained a single sherd of 13th century Castledermot-type pottery (04E0750:512:1). Four sherds of
transition ware of 15th/16th century date were also recovered close to – any probably originating from
– the overlying layer (C.459). The skeleton was that of a female, about 35 years old. A number of loose
bones were recovered from around Skeleton 13 and may have been disturbed when the modern drain
(C.527) was inserted. Associated with one of these bone fragments was a small iron blade.

Immediately to the west of Skeleton 13, further human remains (Skeletons 20 and 21 – Plate 29)
were discovered and these extended beyond the limits of the pipe trench. Consequently, the trench
was extended west for 1m x 0.9m to fully expose these extended burials (Figure 44 part c). Skeleton
20 underlay a modern water pipe and was quite compressed. The layer (C.459) that sealed Skeleton
13 also covered Skeleton 20, but the latter was probably earlier than Skeleton 13. Only the femora,
vertebrae, shoulders and upper arms of Skeleton 20 were in situ; the lower legs and feet had probably
been truncated with the insertion of Skeleton 13 to the east. No skull was present and this was prob-



ably a result of the insertion of Skeleton 21. From the remains available it was assessed that this was
an adolescent.

A further burial (Skeleton 21 – Plate 29) was discovered beneath the left shoulder region of Skeleton
20 to the west. All that survived of Skeleton 21 were the legs and feet. The legs of Skeleton 21 extended
west where they were heavily truncated by two large modern pipes aligned north-south. These pipes
were deeper than the burials and it was deemed likely that any investigations beyond these would not
reveal the remainder of Skeleton 21. Nevertheless, an age of over 25 years was ascertained from the
remains.

A group of five burials (Skeleton 15, Skeleton 14, Skeleton 25, Skeleton 23 and Skeleton 22) occurred
immediately south of Skeleton 13 (Figure 44 part c). None of these were contained in grave cuts and
all were truncated by a modern drain (C.527) which ran north-south. All the burials were aligned
east-west.

Stratigraphically, the latest burial comprised Skeleton 15 which lay within a dark silt (C.480). The skull
faced south but had collapsed inwards. Most of the torso, the left side of the pelvis and the right arm
survived. Skeleton 15 was a female over 25 years old.
Skeleton 15 overlay Skeleton 14 which occurred beneath the dark silt layer (C.480). The skull of Skel-
eton 14 also faced south and had also collapsed inwards. Most of the upper torso survived in a fragile
state with the arms extended at either side. The skeleton was identified as male and aged between 18
and 25 years.

Less than 0.2m to the south, and at a similar level to Skeleton 15, the remains of Skeleton 25 were
encountered. Skeleton 25 (Plate 30) overlay natural and had been compressed by a stony layer (C.479).
Again, the skull faced south and had collapsed inward. The torso was quite fragmentary but both arms
survived in an extended position. The remains were of a female between the age of 35 and 45.

The left shoulder of Skeleton 25 and the right arm of Skeleton 15 overlay fragments of Skeleton 22
(Plate 30). This comprised the disarticulated remains of an adult and a juvenile. The juvenile represent-
ed in Skeleton 22 probably had some disarticulated remains included with Skeleton 25. These juvenile
remains are of a 3 to 5 year old but no other information could be gained.

Skeleton 15 and Skeleton 25 also overlay the disarticulated remains of Skeleton 23 which occurred at
the east, on the modern drain edge (C.527). The remains were supine and extended. This skeleton was
of a male, aged between 26 and 35 years old. The stature of the skeleton was estimated at 1.77m.

This row of burials continued south where four further skeletons (Skeleton 16, Skeleton 17, Skeleton
18 and Skeleton 19) were uncovered beneath a compacted stony layer (C.479) and overlying natural.
All four burials were orientated east-west and none had been placed in grave cuts (Figure 44 part d).



As the row of burials was not parallel with the trench or the modern drain (C.527), the skeletal re-
mains became increasingly more truncated to the south (e.g. Skeleton 19 – Plate 31). Skeleton 16 was
in extremely poor condition. Only the skull remained in situ and this had collapsed inwards. Some
fragmented remains of the torso and right arm were also recovered. While two disarticulated ribs here
related to a juvenile, Skeleton 16 was a young adult (18-25 years old). The sex or stature of the skeleton
could not be determined.

To the south (circa. 0.8m), two partial skulls (Skeleton 17 and Skeleton18) were discovered circa 0.1m
from the modern drain cut (Figure 44 part d). Skeleton 17 was identified as a young dentition indi-
cated malnutrition from an early age. The fill above Skeleton 17 (C.514) had also been truncated by
the drain and so disturbed, it contained three sherds of pottery, one of which was transition ware and
a fragment of clay pipe. The remains of Skeleton 18 were probably that of an adolescent but gender
could not be established.

Skeleton 19 (Figure 44 part d) was also only represented by a skull which had been badly truncated by
the drain (C.527). The remains (Plate 31) were that of a male who died possibly during his thirties.

Skeleton 26 occurred 6m to the south of the above burials (at Chainage B276) and lay at a similar
depth to Skeleton 11. Skeleton 26 occurred in a grave that was cut into natural. The coffin was partially
preserved and comprised primarily two timber planks at the base (Figure 44 part d). The side boards
had distorted southwards, possibly due to water and soil pressure, but nevertheless indicated and over-
all hexagonal shape. The coffin (Plate 32) extended 0.1m beneath the baulk where the headboard was
located and this consisted of two timber boards, one above the other, that overlapped with the side
boards. The lid of the coffin had decayed but was replaced in places by a thick crust of iron pan. This
allowed the internal dimensions of the coffin to be recorded (0.14m high x 0.46m wide). The timbers
of which the coffin was composed (04E0750:26:27-44) showed carpentry techniques such as planning
had been used. The timbers held partial nails and also nail holes. The coffin was truncated at the east
by the modern drain (C.527). The skeletal remains consisted of the upper torso and skull. The lower
half of the skeleton was either disturbed or missing. Disarticulated remains also included 3 bone frag-
ments relating to a juvenile. Skeleton 26 was male and over 25 at time of death. The grave was sealed
by a late Medieval/post-Medieval layer (C.481) that had contained a single sherd of transition ware
(00E0750:481:1) and a clay pipe fragment. However, the fill within and immediately over the skeletal
remains (C.516) contained a sherd of Castledermot-type pottery of 13th century date. Two disarticu-
lated skulls were found above the western end of the coffin in backfilled material. The southernmost
of these skulls was removed as Skeleton 27 (Plate 32). This skull was also that of a male over 25 years
old. The second skull was recorded in section and was preserved in situ.

Five pits (C.429, C.438, C.455, C.456 and C.457) were also discovered in Area 6 (Figure 45). One
pit (C.429) was situated between Skeleton 1 and Skeleton 2 (Figure 44, part a). It consisted of a short
oblong cut which extended beneath the western baulk. It contained a single fill (C.428) of sterile sand.



Based on its stratigraphic position, this cut (C.429) could be dated to the Medieval period. It was ori-
entated east-west and could plausibly have been dug to serve as a grave cut for an infant. However, no
bones or artefacts were recovered from the fill. The pit (C.438) to the south was larger with two sides
exposed and it was also orientated east-west. Sealed by a Medieval layer (C.422), the pit contained
two fills (C.437 and C.433) of dark silt. These layers contained disarticulated human bone represent-
ing both adult and juvenile. As the bone was disarticulated, it probably represents backfill material as
opposed to burial. For the purpose of recording these remains were labelled ‘Burial 5’. No artefacts
were found to suggest a function for this pit and whether or not it may have represented a grave cut.
However, the botanical remains recovered indicated a large quantity of wheat grains (C.433) and
possibly suggest grain storage as a function. Two metres to the south of Skeleton 11, two pits (C.455
and C.456) (Figure 44 parts b/c and Figure 45) were uncovered that contained a single fill (C.442).
One of these pits (C.455) was a poorly defined east-west cut with a shallow channel at the base which
might have served as a drain. The second pit (C.456) had a well-defined, steep southern edge. The fill
of both pits (C.442) probably represents backfilled material. A single sherd of Medieval pottery was
also found in this fill (C.422). The final pit (C.457) contained a single fill (C.458) of silt and slate and
appeared to function as a waste pit for the deposition of construction materials. It did not contain
skeletal remains.

Three stakeholes (C.467, C.478 and C.476) were also found near a Post-Medieval pit (C.462) in the
southern portion of Area 6 (Figure 44 part d). The largest of the stake-holes (C.467), possibly a post-
hole, contained a single fill (C.468) of sand that produced no datable evidence. However, its strati-
graphic position indicates a Medieval date. The remaining two stakeholes (C.476 and C.478) were
small and both were filled with grey silt (C.475 and C.477). How these stakeholes (C.467, C.478 and
C.476) relate to the surrounding Medieval graves was not clear.

Some Medieval layers (C.422, C.466, C.444, C.445, C.446, C.459 and C.482) had been deposited
to cover burials or partially acted as fills to grave cuts, e.g. C.466 – Figure 45) and these have been
described above with respect to their associated burials. Overlying the northern concentration of buri-
als was a thick Medieval layer (C.422). Immediately north of the southern most burial (Skeleton 26),
a layer/fill (C.482) of brown sand clearly indicated the presence of another grave cut extending west.
This was not investigated as it lay outside the limits of the trench although some material was recovered
from section. In total, five bones were retrieved from this area and were identified as two cattle, one
dog and two large mammal bones.

A number of other layers (C.431, C.432, C.414, C.439, C440/C.441, C.447, C.451, C.452, C.448,
C.465, C.454, and C.470) that served a variety of functions were also encountered in Area 6. A layer
of clay (C.431) sealed a Medieval pit (C.429) and two graves (C.421 and C.425) were cut into this.
The layer (C.431) contained a single iron nail, probably from one of the burials. A thin layer (C.432) of
firm peat underlay this to the north. A layer (C.414) of loose stone and mortar overlay the clay (C.431);
one burial (C.417) had cut into this. Further to the south, a similar mortar layer (C.439) underlay two



burials (Skeleton 4 and Skeleton 9). This overlay probable natural subsoil (C.440/C.441). A 19th/20th
century sherd recovered from this subsoil was an obvious contaminant from the insertion of the early
modern drain (C.81). Underlying Skeleton 10, a layer of silt (C.447 – Figure 45) was cut by grave cuts
in the north (C.438) and south (C.450) and overlay natural. One of these grave cuts (C.450) also cut
layers of silt and sand (C.451 and C.452) which extended southwards (Figure 45). The lower of these
two layers (C.452) consisted of black coarse sterile sand and may have been a product of decaying
stone. Above the fill surrounding Skeleton 11 (C.449), a small lens of silty sand (C.448) filled a depres-
sion probably caused by the decomposition of the underlying human remains (Figure 45). Similarly, a
layer of silt (C.465) overlying the pit (C.456) filled a depression within the primary fill (C.442). Above
this (C.465), a Medieval layer (C.454) sealed the mantle (C.466) over Skeleton 12 and a pit (C.457),
and contained two sherds of Medieval pottery. At the south of Area 6, a thick layer of dark clay (C.470)
contained charcoal flecks. This overlay the stakeholes but underlay Skeleton 19.

7.7 Area 7
(Figures 6-8 & 46-47)
Area 7 was the final section of the excavated pipe trench (Figure 6). Commencing at the southern end
of Area 6, the trench in Area 7 travelled south for 39.4m where it turned east for 15m. This brought the
trench across the road and parallel with the river. Overall, this section of trench was 54.4m long (be-
tween Chainage B277 and D15) with an average width of 1.8m. A total of 27 contexts were recorded
and these represented two walls (C.496 and C.504), a ditch (C.502), 10 layers (C.483, C.484, C.497,
C498, C.499, C.503, C.500, C382, C.384 and C.381), a linear cut (C.487) and three pits (C.492,
C.490 and C.495).

The overburden was similar to that encountered in the previous areas comprising tar (C.1) and gravel
bedding (C.2). Directly beneath the gravel (C.2) on the approach to the bridge, the road surface was
steadily raised by the laying of roughly-dressed granite blocks (C.807). The blocks themselves may have
originated from a building or wall, but were laid down during the 20th century in order to reduce the
severity of the slope on the bridge. Beneath this, the pipe (C.527) continued south from Area 6. This
ran for a length of 36m before crossing the trench and exiting to the west. Along the southern section
of the trench there was modern disturbance of the layer directly below the road build-up (C.383).
7.7.1 Post-Medieval
Datable evidence was scarce in Area 7. However, two walls (C.496 and C.504) and six layers (C.483,
C.484, C.497, C498, C.499 and C.503) were deemed to be of Post-Medieval date. Both walls (C.496
and C.504) were aligned east-west and were quite low and insubstantial. In both cases, the stones
rested in a matrix of sandy mortar and were not well laid. They possibly represent the remnants of
property divisions or perhaps part of an ‘in-field’ system.

Below the road make-up at the north end, a layer of rubble (C.483) overlay a layer of yellowish brown
clay (C.484) which comprised redeposited natural (Figure 47). Underlying this and abutting the south
wall (C.504) were layers (C.497 and C.503) that contained stone and mortar and must have related to



the collapse of the wall. One layer (C.497) continued north and spread over the second wall (C.496).
Abutting this wall (C.496) on the southern side were further two lower layers (C.498 and C.499)
which consisted of sand and mortar, again possibly indicating the collapse of the walls.
7.7.2 Medieval
The only features of Medieval date encountered in Area 7 were a ditch cut (C.502) and four layers
(C.500, C382, C.384 and C.381). The ditch (C.502 – Figure 46) was aligned east-west and occurred
where the trench turned eastwards. A length of 2m was exposed. The ditch was approximately 1.10m
wide and had a U-shaped profile. It contained a single fill (C.501) of dark silty clay but was sealed by a
layer (C.500) which produced a single sherd of Medieval pottery. The sterile nature of the fill and the
size of the ditch cut suggest that it was probably a drain or farm boundary. The base of the ditch had
also cut into peat which existed below the natural clay at this point.

Along the southern section of the pipe trench, a layer (C.382) continued east. This overlay sterile silty
sand (C.384) which had been laid down over, and alongside, a layer of organic material (C.381) with
abundant semi-decayed brushwood. These could equally originate from the Post-Medieval. This pos-
sibly represented an early attempt at stabilising the ground here, or may have comprised a pathway.
The ditch/drain (C.502) suggested that the area was probably prone to flooding due to the nearby river
and the level of the water table.
7.7.3 Group V / Miscellaneous
A linear cut (C.487) and three pits (C.492, C.490 and C.495) (Figure 47) could not be assigned to
any particular period and none of the features were exposed fully within the trench. The linear cut
(C.487) was aligned east-west and contained a single fill (C.486) of black peaty silt which produced
no finds. This was probably a field drain and lay beneath a silt layer (C.485). The silt (C.485) contained
one identifiable cattle bone. The drain (C.436) was earlier or contemporaneous with the northern wall
(C.496). Two of the pits (C.492 and C.490) were oval in plan and contained clay fills (C.491, C.488
and C.489) which produced no datable evidence or indication of function. The third pit (C.495) was
rectangular and contained two clay fills (C.493 and C.494) (Figure 47) the lower of which produced a
single fragment of cow mandible. No clear function could be attached to this pit however.



8 Discussion
Over 725m of pipe trench was excavated through the Medieval town of Castledermot. In terms of
mitigation it was fortunate that the chosen route for the intended pipeline followed closely the Early
Modern and Modern drains, where the archaeological evidence had already been compromised to a
degree. For ease of description, the trench was divided into seven areas (Figure 6). Archaeological de-
posits recorded in the various areas could be grouped as Early Modern, Post-Medieval and Medieval.
The distribution of Post-Medieval and Medieval standing remains, walls, pits and ditches are illus-
trated on Figure 7.

No evidence for prehistoric activity was found during the course of these excavations. This is not sur-
prising considering the evidence for intense occupation at later times. Similarly, no excavated feature
could be attributed solely to the Early Medieval period (400 – 1200 AD) and it is likely that the focus
of the Early Medieval settlement of Diseart Diarmada lay at the east of the present town. Nevertheless,
Leinster cooking wares and Dublin-type coarsewares, where found could potentially be of late 12th
century date. Dublin-type coarseware has a truely transitional date range between the late 12th and
early 13th century but accounted for less than 2% of the Medieval wares recovered during excavation.

8.1 The Later Medieval Period
From the arrival of the Anglo-Normans in the 1170s the Early Medieval settlement was probably
restructured and re-planned. The positioning of Medieval ditches and walls revealed during these
excavations could not always be immediately or unequivocally explained as only short sections of the
excavation trench remained open at any given time. However, the earliest large divisional features were
the ditches excavated at the north of the town. Three ditches (C.24, C.49 and C51) here were aligned
northwest-southeast. The northernmost ditch (C.24) probably began to infill during the early 13th
century, but no datable evidence was recovered from the other two. Nevertheless, these three ditches
must be dealt with as a unit and their alignment is echoed in the layout of burgage plots which were
still apparent on Rocque’s estate map of 1758 (Figure 4). A western projection of the outer ditch (C.24)
would have encompassed the foundation of St. John’s Hospital, while the inner two ditches (C.49 and
C.51) would have separated St. John’s from the town. Likewise, the Medieval ditch excavated at the
southern extreme of the town (C.502), encompassed the lands of the Franciscan Friary, while another
two ditches (C.216 and C.509) traversed the trench immediately north of the Friary, separating it
from the town. These two ditches (C.509 and C.216) produced difficulties in relation to date. The less
substantial of the two (C.216) was archaeologically sterile; while the other large ditch (C.509) which
was immediately outside the town wall was probably maintained and emptied throughout the Later
Medieval period. The latter was filled with highly organic material which was dated to the Post Me-
dieval period. The neglect and infill of this ditch may signify a loss of importance after the Medieval
period. As mentioned, the alignment of the northernmost ditch (C.509) parallels the town wall. The
outer and inner ditches, in both instances (north and south), were quite wide while the middle ditch
was not. Furthermore, in each instance the inner ditch and the middle ditch were set comparatively
close together. The positioning of these ditches therefore implies a certain amount of planning and



they were probably laid out in a single phase of work. The 13th century appears to have been a time of
significant growth and the foundation of St. John’s Hospital (1210) and the Franciscan Friary (1240s)
are testimony to this. The period in which the ditches finally fall into disuse (Post Medieval) is there-
fore indicative of the changes in security and economy of the town.

Four more Medieval ditches (C. 229, C.253, C.281 and C.398) traversed the excavated trench. These
were all further into the interior of the town and were generally larger and at greater depths. One
of these (C.398) ran east-west a short distance north of the market square, while another (C.281)
ran northeast-southwest through market square. Approximately 100 metres south of this, two more
ditches (C.253 and C.229) crossed the trench east-west. All were of Medieval date with fills containing
13th century material. There were also contaminant finds of a later date probably owning to the early
modern drain (C.81) The function of the ditches within the interior of the town is intriguing and they
may define the public market place or an early Anglo-Norman defensive measure. Indeed, a motte and
bailey at this location would not have been implausible (O’ Donovan 1854, 71) or at least the fortifica-
tions of the garrison noted in 1287. Historical sources indicate the importance of Castledermot in the
second half of the 13th century with two separate fair grants, an inquisition (1286) and regular courts
from 1297. This central location, the present market square and the area to the south must therefore
have been an area of intense activity.

Four walls (C.269, C.275, C.517 and C.524) were recorded at the southern portion of Market Square.
These were interpreted as forming a building as a number of distinct layers were contained within
them. The walls (C.517 and C.269) were substantial and must have been structural external walls.
The interior space had been deepened to form a ‘basement’ feature to the building. The west wall was
visible in section at the north end and this too appeared substantial. A possible internal wall (C.275)
was found to join, but not knit, with the southern wall and so may have been an internal divide. It is
therefore likely that this structure extends further to the east, but not much further to the west. The
building’s function is not known but its location, central to the market square, suggests it was of pub-
lic and possibly administrative importance. The lowest layers within the building seem to relate to its
construction as they were of redeposited natural with inclusions of mortar. The upper layers relate to
the destruction of the building. This was almost certainly due to burning as a large burnt layer (C.520)
was found covered by stones and mortar i.e. structural debris. The burnt layer was relatively sterile, in
that if this structure was burned accidentally and unexpectedly, one might expect more ceramics and
metal to remain. The burnt layer produced a late 12th/13th century date from a single sherd of pottery.
Therefore, other goods may have been removed from this central building and placed elsewhere during
a time of trouble. It is tempting, for this reason and the fact that the building was burned, to place its
destruction to Irish insurrection around 1295 or the coming of de Bruce in 1317.

It was Gaelic unrest at the close of the 13th century that prompted the construction of the town walls.
It appears that the location of the town wall was a product of the ditches which preceded it and there-
fore both religious houses (St. John’s and the Franciscans) are situated immediately outside the walls.



Alternatively, the close set ditches were created to aid the defence of the walls. The true sequence here
can only be speculated but it would seem likely that all of the Medieval ditches predated the walls.
The tolls which were placed on traders in order to fund the construction of the walls over seven years
(1295-1302) show a vibrant and controlled market. The ability to collect those tolls would also sug-
gest that the ditches bounded the town at that time. Where the excavation intersected the town wall
at the north (C.387), it had already been altered so as to accommodate the later drain. Therefore only
the lowest foundation stones remained. The southern face suggested a straight inner edge, while the
northern face when excavated indicated an alignment of northwest-southeast and this correlated with
the alignment of external ditches. The thickness of the wall at the west of the trench was over 2m
and broadly comparable to the town wall at the south of the town. This location at the north was the
postulated position of the Dublin gate and therefore, what was uncovered was most likely the wall just
to the west of that gate. As only the basal course of the wall remained, it was not possible to strati-
graphically confirm its origin. The archaeological trench also intersected the postulated location of
the Tullow gate at the south. In this location two walls were found (C.215 and C.507). The southern
outer wall was over 2m in thickness and aligned east-west. It appeared to be composed of a strong
inner core which was then bolstered with neatly fitting stone on each side. North of this, a gap of ap-
proximately 3m remained and some of this area was cobbled. The area was very badly preserved due
to a number of modern utility pipes which had been inserted. It was clear however that a substantial
rubble foundation ran from the baulk in the northwest and terminated with a straight edge parallel
with the southern wall (C.507). This second angled foundation (C.215) may have stemmed from the
recorded line of the town wall to the north. The cobbled surface between the two walls supports the
theory that this was a staggered gateway of which the excavation only uncovered a narrow portion. The
town walls were attacked and possibly destroyed a number of times to various degrees from the 14th to
the 17th century. It is likely that they were repaired at least partially each time, with the probable excep-
tion of the Cromwellian sacking of the town in the mid-17th century. Unlike the ambiguous castle of
Castledermot, the walls, like the Romanesque church, are still upstanding in parts around the town
and testimony to its troubled history.

The importance of the fills contained within the ditches has been mentioned previously, on grounds
of dating the ditches use but also the economy of the period. The large outer ditch at the north (C.24)
contained a number of fills. The basal fill appeared to have formed over a lengthy period and could
have been forming from the late 12th century. It also produced faunal evidence which was varied and
was possibly a representative sample of the meat diet at this time; cattle, sheep, pig and horse. Within
the ditch (C.24), two ‘wintering’ episodes were identified and between which a purposeful backfill
seemed to have occurred (C.29). This fill contained local Medieval ware and a common faunal as-
semblage with the addition of a single human femur. This may indicate the purposeful redeposition
of material from elsewhere. The upper fills produced an abundance of local 13th century pottery and
a single sherd of Saintonge. Interestingly, cattle and sheep from these ditch fills vary in age suggest-
ing secondary products (milk, wool etc) were also of importance. The only goat remains were of horn
cores, again indicating horn working, while the basal fill also contained two pieces of iron slag. The



animal bones were representative of both initial butchery and prime meat waste. The ditch (C.24)
appears to have lost its original function sometime during the 13th or possibly early 14th century. It
was certainly not being re-cut and by this time was a general purpose dump largely indicative of the
economy as a whole. On the north side of the town, the two other smaller ditches were filled with
similar animal bone only the ditch immediately outside the wall could be dated to the 13th century by
a single pot sherd. Both of these ditches (C.51 and C.49) also contained iron slag. The nature of the fills
suggests that all three outer ditches at the north fell into disuse at approximately the same time, prob-
ably mid to late 13thC. The ditches outside the town wall at the south provide an alternative scenario.
The outer southern ditch (C.502) was sealed by a layer containing 13th century pottery its location at
the base of the slope towards the river makes this date arguable. Especially since the single fill of the
ditch was archaeologically sterile. Similarly, the middle ditch (C.216) was devoid of any datable mate-
rial, producing only a single sheep bone. The innermost ditch (C.509) had cut through a layer on the
southern edge and the dating of this truncated layer was questionable. The fills of the ditch however
were clearly post-Medieval. Therefore, these ditches on the south appear to have been maintained until
the late 17th century. Perhaps the reason for this is an environmental one as these ditches would have
served as drains, collecting the surface water which would surely have flowed down the main street.
Flooding from the river would also have been mitigated. The presence of standing water within this
ditch was supported by the occurrence of Stonewort in the samples. At any rate the outer ditches on
the south do not provide information as to the Medieval economy of the town.

The ditches within the interior appear to fall into disuse at approximately the same time as those out-
side the town wall at the north. The ditch north of the market square (C.398) contained a sequence
of silt strata with occasional local 13th century pottery. Similarly, the ditch (C.281) which traversed
the modern market square was filled by silts, produced three sherds of 13th century pottery but also
included animal bone. The animal bone was not abundant and little could be identified although dog
and horse were present. The southern two interior ditches (C.253 and C.229) contained more bone,
primarily cattle and even more local 13th century pottery. The southernmost interior ditch (C.229) had
been filled quickly and purposefully from the north (C.230) before a final filled levelled the ditch (C.
228). The final fill also contained a single human femur and therefore this material was most likely
removed from elsewhere specifically for the purpose of backfilling the ditch. All four internal ditches
were backfilled during the 13th or possibly early 14th century. As with the external ditches, with the
town wall in place or under construction, the defensive character of these ditches was also diminished.
Furthermore, the interior ditches would have restricted the ever growing 13th century market centre.
Generally, the fills here suggest a less sterile and more domestic environment near the southern ditches.
This may reflect on the layout of trade and practises within the market square.

Pits were the most common feature type encountered during the excavations. In such an urban set-
ting, Medieval pits can usually be regarded as domestic (i.e. cess, refuse, storage etc.) and this appears
to have been the case in Medieval Castledermot. Medieval pits were found in abundance both north
and south of the market place and within the town walls. Outside the town walls they were relatively



sparse; four to at the north and five (in the area of the cemetery) to the south of the walls. No Medieval
cess pit was identified and while storage pits may have been excavated, their contents were removed and
no indications of storage remained. None of the Medieval pits in Castledermot contained inner lining
and most were sub-circular and relatively small.

Outside the town wall at the north four pits (C.41, C.43, C.55 and C.59) were dated to the Medieval,
and one of these (C.55) was truncated by the inner ditch. Therefore this pit was potentially 12th cen-
tury but no function could be assigned. Only one of the four pits here could clearly be interpreted as
a refuse pit (C.59).

Within the town walls but north of the market square, 28 pits (C.67, C.72, C.73, C.74, C.78, C.79,
C.294, C.296, C.301, C.304, C.309, C.312, C.316, C.320, C.322, C.323, C.325, C.327, C.329,
C.337, C.331, C.346, C.352, C.354, C.356, C.365 and C.366) were revealed, almost half of which
were clearly refuse pits. These pits contained animal bone, 13th century pottery and in nine cases, iron
slag produced from smelting. The pits to which no function was assigned did produce artefacts and
ecofacts but not in sufficient quantities to warrant an interpretation. This may relate to differential
preservation. Nevertheless, this area of the Medieval town was intensely used for domestic, and to a
lesser extent, industrial processes. Therefore, the line of the excavated trench was not following the
Medieval thoroughfare along this section. The character of the centre of the town again influenced the
location of pits here.

A single pit (C.372) was found in Market Square and the function of this pit was unknown. Most
of the market square was devoid of pits. Four (C.106, C.262, C.263 and C. 257) were found in the
vicinity of ditch (C.253) and these contained silt and Medieval pottery. The final one of these (C.257)
was truncated by the ditch (C.253) and so probably predated the enclosed space at the centre. Between
the southern two interior ditches (C.229 and C.253), three more pits (C.235, C.237 and C.238) were
filled with the same refuse of animal bone, iron slag and pottery and this refuse possibly signifies disuse
as opposed to daily usage. Another Medieval pit was also found here (C.250) but no function could
be assigned. The rare occurrence of refuse pits is of course to be expected if the market place was to
represent a public area.

South of the ditch defined centre of the town, many of the pits were of post-Medieval date. Only six
were found to be Medieval (C.93, C.113, C.118, C.124, C.150 and C.178) and most of these were
easily recognisable as refuse pits. They again produced pottery, iron slag and animal bone of cattle,
sheep, pig and horse. This again signified a domestic area of the town but without the same intensity as
was apparent at the north. This may be the result of concentrated and intrusive use of the area in later
times, even perhaps the continued use, or reuse of such pits.

South of the town walls, pits were once again sparse and some could not be allocated a period (C.492,
C.490 and C.495). Five pits (C.429, C.438, C.455, C.456 and C.457) which could be dated to the



Medieval were all located within the cemetery immediately to the east of the Franciscan Friary. At least
two (C.429 and C.438) may have been grave cuts which were unused or where preservation was very
low. Another pit may have been sectioned through an east-west drain (C.455). Only one pit (C.457)
appeared to have a definable function. This was filled with slate and held no disturbed bone from the
cemetery. It is therefore a likely dump of broken or excess slate from construction. Due to the pits
proximity to the upstanding remains of the friary, it is tempting to associate this material with the
reconstruction of the friary in 1302. In general, the pits indicate an absence of domestic material and
instead possibly signify a certain reverence at this location.

Occasionally insubstantial features were discovered and these were particularly difficult to interpret
fully owing to the nature of the excavated trench. Drainage channels were often difficult to date due
to the absence of finds and only one (C.45) north of the town walls was dated securely to the Medieval
period. As mentioned above, the friary was reconstructed circa. 1302. The buildings relating to the
original Franciscan foundation are therefore unknown. However two stakeholes and a posthole were
found to the east of the upstanding remains. These were stratigraphically quite early and probably
relate to the earlier Franciscan foundation but due to the limited extent exposed during these works in
addition to the later archaeological intrusions these are impossible to interpret with any certainty.

Historical sources indicate a vibrate market place in Medieval Castledermot and this was supported by
the archaeological findings. Much domestic and industrial material was found in pits and ditches but
also many layers which built up through the period. Not surprisingly, the majority of these layers were
centred on the market square and much like urban strata found elsewhere, they provide key insights
into the Medieval economy of a town.
The historical document relating to the murage grant at the end of the 13th century compliments much
of what was found in the Medieval faunal assemblage. Large mammal bones, including cattle and
horse, accounted for the vast majority of animal bone. Both primary butchery and prime meat bones
of cattle were found and the age of cattle suggested secondary products were also traded. Cattle and
horse appear high on the order of the documentation relating to toll prices, which notes them for live,
meat and also secondary products (hides, cheese and butter). Likewise, sheep occurred regularly in fills
and layers throughout Castledermot. Sheep also varied in age and the historical sources again suggest
fleeces and wools were of importance. Evidence of goats was less obvious but definitely occurred in the
large ditch at the north (C.24). The horn cores here were being worked as only horn cores were found.
Pigs were also quite poorly represented but mentioned in the historical source. The low incidence of
pig bones is unusual but so too is the high quantity of butchered horse. A small quantity of domestic
fowl bones were recovered from Medieval contexts. Birds are not an element of the tolls document
and fowl were probably always kept within the town adding both eggs and meat to the Medieval diet.
Wild animals were not archaeologically represented until the Post-Medieval nor were fish of any kind,
yet the Medieval source prices these and they must have been present if only in small numbers. The
fine nature of fish bones might easily have decayed while shells from shell fish are more durable. It is
interesting therefore to see that instance where shells were identified as inclusions, than given fill or



layer was always of Medieval date.

Evidence for secondary animal products in the Medieval did not survive apart from horns cores previ-
ously mentioned (C.24). No leather or textiles were recovered. The soil samples indicated that cereal
crops were present within the town. Cereal crops were comprised wheat, barley and oats. Wheat was
seemingly most common and rare occurrences of rye were also noted. Pits, ditches and layers generally
held equal quantities of cereals and so no obvious storage or processing areas were identified. Wild
plants were often present in the record and mostly related to weeds associated with agriculture. How-
ever, sloes, blackberries and wild radish and cabbage were also noted suggesting that gathering wild
edible plants was also undertaken but not to any great degree.

Pottery from the Medieval was the most abundant find type and provided dating evidence for features
(Figure 49). It appears that a local pottery (called Castledermot-type throughout this report) was the
most common. It was at least the most disposed type of pottery and accounted for over 70% of all Me-
dieval sherds found. Most Castledermot-type pottery would have formed jugs. The next most frequent
pottery recovered was Leinster Cooking ware followed by Dublin types. Dublin-type coarse ware and
Leinster Cooking ware can be as early as the late 12th century but most of the Medieval pottery centres
on the 13th century. Just over 1% of pot sherds originated outside of Ireland and therefore trade into
Castledermot was relatively localised. Medieval urban excavations in the larger coastal cities have pro-
duced high incidences of French and British wares which indicate direct trade links. At Castledermot,
threes herds of Redcliffe were retrieved from two adjoining layers in market square. The lower of these
layers (C.332) also produced two sherds of miscellaneous French ware and a sherd of Saintonge green
glazed ware. Another layer (C.390), sealing a ditch in the market square also produced a single French
sherd. The only other piece of Saintonge was recovered from an upper fill (C.26) of the large external
ditch in the north. Therefore, these rare foreign vessels of the Medieval were concentrated in the Mar-
ket area and were probably not commonly in domestic use. Furthermore, no toll was placed on ceramic
goods according to historical record and this implies that much of the pottery was made locally.

Some level of industry was apparent in the archaeological record. This was primarily from deposits
of iron slag which occurred to varying degrees in refuse pits and ditches of Medieval date and was
notably more frequent in the northern half of the town. All slag was in the form of plano convex bot-
toms, diagnostic of smithing practises. Iron slag was the initial waste product in purifying iron ore
and so indicates the full process of iron working was carried out within the town walls. Metal arte-
facts from the excavation mostly consisted of iron nails and amorphous lumps, however copper was
founding a number of forms. An iron blade was found in association with the backfill over a burial
(04E0750:459:1) and a single horseshoe was also noteworthy (04E0750:256:5). The murage grant
document mentions iron and lead but no evidence for the latter was found.

The Medieval glass which was found came from a single context (C.195). This was a mixed fill between
the two walls of the southern town gate. The glass fragments are from a gothic window, most likely



the large eastern window of the friary, and are decorated with a floral motif in red/brown paint. These
have been dated to the late 13th or early 14th century which correlates with the approximate date of
reconstruction at the Franciscan Friary (1302). The glass is also comparable to window glass found at
the east gable of Kells priory church (Moran, this report). It is likely therefore, that the large east gable
window of the friary at Castledermot was of this style which once broken became scattered. It is pos-
sible that this happened during one of the following attacks from de Bruce (1317), Crown forces (1405)
or Cromwellian forces (1650).

Medieval stone implements were not recovered during these excavations. Structural material was
evident in the form of slates and tiles. A single perforated slate was recovered from a rubbish pit
(04E0750:80:1) and the other was a Castledermot-type ridge tile found within a layer (C.205) banked
against the southern gate of the town wall. No other structural fragments were uncovered.

To the south of the town wall and east of the Franciscan Friary, a total of 26 individual burials were
recorded and also the disarticulated remains of other several others could be quantified (Figure 44).
These burials comprised a portion of at least four north-south rows within a cemetery at this loca-
tion. Some burials comprised grave cuts (e.g. C.425) while others appear to have been covered with a
mantle of earth (e.g. C.422). There was no clear chronological sequence between the two methods of
interment although the practicalities of the ‘mantle of earth’ method would suggest that these were the
earlier in the location in which they occur. Where grave cuts were identified they were relatively shal-
low and sub-rectangular with poorly defined sides. In only one instance did a coffin survive (Skeleton
26) and this comprised a number of planks joined mostly without the use of nails. Nails were also
found in association with other burials (Skeletons 1, 2 and 6), all of which were contained in grave
cuts. Furthermore, two nails were the most recovered from any one burial and this may indicate the
more common use of carpentry joints. All skeletal remains were in a supine extended position and
aligned east-west, with their head at the west. The arms were usually alongside or sometimes bent at
the elbow and resting on the pelvis (e.g. Skeleton 2). The skull, in some cases, faced forward (east) or
rested on its side facing south. The skulls that faced south (skeletons 6, 9, 12 etc) probably did so due
to the slope of ground here. All skeletal remains, particularly those without a recognisable cut, had a
tendency to displace to the south. This was mostly caused by water flow down slope. The demographics
of the skeletal remains shows a variety of age groups from neonate to older adult and almost an equal
number of males and females. Infants and juveniles were present in both parts of the cemetery, but one
location was particularly interesting. The remains of two infants (skeletons 4 and 4a) were found lying
on a layer of sandy mortar. They were of a 2 year old which was poorly preserved (4a) and a 5/6year old
which survived in better condition. Immediately to the south, the skeleton of a young adult female (9)
was associated with neonatal bones. These were all covered by the same layer (C.422) and it is plausi-
ble that together these remains represented a young family which could potentially have died from a
single unknown cause. Another infant was found to be disarticulated with adult bones (skeleton 22)
further south and aged about 3-5 years. The skull of an adolescent was also found further south. There
was no organised distribution of males and females and young and old were located evenly. Although



a very limited sample of the overall cemetery, there were no remains which were older than 50 years
of age at the time of death. The health of the population was variable. Three skeletons (3, 14 and 17)
indicated malnutrition in early life and an older adult female (skeleton 11) shows generally degenerative
symptoms. A single young adult male (skeleton 10) probably died of tuberculosis or a related illness.
The only clear sign of trauma was a mature female (skeleton 7) who had two broken ribs at the time
of death. Generally however, dental wear and the effects of a strenuous life were apparent as would be
expected of a Medieval population. The duration of use is difficult to ascertain due to the sterility of a
Christian graveyard. It was clear that some internments truncated others (skeletons 13, 20 and 21) and
so it is likely that this area was used over number of generations. A total of six burials associated with
13th century Castledermot-type pottery and therefore could originate to the original Franciscan Friary.
However, two of these burials (skeleton 13 and 26) while containing 13th century pottery, were sealed
by layers containing Transition Ware of the 16th/17th century. The abundance of local 13th century
pottery was apparent elsewhere and therefore one might expect it to occur in many disturbed/re-cut
deposits. As a result the earlier pottery can only define a possible commencement of internments. The
layer sealing skeleton 13 produced 4 sherds of Transition ware (half of the total number recovered) and
this burial truncated those around it (e.g. skeleton 21). Skeletons 17 and 26 were also below deposits
containing Transition ware and the wall which was over skeleton 20 similarly contained a single sherd.
It is tempting therefore, to see Transition ware as broadly defining the termination of use for this part
of the cemetery. This date would also compliment the historical fact of Henry VIII’s suppression of
the Friary in the mid 16th century. Therefore the cemetery belongs to the period of the rebuilt gothic
friary (1302) and was probably in use over 200 year period. The true size of this cemetery cannot be
accurately calculated, but excavations further east (Mullins 2002, 160) revealed no burial evidence and
the Medieval thoroughfare must exist between these two excavations. Interestingly, the north-south
extent of the cemetery does not centre evenly on the friary but is instead biased to the southern side. It
is likely that the cemetery extends west along the southern side of the church.

The archaeological excavation revealed a number of facets to the Medieval town of Castledermot. The
southern town wall was identified at a position which suggests the gateway was of a complex design.
The cemetery to the south also indicates that the route leading to the town from the south was prob-
ably further east than at present. This also seems to have been the case at the north gate of the town.
The many pits within the town point to domestic use and these could not have been on the public
thoroughfare. Instead, the pits were probably contained within burgage plots that lined the street but
there was no evidence of boundaries relating to these. The centrally located market was defined early
in the late Medieval by ditches which quickly diminished in importance. The single structure that
was revealed in the market square was most likely of administrative or military use and not domestic.
Furthermore, the position and form of this structure suggested that it extended to the east. In all other
instances the thoroughfare could have been displace to the east of the archaeological trench, but this
is unlikely at the market square. The most plausible explanation is that the Medieval streets in Castle-
dermot were narrow and did not necessarily pass straight through the town. The streetscape evident
today probably owes much to developments in the Post-Medieval period.



8.2 The Post-Medieval Period
The archaeological excavations at Castledermot found much evidence relating to this period. The
turbulent history witnessed in the Medieval came to an end. The defences of the town were dimin-
ished as was the wider role of the town. It no longer held courts nor had parliaments and its religious
institutions all but disappeared. The evidence recovered correlate with this in that no major structures
or divisions were found. Instead, the period is represented by numerous accumulative layers and pits.
Activity in the Post-Medieval was found more intensely in the southern half of the town. This may
well be a product of the limitations of the archaeological trench as opposed to any meaningful social
predilection.

In the aftermath of the Cromwellian invasion the defences of Castledermot were probably left to re-
main in a ruinous state. The ditches outside the walls were backfilled. It is likely that the ditch imme-
diately outside the southern town wall (C.509) was maintained until the mid 17th century. It might be
speculated that this was a preparation made against Cromwellian forces but all other ditches appeared
not to have been maintained and so it would seem unlikely reason. The motive in maintaining this
ditch may have been one of status, adding a certain prestige to the town gate, or more practically, to
allow for better drainage.

A total of three walls (C.208, C.430 and C.469) were dated to the Post-Medieval. One of these (C.208)
was built on the cobbled surface within the southern town gate. The north-south wall was insubstan-
tial but would have blocked the entrance through Tullow gate. It contained 18th century pottery and
so the town walls and gates were out of usage by this date. Seemingly, the only other recognisable
divisions made were to the south of the town where two walls were built over the cemetery. The first
was the north-south walls above skeleton 20 (C.469). The second was a granite wall over and between
skeletons 7 and 8 (C.430). Both walls were probably attempts to demarcate the area of the cemetery
as the road was widening and shifting. The fact that the true location and extent of this cemetery was
forgotten cannot be disputed.

The comparatively sparse occurrence of pits at the northern part of the town may also be due to the
widening or moving of the street in this period. Four pits (C.19, C.20, C.21 and C.23) of no inter-
pretable function were identified outside the walls to the north. Within the walls north of the market
square there were two pits (C.300 and C.314) of Post-Medieval date one of which was clearly a refuse
pit relating to domestic activity. The market square maintained an absence of pits owing to its central
and public role in the town. The southern area of the town had 21 Post-Medieval pits (C.87, C.90,
C.95, C.97, C.101, C.109, C.111, C.120, C.126, C.134, C.136, C.141, C.146, C.164 C.169, C.176,
C.202, C.233, C.246, C.252 and C.258) and many of these could be interpreted as refuse pits. One
of these pits was possibly a cess pit (C.246) but not certainly so. The refuse pits here contained con-
struction materials, animal bone, pottery and clay pipe fragments and so were somewhat similar to the
Medieval pits in that they contained an assortment of material. Seven of the pits could not be inter-
preted due to the sterile nature of their fills. One of these was a large stone-lined pit (C.164) with an



associated linear running into it. The fills contained various Post-Medieval artefacts and animal bones
and did not appear to relate to the original function. Furthermore, the linear was backfilled with sterile
material before the pit itself was used for refuse. Therefore, the linear channel and the large stone-lined
pit had been utilised together but no evidence pertaining to that use was found. Two pits (C.460 and
C.462) were also found outside the southern town walls. Neither could be assigned a function and
both were cut into the Medieval cemetery. One of these pits produced an 18th century date.

The information about the Post-Medieval economy was recovered from the fills of pits and ditches but
also the many layers which were deposited in this period. The distribution of these layers is interesting
as the market square contains large layers (C.264 and C.265) with abundant artefacts and ecofacts.
Likewise, the area just inside the southern town wall has the deposition of 24 layers. At the north of
the town four layers occur from this period. Their type and position suggested that they had been de-
posited in order to stabilise the ground surface over the soft fills of Medieval features. Elsewhere within
the town, the same horizontal deposition did not occur or were perhaps removed in modern times.
Outside the town layers were more difficult to date due to a lack of domestic refuse. The layers which
were deposited over the cemetery were all sterile with a single exception (C.481). This layer was unique
in that it contained animal bone and transition ware (16th century) and it is tempting to associate this
with the arrival of Cromwellian forces.

The faunal remains from outside the town walls in this period reflect the lack of activity at these loca-
tions. No Post-Medieval animal bones occurred north of the town, while the southern area produced
only a scattering of cattle and sheep bones with a single incidence of a horse mandible. The fills within
the ditch (C.509) immediately south of the town wall indicate that cattle and sheep were still domi-
nant with pig and horse also represented. A human clavicle here must have been disturbed from the
cemetery. The stone lined pit (C.164) within the town produced a number of horse bones but unlike
the Medieval horse remains these were unbutchered. The large Post-Medieval deposits within the mar-
ket square also produced a large quantity of animal bone signifying the continuation of trade at this
location. Here (C.264 and C.265) the dominant species were again cattle and sheep. These centrally
located layers also produced the only incidence of fish (cod) and domestic goose. One other bone
related to domestic fowl. The sawn tip of a deer antler might signify hunting, although because it is
antler this may not be the case. At any rate, hunting does not appear to have been a major source of
food. The other oddity in the faunal assemblage was a single femur of a rabbit from a pit (C.87) to the
south of the market square. North of the market, a Post-Medieval pit produced a normal domesticated
assemblage with the inclusion of a dog humerus.

Again, the main domesticates indicated that secondary products were being utilised. Only in in-
stance had bone been worked and this was a handle recovered from one of the market square layers
(04E0750:265:7). Furthermore, the influx of agrarian products was highlighted in the archaeobotani-
cal evidence. Although, the sample was smaller than that achieved for Medieval contexts, the Post-Me-
dieval flora record indicates no significant change in the species types encountered. It therefore seems



likely that the arable farming practices in the surrounding hinterland continued as before, focusing on
wheat, barley and oats.

Leather artefacts had been preserved in the soft waterlogged fills of the ditch outside the southern
town wall (C.509). Almost half of the leather retrieved was from cattle and the remainder consisted of
calfskin, sheepskin and goatskin. This again the highlights the apparent lack of importance attached to
wild animal products. The majority of this leather related to footwear and two almost complete shoes
were recovered (Figure 50 and 51). Both were of welted construction with composite heels and so date
to the late 17th Century (04E0750: 227: L16 and L17). They also had no repairs made on them – unu-
sual for the time – and so signify an amount of wealth on behalf of some of the townspeople.

The pottery recovered from the Post-Medieval layers and fills was far more diverse than that which
was found in the Medieval. Over 50% of Post-Medieval pottery was either glazed red earthenware or
black glazed ware. There is however a vast increase in British wares all through the period. The relative
peace acquired by the town in the aftermath of the coming of Cromwellian forces must have eased
distance trade. In addition, Leinster was firmly held as a British colony, allowing trade routes develop
further inland. As a result, local wares diminished in importance reflecting the loss of self sufficiency
of the town.

Clay pipe fragments were a common occurrence in the Post-Medieval contexts. Broken stem pieces
were found in large numbers from a variety of deposits. The bowls of clay pipes were also found but
were by no means plentiful. Furthermore, the bowls retrieved were largely undecorated types. From
the evidence available most seem to date to the 17th/18th century. The trade in tobacco can again be
taken as an indicator of a growing market and increased wealth.

The industrial nature of the town appeared to change between the Medieval and Post-Medieval peri-
ods. The common occurrence of slag within refuse pits decreased and was only apparent in two pits
(C.83 and C.133). Iron slag was instead found within the large market layers (C.264 and C.265) and
in a layer to the south (C.173). This was of the same plano convex bottom found throughout the Me-
dieval.

Metal artefacts of Post-Medieval date were numerous. While much of these were nails and amorphous
lumps, iron keys and hooks were found. There was also a single buckle (04E0750:265:109), a pin
(04E0750:265:24) and a coin/token (04E0750:469:3). Similar to the Medieval there was a single oc-
currence of a horseshoe.

Stone implements were not found and only a single perforated roof slate was recovered from a Post-
Medieval pit. Two other pit fills (C.83 and C.148) contained Pantile roof-tiles and a North Devon
gravel tempered roof tile was recovered from the market square layers (C.265). Generally, there was a
lack of structural materials which could clearly be associated with the Post-Medieval. The rotary quern



fragments (04E0750:9:2) which were recovered had been reused in the Early modern drain and so may
originally date to either the Post-Medieval or Medieval periods. Similarly, a stone fragment (Figure
48), which was obviously structural, was recovered from later stratigraphy encountered in the market
square.

Post-Medieval Castledermot was a town diminished in importance. It had also derived stability within
a common market which it did not have before. This possibly allowed for more controlled domestic
life within the town. The archaeological evidence suggests that the street plan and the burgage plots
probably changed during the period. As a result, some areas within the excavated trench appear to be
designated depositional areas (most likely within plots), while others were relatively sterile.

8.3 Early Modern and Modern Town
The features which related to the modern town were those of drainage and street surfaces. The large
lintelled drain (C.8/C.81) followed much of the length of the archaeological trench and where the
cobble surface (C.3) occurred, always indicated the edge of the roadway. Therefore, the evidence re-
covered from this transect in relation to the early modern period only went to prove that the modern
streetscape has changed little over 200 years.



9 Conclusions
This report comprises the Final Report of excavations undertaken by Eachtra Archaeological Projects
along the line of the proposed Castledermot Sewerage Scheme in 2004. Significant Medieval and
post-Medieval stratigraphy was encountered along the 726m stretch of pipe trench. These subsurface
remains provide a valuable contribution of furthering our knowledge and understanding of Medieval
Castledermot and the extant Medieval architecture that survives in the town. The archaeological re-
sults highlight the many facets of Medieval and Post-Medieval Castledermot. The defences revealed
indicated a development from concentric ditches to the addition of town walls with the subsequent
disuse of the earlier ditches. It is likely that the external ditches and the town wall were contemporane-
ous for at least some time. The layout of these ditches most likely reflected upon the design of the town
wall, particularly the location of the gateways. It was well defended and considered strategically impor-
tant and a centre for administration for the area. Furthermore, the ditches identified both north and
south of the town wall, appeared to dictate the position of the religious houses. The role of the town
as a religious centre continued from the Early Medieval period and expanded with two more founda-
tions. They provided both medical and religious services until the end of the Medieval. The market
place survives today by name only. However, the variety of goods available indicates a vibrant and busy
town. As well as the town, the market also reflects on the hinterland which also supplied the market.
The evidence relating to the economy of Castledermot highlights the importance of self sufficiency in
the Medieval period. Local pottery and abundant agriculture products indicate this. The trade routes
appear to have stabilised into the Post-Medieval period with greater quantities and varieties of pot-
tery. The diet of the townspeople seemingly changed little between the 13th and 17th centuries, relying
heavily on cattle, sheep, pigs, wheat, barley and oats. Metal, both artefacts and waste from processing,
again suggests a dependence of local smithing and the evidence of secondary produce from the faunal
record compliments this. Although the excavated trench was a narrow transect of the Castledermot,
the information recovered in this investigation has furthered the knowledge of the town during the
Medieval and Post-Medieval periods and supports the general corpus of knowledge of Irish Medieval
towns achieved to date. Castledermot was typically an inland, walled Medieval town of moderate
standing, which fluctuated in importance through time.



10 Bibliography
Bradley, J., Halpin, A. and King, H. 1984 Urban Archaeological Survey. Part VII

(i). County Kildare. Unpublished report, Office of Public Works.

Byrne, M.E. 2000 Proposed sewerage and water improvement schemes, Castledermot, Co. Kildare:
archaeological assessment. Unpublished report, Byrne, Mullins and Associates, Archaeological
Consultants.

Byrne, M. 2002a 472. St Johns, Castledermot. In: I. Bennett (ed.) Excavations 2000, 161, Wordwell.

Byrne, M. 2002b 473. Skenagun, Castledermot. In: I. Bennett (ed.) Excavations 2000, 161,
Wordwell.

Lang J.T. 1971 The Castledermot Hogback. In Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.
Vol.101, 154-158.

Lynch, R. 2002 471. Main Street, Castledermot. In: I. Bennett (ed.) Excavations 2000, 160-161,
Wordwell.

Comerford, M. 1896 Castledermot: its history and antiquities. Journal of the Kildare Archaeological
Society 1 (6).

Connolly, P. (ed.) 2002 Statute rolls of the Irish Parliament, Dublin.

Fitzgerald Lord W. 1892 The Round Tower of Castledermot. In Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries
of Ireland. Vol.XXII, 66-69.

Gilbert, J.T. 1870 Historic and municipal documents of Ireland 1172 – 1320, London.

Graves, J. 1877 King’s Councils in Ireland, London.

Hamilton, H.C. (ed.) 1867 Calendar of State Papers Ireland 1574 – 1585, London.

Harbison, P. 1991/92 Daniel Grose’s 1798 drawing of Castledermot Church. Journal of the Kildare
Archaeological Society 18 (1), 96-100.

Horner, A. 1997. Thomas Emerson’s Kildare Estate Survey 1674-1697. In Journal of the County Kildare
Archaeological Society 1996-1997. Vol.XVIII (Part III). 399-429.

MacAirt, S. (ed.) 1977 The Annals of Inisfallen, Dublin.

MacCarthy, B. (ed.) 1892 (reprint 1998) The Annals of Ulster, Dublin.



Mills, J. (ed.) 1905 Calendar of Justiciary Rolls Ireland 1295 – 1303, Dublin.

Mullins, C. 2000 299. Athy Road, Castledermot. In: I. Bennett (ed.) Excavations 1998, 100-01,
Wordwell.

Mullins, C. 2002 469. Abbey Street, Castledermot. In: I. Bennett (ed.) Excavations 2000, 160,
Wordwell.

Murphy, D. (ed.) 1896 The Annals of Clonmacnoise, Dublin.

O’Donovan, J. (ed.) 1854 (reprint) The Annals of Ireland. Volumes I, II and III, Dublin and New
York.

Petty, W. 1939 The census of Ireland 1659, Dublin.

Roe, H.M. 1967 A Carved Stone at Castledermot, Co. Kildare. In Journal of the Royal Society of
Antiquaries of Ireland. Vol. 97, 179-180.

Sayles, G.O. 1976 The parliaments and councils of Medieval Ireland, Dublin.

Sayles, G.O. 1979 Documents of the affairs of Ireland before the King’s Council, Dublin.

Sweetman, H.S. 1895 (reprint 1974) Calendar of documents relating to Ireland 1171– 1251. Volumes I
– VI, London.

Thomas, A. 1992. The Walled Towns of Ireland. Volume 2. Irish Academic Press, Dublin, 49-51



11 Figures

Figure 1: Discovery Series, Sheet 61. Location of development highlighted.



Sheet KD040
Sheet KD038

Figure 2: RMP Map of Castledermot (KD040 & KD038) indicating town wall and zone of
archaeological potential.



0 50 mm

Figure 52: Metal pin 04E0750:265:24



12 Plates

Plate 1: Romanesque doorway with Round Tower to left rear (KD040-002), from west.

Plate 2: High Cross (KD040-002) from east.




Plate 4: Area 1 Pit C.20 from east.



Plate 5: Area 1 Ditch Cut C.24 from north.

Plate 6: Area 1 Ditch C.49 in foreground,
ditch C.51 in midground and pit C.59 in
background from north.



Plate 7: Area 1 Pit cut C.59 and ditch cut
C.51 from south.

Plate 8: Area 1 Drain C.45 from south.



Plate 9: Area 2 Wall C.387, drain C.8 and silt C.386 in left section from east.




Plate 11: Area 2 Pit section C.78 from east..





Plate 14: Area 3 South elevation of wall C.269.



Plate 15: Area 4 Pit C109 in foreground and
pit C.111 in background from north.

Plate 16: Area 4 Pit C.134 from north.



Plate 17: Area 4 Pit C.124 from east

Plate 18: Area 5 Post Medieval Wall C.208 from south east.



Plate 19: Area 5 Cobbled surface C.198 from
north

Plate 20: Area 5 Possible town wall C.215
from southeast.



Plate 21: The Franciscan Friary (KD040-002) from west.

Plate 22: Area 6 Wall C.430 from east.



Plate 23: Area 6 Skeletons 3 and 2, from east (mid-ex).

Plate 24: Area 6 Skeleton 4 from west.



Plate 27: Area 6 Skeletons 8 and 7 from east




Plate 29: Area 6 Skeletons 20 and 21 from north.

Plate 30: Area 6 Skeleton 25 (with Skeleton 22 above shoulder) from east.




Plate 32: Area 6 Coffin (of Skeleton 26) with Skeleton 27 in section.


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12 Appendices

12.1 Appendix 1: Context Register
Context Location Description Length Width Thickness Composition Colour Over Cxts Under Cxts Area
1 Extensive Tarmacadam extensive extensive 0.2m tarmacadam black 2 none all
2 Extensive Road make up extensive extensive 0.2m compacted gravels grey multiple 1 all
3 ChA 9-14, 51.5-57.5 Layer of cobbles 95.8m 0.5m 0.08m compacted cobbles, disused road surface directly below 2 grey multiple 2 1, 2, 4
ChB 21.2-90 95-112
4 ChA 0-144 Capstones of 144m 0.7m 0.2m large granite stones, 0.3m x 0.5m x 0.2m, most rectangular in shape, grey 9, 5 2, 5 1, 2
stone drain angular blocks, occasional lime mortar
5 ChA 0-144 Fill in drain 144m 0.27m 0.1m soft sandy silt with occasional pebbles, natural deposition mid greyish 10, 9 2 1, 2
brown
6 ChA 0-144 Cut of drain 144m 0.85m 0.35m direct negative of c.9, sharp sides, flat base N/A 7 9, 10 1, 2
(negative)
7 ChA 0-144 Fill around 144m 0.85m 0.3m silty sand, backfilled from material that c.8 cuts through mid yellow- 8 6 1, 2
drain ish brown
8 ChA 0-144 outer cut of 144m 1.0m 0.35m U-Shaped linear cut N/A multiple 7 1, 2
drain
9 ChA 0-144 Sidestones of 144m 0.3m 0.25m Stones, granite: 0.3m x 0.3m x 0.25m grey 10 4, 5 1, 2
drain c.4
10 ChA 0-100 Metalled base of 100m 0.3m 0.15m soft silty stones, rounded and sub-rounded coarse pebbles dark brown- 7 5 1, 2
drain c.4 ish grey

Permalink: http://eachtra.ie/index.php/journal/04e0750-castledermot-town-co-kildare/
11 ChA 17-22 Ditch fill 4.8m 0.7m 0.25m firm silty clay, moderate pebbles and charcoal flecks dark brown 26 27 1
12 ChA 0-1 Sondage 1.0m 1.8m 1.4m Test area at northern manhole N/A Nat 1 1
13 ChA 9-10 Upper most fill 0.9m 0.36m 0.10m compact silty gravely sand with inclusions of charcoal and redepos- mid brown 16 2 1
of cut c.20 ited natural
Kildare County Council Sewerage Scheme, Castledermot town, Co. Kildare

14 ChA 8-9 Pit fill of cut 1.0m 0.89m 0.44m soft clayey silt, moderate coarse sub-angular pebbles mid brown 21 2 1
c. 21
15 ChA 4.5-7.2 Post Med pit fill 2.7m 1.8m 0.4m soft clayey silt, frequent sub-angular stones (0.2m) dark orang- 18 2, 8 1
ish grey
16 ChA 9-10 Pit fill of c.20 0.82m 0.35m 0.11m soft silty sand with flecks of charcoal and rounded pebbles mid brown 17 13 1
17 ChA 9-10 Pit fill (basal) 0.73m 0.55m 0.6m soft silty clay with moderate small rounded stones dark brown- 20 16, 13 1
of c.20 ish grey
18 ChA 4.5-6 Pit fill of cut 1.5m 1.2m 0.4m soft silty clay, frequent small-medium sub-rounded stones, oc- dark brown- 19 15, 8 1
c. 19 casional brick ish grey
19 ChA 4.4-6.1 Pit cut 1.5m 1.2m 0.5m partially exposed sub-circular pit N/A Nat 18, 15, 8 1
20 ChA 9-9.9 Pit cut 0.99m 0.58m 1.05m partially exposed sub-circular pit N/A Nat 17,16,13 1
21 ChA 8-9 Pit cut 1.0m 0.89m 0.44m partially exposed irregular pit N/A Nat 14, 8 1
22 ChA 6.6-7.5 Pit fill of c.23 1.2m 0.44m 0.28m soft clayey silt, moderate small sub-angular stones dark orang- 23 8 1
ish grey
23 ChA 6.2-8 Pit cut 1.2m 0.44m 0.28m partially exposed sub-circular pit N/A Nat 22, 8 1

119
ISSUE 7: Eachtra Journal - ISSN 2009-2237

04E0750

24 ChA 24-30 Medieval ditch 14.0m 1.83m 1.1m NW-SE sub-rectangular ditch cut with a U-shaped profile. N/A Nat 33, 32, 31, 1
cut 30, 29, 28,
27, 26, 25,
11, 8
25 ChA 18-24 Redeposit 6.0m 0.6m 0.24m clayey silt with moderate inclusions of sub-angular pebbles and occ. mid brown- 27, 11 34 1
natural flecks of charcoal ish yellow
26 ChA 24-30 Ditch fill (of 24) 4.0m 1.83m 0.25m clayey silt, soft with mod. inclusions of small angular stones and dark blackish 28 27 1
occ. flecks of charcoal brown
27 ChA 24-30 Ditch fill (of 24) 4.0m 1.83m 0.22m clayey silt, soft with mod. inclusions of coarse sub-angular pebbles dark greyish 26 25 1
and freq small charcoal brown
28 ChA 24-30 Ditch fill (of 24) 4.0m 1.83m 0.14m clayey sand mid greyish 29 26 1
yellow
29 ChA 24-30 Ditch fill (of 24) 4.0m 1.83m 0.31m soft silty clay,occ charcoal flecks mid brown 24 28 1
30 ChA 24-30 Ditch fill (of 24) 4.0m 1.83m 0.40m redeposited natural, soft silty sand with freq small rounded stones mottled 31 29 1
mid greyish
yellow
31 ChA 24-30 Ditch fill (of 24) 4.0m 1.83m 0.2m soft silty clay naturally backfilled mottled mid 32, 30 29 1
orangish
brown
32 ChA 24-30 Ditch fill (of 24) 4.0m 1.83m 0.14m soft sandy silt with occ sub-rounded stones, prob winter in-wash mid greyish 30, 33 31 1
yellow
33 ChA 24-30 Basal ditch fill 4.0m 1.83m 0.12m firm clay with freq rounded medium stones mid yellow- 24 32 1
(of 24) ish grey
34 ChA 17-60 Pipe Fill 33.0m 1.4m 0.2m soft clayey silt surrounding plastic pipe dark brown- 11 2 1

ish grey
35 ChA 41.5-48.8 Layer 7.3m 1.80m 0.3m soft sandy clay dark brown- 36, 39 3 1
ish grey
36 ChA 45-50 Deposit/layer 7m 1.80m 0.20m soft sandy silt, occ small charcoal, mod medium sub-angular peb- mid brown- 39, 37 35, 38 1

bles ish grey
37 ChA 47.7-62.6 Deposit/layer 14.9m 1.80m 0.2m soft sandy silt with occ fine and coarse sub-angular pebbles mid greyish 39 36 1
brown
38 ChA 50.2-57.2 Deposit 7.0m 1.80m 0.16m soft sandy clay with occ coarse sub-angular pebbles and freq fine dark greyish 35 34 1
angular pebbles brown
39 ChA 47.7-62.6 Redeposit 1.25m 1.8m 0.18m soft sandy silt mid yellow- Nat 37, 36 1
natural ish brown
40 ChA 53-54 Pit fill (of c41) 0.7m 0.36m 0.19m soft silty clay with mod fine rounded pebbles and frew small mid brown- 41 8 1
rounded stones ish grey
41 ChA 52.7-53.3 Pit cut 0.6m 0.45m 0.18m Oval pit cut truncated by drain 8 N/A Nat 40 1
42 ChA 44.4-45.8 Pit fill (of 43) 1.4m 0.4m 0.08m soft clayey silt with mod small rounded stones, occ - mod patches of dark greyish 43 35 1
redeposited natural and occ small charcoal brown
43 ChA 44.4-45.8 Pit cut 1.4m 0.4m 0.2m only two sides of a sub-rectangular pit, also partially filled by 36 N/A Nat 42 1
due to compression

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04E0750

44 ChA 60.6-64.6 Fill (of 45 linear) 4.0m 0.58m 0.35m soft clayey silt with freq fine angular pebbles to occ small sub- dark brown- 45, 46 38, 36 1
rounded stone, occ flecks of charcoal. ish grey
45 ChA 60.6-64.6 Linear cut 4.0m 0.58m 0.65m poss linear drain cut Nat 46, 44 1
46 ChA 60.6-64.6 Fill (of 45 linear) 4.0m 0.55m 0.3m very soft stoney silt with mod small sub-angular stones dark greyish 45 44, 8 1
black
47 ChA 82.5-83.1 Fill (of ditch 49) 0.6m 0.5m 0.6m soft silt with freq fine and occ coarse sub-angular pebbles also mid grey 48 2 1
animal teeth and iron slag
48 ChA 83-83.5 Fill (of ditch 49) 0.8m 0.5m 0.2m very soft sandy silt with pebble inclusions mid yellow- 49 47 1
ish brown
49 ChA 82.5-83.5 Ditch cut 1.0m 0.5m 0.8m ditch cut truncated by earlier test trench N/A Nat 47, 48 1
50 ChA 87-90 Fill (of ditch 50) 3.0m 1.5m 0.65m soft clayey silt with occ sub-rounded pebbles, occ rounded medium dark brown- 51 2 1
stones, occ flecks of charcoal, freq mica/quartz. ish grey
51 ChA 87-90 Ditch cut 3.0m 1.5m 0.65m sub-rectangular ditch cut truncated by drain 8 at west N/A Nat, 54 50 1
52 ChA 89.5-93.3 Fill (of pit 59) 3.8m 1.0m 1.0m very soft sandy silt, freq sub-rounded medium pebbles, freq sub- mid grey 59 58 1
rounded medium and large stones up to 0.6m
53 ChA 87-87.5 Mixed Layer 1.35m 1.0m 0.2m disturbed clayey silt over natural brownish Nat 57 1
orange
54 ChA 87-87.5 Fill (of pit 55) 0.5m 0.3m 0.2m very soft sandy silt with mod flecks of charcoal, occ fine sub-angu- dark greyish 55 51 1
lar pebbles brown
55 ChA 87-87.5 Pit cut 0.5m 0.3m 0.2m sub-circular pit Nat 54 1
56 ChA 138-140 Fill of c.78 2.75m 1.07m 0.2m silty clay dark brown- 78 57,76 2
ish grey
57 ChA 87-128.5 Layer (over 53) 41.50m 1,40m 0.3m firm sandy silt, mod angulr and sub-angulr medium pebbles mid greyish Nat 2, 3 1, 2
brown

58 ChA 89.5-93.3 Fill (of pit 59) 3.6m 0.8m 0.3m soft sandy silt, mod medium sub-rounded pebbles mid brown- 52, 59 8, 2 1
ish grey
59 ChA 89.5-92.3 Cut of pit 3.8m 1.0m 1.35m oval pit aligned N-S N/A Nat 58 1

60 ChA 90-95 Spread 1m 0.4m 0.02m small spread cut by 59 dark brown Nat 59 1
61 ChA 105-107 Redeposited 2.3m 1.2m 0.3m stiff sandy clay, freq sub-rounded coarse pebbles light green- 62 72 2
natural (over ish yellow
62)
62 ChA 105-107 Fill (of pit 73) 2.6m 1.2m 1.0m soft silt, mod sub-angular coarse pebbles dark grey 65, 73 61 2
63 ChA 130 Modern pit 1.8m 1.5m 0.84m Rubble and clay mix with inclusions of tarmacadam N/A Nat 2 2
64 ChA 125-135 Fill (of pit 67) 0.57m 0.54m 0.55m soft sandy silt, mod sub-angular medium pebbles and angular dark brown- 67 57, 8 2
coarse pebbles, occ animal bone ish grey
65 ChA 105-107 Basal fill (of 2.4m 0.8m 0.15m soft silt, occ fine sub-rounded pebbles dark greyish 73 62 2
pit 73) brown
66 ChA 130-135 Fill (of pit 74) 1.25m 0.75m 0.8m soft silty clay, occ sub-rounded coarse pebles and small stones dark greyish 74 76, 69 2
brown
67 ChA 131 Pit cut 0.57m 0.54m 0.55m sub-circular pit with medieval pottery but truncated at north by pit N/A Nat 64 2
63
68 ChA 105-110 Fill (of pit 72) 1.2m 0.7m 0.2m soft silt, freq sub-angular coarse pebbles dark grey 70, 71, 72 2 2

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04E0750

69 ChA 130-135 Modern pipe cut 3.1m 1.4m 1m along south of 66 N/A 66 2 2
70 ChA 105-106 Fill (of pit 72) 0.8m 0.6m 0.08m firm silty peat very dark 71 68 2
greyish black
71 ChA 105-106 Basal fill (of 0.9m 0.65m 0.25m soft silt, mod sub-angular coarse pebbles and mod flecks of burn mid brown- 72 70 2
pit 72) material ish grey
72 ChA 105-106 Pit cut 1.1m 0.7m 0.5m square pit cut that runs west N/A 61 71 2
73 ChA 105.5-109 Pit cut 3.6m 1.2m 1.0m large circular pit cut, orientated N-S N/A Nat 63 2
74 ChA 141 Pit cut 1.25m 0.75m 0.8m sub-circular pit N/A Nat, 76 66, 69 2
75 ChA 141 Fill (of pit 79) 1.42m 0.83m 0.7m soft silty clay, occ sub-angular coarse pebbles dark brown- 79 57 2
ish grey
76 ChA 131-133 Layer 2.6m 1.35m 0.2m firm silty clay, mod sub-angular coarse pebbles mid yellow- 64 74 2
ish orange
77 cancelled
78 ChA 142.6-143.9 Pit cut 2.75m 1.07m 0.5m sub-circular pit N/A 78 57, 76 2
79 ChA 141 Pit cut 1.42m 0.83m 0.7m sub-circular pit N/A Nat 75, 76, 8 2
80 ChB 0-10 Fill (of pit 93) 3.6m 0.9m 0.4m loose silty sand, freq small sub-angular stones, freq small pieces of mid greyish 91 3 4
mortar brown
81 ChB 0-236 C0-40 Backfill over 270m 1.20m 1.10m Redeposit Natural / backfill over drain mid orangish 85 2 4, 5
early modern yellow
drain
82 ChB 10-12 Fill (of 87) 2.1m 0.7m 0.52m loose pebbley sand , mod iron pan flecks light brown- 88 2 4
ish grey
83 ChB 9-12 Fil (of 90) 2.8m 0.7m 0.45m very soft sandy silt, freq small to large sub-angular and angular peb- dark greyish Nat, 90 88,87,88,81 4

bles, mod flecks of charcoal, animal bone and pottery brown
84 ChB 25-27 Fill (of 97) 1.25m 0.48m 0.22m soft silt, occ large sub-rounded stones, mod coarse sub-rounded peb- dark greyish 97 96 4
bles, freq flecks of charcoal brown
85 ChB 0-236 C0-40 Basal sandy fill 270m 1.0m 0.10m Soft silty sand mid yellow multiple 81 4, 5

under c. 81. , brown
86 ChB 0-236 C0-40 road make up 270m 1.40m 0.20m sandy silt mid brown 81 2 4
87 ChB9.2-10.1 Pit cut 0.9m 0.6m 0.6m sub-circular pit cut N/A 83 82,88 4
88 ChB 9-12 Fill (of 87) 0.9m 0.6m 0.06m Redeposit natural firm sandy silt, freq sub-angular small/medium light yellow- 87 82 4
pebbles, occ flecks of iron oxide ish brown
89 ChB 5 -12 Layer mix mod- 7.0m 0.70m c0.10m probable road make up mid brown- multiple 2 4
ern/redeposit ish yellow
natural
90 ChB 10.8-11.4 Pit cut 2.8m 0.7m 0.7m sub-circular pit with two flat bases, trucated by drain, cut by 87 N/A Nat 83 4
91 ChB 4-8.6 Stoney fill (of 3.4m 0.9m 0.16m soft sandy silt, freq small sub-angular pebbles (c20%) dark grey 92 80 4
pit 93)
92 ChB 4-8.6 Basal fill of c.93 2.8m 0.9m 0.48m soft slightly silty sand, freq small lumps of mortar, mod small sub- light brown- 93 91 4
angular stones ish yellow
93 ChB 4-8.6 Pit cut 3.6m 0.9m 0.1m poss circular post med pit N/A Nat 92, 91, 80 4

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94 ChB 22.2-24.2 Fill (of pit 95) 2.3m 0.4m 0.47m loose pebbly sand, freq silt and mortar, occ flecks of charcoal and mid greyish 95 2 4
mod pebbles and stones brown,
mottled with
white mortar
95 ChB 22.2-24.2 Pit cut 2.3m 0.4m 0.47m irregular pit cut, with flat base and south side overhangs. N/A Nat 94 4
96 ChB 25-27 Fill (of 97) 1.35m 0.5m 0.14m soft silt, occ medium rounded stones, mod medium pebbles dark greyish 84, 97 3 4
black
97 ChB 25.2-26.55 Pit cut 1.35m 0.5m 0.32m irregular pit N/A Nat 96, 84 4
98 ChB 0-236 C0-40 Large granite 270m 1.5m x 0.8m 0.10m coarse granite blocks grey Nat 81, 85 4, 5
slabs of drain
99 ChB 0-236 C0-40 Cut of Drain 270m 1.40m 1.10m N-S drain cut, still in usage N/A Nat 98, 85 4, 5
100 ChB 27.7-31.4 Fill (of pit 101) 3.65m 0.4m 0.4m soft sandy silt, freq lumps of redeposited natural and fine sub- dark brown 101 103 4
rounded pebbles, occ flecks of charcoal
101 ChB 27.7-31.4 Pit cut 3.65m 0.4m 0.4m irregular pit N/A Nat 100, 103 4
102 ChB 25-35 Layer of rede- 1.30m 1.40m 0.1m firm sandy clay, mod decayed stone mid yellow- 100 101 4
posited natural ish orange
103 ChB 27-32 Fill (of pit 101) 3.65m 0.45m 0.17m soft sandy silt, freq small sub-angular pebbles dark grey 100101 3 4
104 ChB36-40 Fil (of pit 106) 3.60m () 0.55m 0.2m soft clayey silt, freq medium sub-angular pebbles, occ medium dark greyish 105106 3 4
sub-angular stones, occ flecks of charcoal. Interrupted by sewercut black
for 0.56m
105 ChB 36-39.6 Fill (of pit 106) 3.60m 0.7m 0.38m soft sandy clay, occ small sub-rounded stones, mod medium sub- dark brown 106 104 4
angular pebbles
106 ChB 36-39.6 Pit cut (med) 3.60m 0.7m 0.38m sub-rectangular pit cut of three sides N/A Nat 105 4
107 ChB35-40 Fill and cut of 1.8m 0.6m 1.0m E-W sewerage trench N/A Nat, 106 2 4

modern sewer
108 ChB45-48 Fill (of pit 109) 3.10m 0.40m 0.42m firm sandy silt, occ sub-angular medium pebbles and small stones, dark greyish 109 3 4
occ medium sized pieces of mortar brown

109 ChB45-48.1 Pit cut (post- 3.10m 0.40m 0.42m sub-rectangular pit cut Nat 108 4
med)
110 ChB48.5 -49.9 Fill (of pit 111) 1.40m 0.32m 0.42m soft silty sand, occ sub-angular fine pebbles mid reddish 111 86 4
brown
111 ChB48.5 -49.9 Pit cut (post- 1.40m 0.32m 0.40m sub-rectangular pit cut of three sides N/A Nat 110 4
med)
112 ChB50.1-53.6 Fill (of pit 113) 1.40m 0.40m 0.25m soft sandy silt, occ sub-rounded medium pebbles, occ flecks of mid greyish 113 114, 115, 4
charcoal brown 116, 86
113 ChB50.1-53.6 Pit cut (post- 2.50m 0.40m 0.40m irregular almost sub-rectangular pit cut N/A Nat 112, 114, 4
med) 115, 116, 86
114 ChB57 Fill (of pit 113) 1.54m 0.30m 0.24m firm clay, occ sub-angular medium pebbles and medium stones black 112 113 115 116 4
115 ChB50-55 Fill (of pit 113) 1.85m 0.40m 0.14m compact silty sand, freq sub-angular medium pebbles, mod flecks of mid brown- 113, 112, 86 4
redeposited natural ish grey 114, 116
116 ChB55 Fill (of pit 113) 0.90m 0.30m 0.30m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular medium pebbles and medium stones mid reddish 114, 112, 113 115 4
brown

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117 ChB52.6-55.2 Fill (of pit 118) 2.55m 0.30m 0.30m soft silty clay, mod sub-angular fine pebbles mid reddish 118 86, 113 4
brown
118 ChB52.6-55.2 Pit cut (post- 2.55m 0.3m 0.3m irregular pit of three sides N/A Nat 117113 4
med)
119 ChB71.4-77.6 Fill (of pit 120) 5.04m 0.64m 0.28m soft silt, mod angular fine pebbles, occ sub-rounded coarse pebbles dark brown- 121, 127, 3 4
and flecks of charcoal ish grey 120
120 ChB71.7-77.4 Pit cut (post- 5.50m 0.54m 0.58m sub-rectangular pit cut N/A Nat 119, 121, 127 4
med)
121 ChB71.4-77.6 Fill (of pit 120) 5.50m 0.65m 0.46m soft sandy silt, occ fine angular and medium/coarse sub-angular mid greyish 127, 120 119 4
pebbles, mod large pieces of redeposited natural, mod flecks of brown
charcoal, mod iron oxides
122 ChB58-60 Fill (of pit 124) 1.75m 0.40m 0.20m soft clayey stony silt, freq medium sub-rounded stones brown 123 86 4
123 ChB59-61 Fill (of pit 124) 1.75m 0.40m 0.10m soft clayey silt, occ/mod sub-rounded medium pebbles mid brown- 124 122 4
ish grey
124 ChB 58.9-60.5 Pit cut (poss 1.75m 0.40m 0.30m sub-rectangular pit cut of three sides N/A Nat 122, 123 4
med)
125 ChB90 Fill (of pit 126) 1.56m 0.33m 0.24m stiff stony clay, freq sub-angular small to large stones brown 126 3 4
126 ChB90 Pit cut (post- 1.56m 0.33m 0.24m elongated oval pit cut filled with stony material 125 N/A Nat 125 4
med)
127 ChB73.4-76.4 Fill (of pit 120) 2.90m 0.48m 0.26m loose silty sand, redeposited natural, mod fine sub-angular pebbles, light yellow- 120 121 4
occ medium sub-rounded pebbles, occ flecks of context 121 ish brown
128 ChB145 Fill (of pit 132) 2.4m 0.80m 0.1m compact clayey sand, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles mid greyish 130 2 4
brown
129 ChB147-153 Fill/Layer (over 2.32m 0.80m 0.16m Hard silty sand, mod sub-angular pebbles (all sizes), occ sub-angu- mid brown 139, 2 4

pits 141/146) lar medium stones 138, 140,
141/146, 143
130 Extensive Fill/Layer (of 1.60m 0.80m 0.18m stiff silty stones light brown 131, 132 128 4
pit/linear 132)

131 ChB145 Fill (of pit/linear 0.80m 0.30m 0.06m firm sandy silt, mod sub-angular medium pebbles, mod sub-round- mid grey 132 128, 130 4
132) ed small stones
132 ChB145 Pit/Linear cut 1.60m 0.80m 0.24m Pit or linear, only two sides evident N/A Nat 128, 131, 4
130
133 ChB135-139 Fill (of pit 134) 1.30m 0.30m 0.40m firm sandy silt, occ sub-angular medium pebbles, occ sub-rounded dark greyish 134 Redep 4
small/medium stones, mod flecks of charcoal brown
134 ChB135-139 Pit cut 1.30m 0.30m 0.40m sub-rectangular pit, filled by 133 N/A Nat 133 4
135 ChB 160 Fill/Layer (top c.3m 0.40m 0.70m soft silty clay, mod sub-rounded medium pebbles and large stones mid brown 136, 137, 2 4
of pit 136) 147, 148
136 ChB 160 Pit cut 1.7m 0.75m 0.70m sub-rectangular pit cut, filled by 135 N/A Nat 148, 147, 4
137, 135
137 ChB 160 Fill (of pit 136) 1.0m 0.70m 0.30m soft silty clay, mod sub-rounded medium pebbles and medium mid reddish 147, 148, 135 4
stones brown 136

124

04E0750

138 ChB147-149.5 Fill (of pit 141) 1.80m 0.60m 0.15m hard sandy clay (redeposited natural), mod sub-angular pebbles and mid brown- 139, 140, 129 4
stones ish yellow 141
139 ChB148 Fill (of pit 141) 1.80m 0.50m 0.20m firm silty clay, mod sub-angular peebles, occ sub-rounded stones dark brown 140, 141 129, 138 4
140 ChB147-149.5 Basal fill (of pit 1.60m 0.40m 0.10m firm silty clay, mod sub-angular pebbles and occ small/medium mid reddish 141 139138129 4
141) stones grey
141 ChB147-149.5 Pit cut (post- 1.80m 0.80m 0.55m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 139, 138, 4
med) 140, 129
142 ChB152 Fill (of pit 146) 1.36m 0.70m 0.26m compact silty sand, freq sub-angular fine pebbles to occ rounded mid yellow- 143, 145, 129 4
coarse pebbles, occ flecks of snail shell ish brown 146
143 ChB152 Fill (of pit 146) 3.28m 0.70m 0.48m soft sandy silt, occ sub-angular fine pebbles, mod sub-angular dark brown- 144, 145, 129, 142 4
medium/coarse pebbles, occ angular small stones, occ flecks of ish grey 146
oxidised stone
144 ChB152 Fill (of pit 146) 0.50m 0.50m 0.26m compact silty sand, freq sub-rounded fine pebbles mid yellow- 145, 146 129, 142, 4
ish grey 143
145 ChB152 Basal fill (of pit 2.40m 0.70m 0.26m soft silty clay, mod sub-rounded pebbles mid brown- 146 129, 142, 4
146) ish grey 143, 144
146 ChB152 Pit cut (post- 4.42m 0.80m 1.00m irregular pit cut, cut by a water pipe at N end N/A Nat 129, 142, 4
med) 143, 144,
145
147 ChB160 Fill (of pit 136) 1.5m 0.6m 0.35m stiff clay, occ sub-rounded small stones light brown- 148 137, 135 4
ish yellow
148 ChB160 Fill (of pit 136) 1.55m 0.6m 0.72m soft silty clay, occ sub-rounded medium pebbles, mod sub-rounded mid brown 136 147, 137, 135 4
medium stones
149 ChB180 Layer/Fill (of pit 5.50m 0.45m 0.40m redeposited natural mid yellow- 151, 152, 2 4

150) ish brown 153, 150
150 ChB178-180.6 Pit cut 2.40m 0.45m 1.10m heavily truncated pit cut N/A Nat 152, 153, 4
151, 149
151 ChB180 Layer (sealing 1.00m 0.45m 0.04m firm clayey sand, freq sub-rounded fine pebbles, and sub-angular light yellow- 152, 153 149 4

pit 150) pebbles mod medium occ coarse ish brown
152 ChB180 Fill (of pit 150) 1.05m 0.45m 0.45m firm sandy clay, occ sub-angular pebbles (all sizes) and mod/freq mid brown 153, 150 151, 149 4
sub-angular small/medium stones
153 ChB180 Fill (of pit 150) 1.05m 0.45m 0.55m soft silty clay, occ pebbles and small sub-rounded stones mid yellow 150 149, 151, 152 4
brown
154 ChB180-181.2 Pipe cut 1.20m 0.45m 1.10m E-W drainage pipe and trench N/A Nat 2 4
155 ChB175 Fill (of pit 156) 0.45m 0.20m 0.50m firm sandy clay light brown- 156 154 4
ish brown
156 ChB175 Pit cut 0.60m 0.20m 0.52m linear-type pit cut N/A 157 155 4
157 ChB182 Pipe cut 0.8m 0.90m 1m modern pipe cut, aligned E-W N/A Nat 2 4
158 ChB185 Fill (of pipe cut) 0.8m 0.90m 1m modern pipe fill N/A Nat 2 4
159 ChB185 Fill (of pit 150) 0.65m 0.25m 0.30m stiff silty clay, mod sub-angular pebbles and oc sub-rounded stones mid yellow- 152 2 4
(all sizes), occ flecks of charcoal. ish brown

125

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160 ChB190-199 Layer (sealing 6.80m 0.9m 0.34m soft silty clay, occ sub-rounded medium pebbles. Mod sub-rounded dark brown 161 2 5
ditch 164) medium stones
161 ChB190-199 Fill (of ditch 7m 0.9m 1m firm silty clay, mod sub-angular medium pebbles and stones mid brown 162, 163, 160 5
164) 164
162 ChB195 Fill (of ditch 3.34m 0.9m 1m very soft silty clay, occ fine sub-angular pebbles dark reddish 163, 164 160, 161 5
164) black
163 ChB195 Fill (of ditch 3m 0.9 0.2m firm silty clay, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded large stones mid brown 164, 167 160, 161, 5
164) 162
164 ChB190-192 Ditch cut 6.5m 0.9m 1m large ditch cut contains wall 174 N/A Nat 174, 167, 5
163, 162,
161
165 ChB190-191 Drain cut, 1.40m 0.32m 0.42m Narrow rectangular cut, likey drain possibly within ditch cut 164 N/A Nat 160 5
166 ChB190-191 Fill (of 165) 1.40m 0.32m 0.42m firm sandy clay, occ sub-angular small stones and coarse pebbles, light brown- 165 170 5
mod sub-angular fine pebbles, freq sub-angular medium pebbles ish grey
167 ChB190-199 Basal fill (of 2.9m 0.9m 0.1 friable clayey silt, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded medium pebbles dark brown- Nat 163, 162, 5
ditch 164) ish black 161, 160
168 ChB185 Fill (of pit 169) 2.86m 0.56m 0.78m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded pebbles, mod medium and freq mid yellow- 169 2 4
small sub-rounded stones ish brown
169 ChB185 Pit cut 2.86m 0.56m 0.78m NW-SE linear pit cut N/A Nat 168 4
170 Cancelled
171 Cancelled
172 ChB200 Layer 13.0m 0.6m 0.25m hard silty clay, occ sub-angular medium and coarse pebbles, mod dark greyish 173 2 5
sub-rounded fine pebbles, occ sub-angular small to large stones brown
(0.3-0.4m)

173 ChB202-206 Layer 2.02-2.20m 0.82m 0.40m Firm silty clay spread, mod sub-angular pebbles, occ sub-angular mid greyish 179 172 5
medium/small stones brown
174 ChB185 Mortar and 0.8m 0.40m 0.8m NE-SW wall, banked up against S edge of ditch cut164 and rubble greyish 167 161, 162, 5

stone wall or pit also lined the southern half of this ditch brown 163
lining
175 ChB205 Lense 2.0m 0.8m 0.1m soft silty clay mid greyish 177 173 5
brown
176 ChB201-202 Cut (linear/pit) 1.10m 0.90m 0.35m cut of a possibly linear pit N/A Nat 177 5
177 ChB202-203.1 Fill (of 176) 1.10m 0.90m 0.35m firm silty clay, stony, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-angu- mid reddish 176 172 5
lar medium pebbles, occ sub-angular coarse pebbles, occ sub-angu- brown
lar small/medium stones, freq sub-angular large stones (0.3-0.4m)
178 ChB204 Pit cut 1.00m 0.90m 0.20m E-W linear pit cut N/A Nat 180, 180 5
179 ChB202 to 205 Layer 0.60m 0.45m 0.08m redeposited natural, compact pebbly sand, freq sub-angular me- dark yellow- 180 172 5
dium/fine pebbles ish brown
180 ChB204-205 Fill (of pit 178) 1.00m 0.90m 0.23m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-angular mid greyish 181, 178 172, 179 5
medium pebbles, occ sub-angular coarse pebbles, occ sub-angular brown
medium stones

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181 ChB204 Fill (of pit 178) 0.73m 0.90m 0.10m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular medium pebbles and sub-rounded mid brown 178 180 5
fine pebbles
182 ChB205 Layer 1.37m 0.54m 0.20m redeposited natural, compact sand, freq sub-rounded fine pebbles, mid yellow- 183 180 5
mod sub-rounded medium pebbles, occ sub-angular coarse pebbles ish brown
183 ChB205 Layer 3.30m 0.90m 0.20m soft silty sand, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, occ flecks of charcoal mid yellow- 184 182 5
ish grey
184 ChB204-209.5 Layer 5.50m 0.90m 0.18m soft silt, freq sub-rounded pebbles, occ sub-angular small stones dark brown- 185 183 5
ish brown
185 ChB209 Lense 0.55m 0.55m 0.05m firm sandy silt mid brown 186 184 5
186 ChB209 Lense 0.65m 0.45m 0.05m soft sandy silt, occ flecks and small pieces of redeposited natural dark brown- Nat 185, 184, 5
ish grey 172
187 ChB209 5
188 ChB208-214 Layer 4.00m 0.88m 0.14m redeposited natural, compact silty sand, mod sub-angular fine/me- mid yellow- 189, 190 172 5
dium pebbles ish brown
189 ChB208.7 Layer 0.60m 0.46m 0.14m a pocket of loose sandy mortar light greyish 190 188 5
brown
190 ChB208-214 Layer 4.30m 0.87m 0.27m soft silt, occ sub-angular fine pebbles dark brown- Nat 188 5
ish brown
191 ChB214 Layer 1.08m 0.37m 0.11m redeposited natural, freq flecks and mod small parts of mortar, mod light yellow- Nat 192 5
sub-angular fine pebbles ish brown
192 ChB215.5 Layer 1.90m 1.05m 0.10m compact sandy stones, freq sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, freq light brown- 172 2 5
sub-rounded coarse pebbles ish grey
193 Cancelled
194 ChB216-218 Poss. Grave 1.1m 0.65m 0.30m E-W stone lined grave, only a possibility N/A Nat 195 5

195 ChB216-218 Fill (of 194) 2.50m 1.00m 0.30m soft clayey silt, mod sub-angular fine and coarse pebbles, mod mid greyish 194 196 5
sub-angular medium stones, occ medium sized mortar, dark lense brown
at base

196 ChB217 Drain cut (S of 1.8m 0.4m 0.60m drain adjacent to fill 195 N/A 194, 198 197 5
194)
197 ChB218 Fill (of 196) 1.80m 0.50m 0.60m firm sandyclay, freq sub-angular medium pebbles mid brown- 196 2 5
ish grey
198 ChB219 Cobbled surface 0.9m 0.5m 0.15m Stones sub-rounded small-medium mid greyish 199 2 5
grey
199 ChB219 Layer 1.10m 0.55m 0.16m small stone and mortar surface, freq sub-rounded small stones, mod light bluish Nat 198 5
sub-rounded medium stones grey
200 ChB214-216 Layer 1.50m 0.50m 0.10m firm sandy silt, mod small decayed stones, freq angular and sub- dark brown Nat 192 5
angular fine/medium pebbles
201 ChB215.5 Layer/Fill (of pit 0.85m 0.70m 0.20m loose pebbly sand, freq sub-rounded fine and occ sub-rounded mid yellow- 202 200 5
202) medium pebbles ish brown
202 ChB215.5 Pit cut 0.80m 0.54m 0.20m sub-circular, but incomplete, pit cut N/A Nat 201 5

127

04E0750

203 ChB212-214 Layer c.2m 0.18m 0.80m redeposited natural, firm sandy clay, occ sub-angular medium/ light orang- 172 172 5
coarse pebbles, freq sub-rounded fine pebbles, occ sub-angular ish brown
small/medium stones
204 ChB213.45-216.6 Layer 1.50m 1.10m 0.20m stones:0.12-0.20m sub-angular and sub-rounded light brown- 205 172 5
ish grey
205 ChB215-216 Layer 0.90m 0.60m 0.22m redeposited natural, compact silty sand, occ sub-rounded fine/coarse mid yellow- 207 202 5
pebbles ish brown
206 ChB216.8 Pipe fill 1.0m 0.35 0.60m silty stones, backfill over pipe within wall 215 dark greyish 215 2 5
brown
207 ChB216 Layer 0.85m 0.45m 0.10m soft sandy silt, mod sub-angular and sub-rounded fine/medium dark brown- 214 205 5
pebbles, occ sub-angular coarse pebbles, occ flecks of charcoal ish grey
208 ChB219-221.1 Wall 2.10m 0.60m 0.20m possible wall paralell and at right angle to the baulk, composed of grey 198 2 5
large sub-angular stones (0.2-0.24m)
209 ChB223.2-226.2 Layer 3.00m 0.45m 0.03m firm sandy clay, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, freq sub- light green- 210, 211 2
angular coarse pebbles, mod sub-rounded small stones ish grey
210 ChB223.5-226.9 Layer 3.00m 1.10m 0.10m stiff sandy clay, occ sub-rounded fine/medium and sub-angular mid yellow- 211 209
coarse pebbles ish brown
211 ChB223.4-226.9 Layer 0.02 dark brown 210, 212
212 ChB220.3-223.2 Stone rubble
probably associ-
ated with c. 208
213 ChB223.2-226.9 Layer organic layer dark brown 211 210
214 ChB216-218.5 Layer 1.50m 0.60m 0.20m compact silty sand, freq mortar flecks and occ flecks and small parts mid yellow- Nat 207 5
of iron oxide ish/greyish

brown
215 ChB213-218 Wall/foundation 3.9m 1.1m 0.50m firm sandy silt stones:0.06-0.12m;0.3m, mod flecks and small parts mid reddish/ Nat 214 5
iron pan yellowish-
brown

216 ChB234.5 Ditch cut 2.00m 0.35m 0.30m NW-SE linear ditch cut N/A Nat 217 5
217 ChB234.5 Fill (of ditch 2.80m 0.58m 0.34m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, occ flecks and mid greyish 216 217 5
216) mod small sized charcoal brown
218 ChB226.34 Fill (of ditch 8.10m 0.94m 0.75m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, occ flecks and mid greyish 217 219 5
216) mod small sized iron pan brown
219 ChB226.34 Layer 2.05m 0.44m 0.32m firm sandy clay, occ sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles, freq sub- mid brown 218 220 5
rounded fine pebbles, occ sub-angular small stones, occ iron pan
flecks
220 ChB230-235 Layer 4.70m 0.94m 0.38m soft silty sand, occ sub-angular pebbles light brown 219 2 5
221 ChB226.34 Layer/fill 2.90m 0.85m 0.32m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded fine/medium pebbles, occ flecks mid greyish Nat 218 5
and small sized iron pan brown
222 ChB226 Ditch cut 3.30m 0.94m 0.30m SSW-NNE linear cut 226 223, 226, 5
227
223 ChB222-226 Fill (of ditch 3.20m 0.92m 0.13m firm clayey silt, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-angular and dark greyish 222 227 5
222) sub-rounded medium pebbles black

128

04E0750

224 ChB220.5-231 Layer 4.50m 0.91m 0.34m stiff silty clay, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, occ sub-angular me- light-mid 218 2 5
dium pebbles, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded coarse pebbles brown
225 ChB223-227 Layer/fill 3.80m 0.91m 0.55m stiff silty clay, occ sub-angular fine/coarse pebbles, mod sub-round- mid brown 227 172 5
ed medium pebbles
226 ChB225.6-226 Fill (of ditch 0.90m 0.60m 0.40m compact sand, very sterile mid grey 223 227 5
222)
227 ChB223-225.9 Fill (of ditch 2.90m 0.91m 0.62m stiff silty clay, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-rounded/sub- mid brown- 226, 223 225 5
222) angular medium pebbles, occ sub-angular coarse pebbles, occ sub- ish grey
angular small/medium stones, occ small/flecks of charcoal
228 ChC06-12 Fill (of ditch 3.90m 1.00m 1.50m soft silty clay and large sub-rounded stones (c1m), mod sub-angular mid brown- 230, 229 2 4
229) medium pebbles ish grey
229 ChC06-12 Ditch cut 4.40m 1.00m 2.40m only two sides, presumed linear ditch N/A Nat 230 4
230 ChC6-12 Basal fill (of 4.40m 1.00m 2.10m soft sandy clay, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles light yellow- 229 228 4
ditch 229 ish/greyish
brown
231 ChC12.5-13.3 Fill (of pit 233) 1.80m 0.50m 0.40m firm pebbly/stoney clay, mod sub-rounded/sub-angular pebbles, occ mid red- 232, 233 2 4
medium/flecks of brick and mortar dish/yellow-
ish/orangish
brown
232 ChC15.5-22 Basal fill (of pit 1.8m 0.50m 0.45m firm clay brown 233 231 4
233)
233 ChC12 Cut of pit 1.80m 0.50m 0.85m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 232 4
234 ChC15.5-22 Fill (of pit 235) 6.50m 0.70m 0.85m firm sandy silt, mod angular fine pebbles, occ iron pan and charcoal mid brown- 240 239 4
flecks ish grey

235 ChC15-16 Pit cut 1.70m 0.40m 0.35m oval pit N/A Nat 232 4
236 ChC19 Fill (of pit 237) 2.50m 0.50m 0.20m very soft silt, occ sub-angular fine pebbles, mod flecks of organic/ dark orang- 240 234 4
veg. material, freq flecks of charcoal ish black
237 ChC17-20 Pit cut 2.90m 0.50m 0.75m ovate pit cut Nat 234, 236, 4

240
238 ChC19-22 Pit cut 2.20m 0.63m 0.45m ovate pit cut Nat 239, 234 4
239 Extensive Pipe fill 1.10m 0.40m modern gravel fill around pipe, pebbley stones:0.06-0.12m mid bluish 238 2 4
grey
240 ChC19 Basal fill (of pit 2.50m 0.50m 0.20m soft sandy silt, occ angular medium pebbles, mod sub-angular fine mid greyish 237 236 4
237) pebbles brown
241 ChC25-26 Fill (of pit 246 1.50m 0.65m 0.20m silty stony clay, occ sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles, occ sub- mid orangish 242 239 4
- top) rounded fine pebbles, occ sub-angular small stones, occ flecks and brown
mod small iron pan
242 ChC23 Fill (of pit 246) 1.50m 0.65m 0.23m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles, occ sub- dark greyish 243 241 4
rounded fine pebbles, occ/mod flecks/small ironpan and charcoal brown
- possible layer of burning
243 ChC22-25 Fill (of pit 246) 1.50m 0.65m 0.20m silty clay, occ fine sub-rounded andmedium sub-angular pebbles, mid orangish 244 242 4
occ small/flecks of charcoal - similar to 241 brown
244 ChC23 Fill (of pit 246) 1.50m 0.65m 0.15m soft silty clay, very organic, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles dark brown 245 243 4

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04E0750

245 ChC23 Basal fill of pit 1.50m 0.65m 0.06m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular pebbles mid brown- 246 244 4
246 ish grey
246 ChC22-25 Pit cut 1.26m 0.64m 0.74m ovate pit cut Nat 241, 242, 4
243, 244,
245
247 ChC25 Layer/fill (over 1.10m 0.60m 0.30m compact silty sand, mixed deposit, mod, sub-angular medium/ mid yellow- 248 239 4
252) coarse pebbles ish grey
248 ChC25 Fill (of pit 252) 1.10m 0.60. 0.63m very soft stony silt, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-angular dark brown- 252 247 4
medium/coarse pebbles and stones (up to 0.4m), occ small pieces of ish grey
brick
249 cancelled
250 ChC25-26 Pit cut 1.20m 0.63m 0.45m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 251 4
251 ChC25 Fill (of pit 250) 1.30m 0.62m 0.47m 251 239 4
252 ChC25 Pit cut 1.30m 0.62m 0.47m large pit cut, possibly disturbed, filled by 247 and 248 N/A Nat 247, 248 4
253 ChC32.8-44 Ditch cut 11.20m 0.90m 1.12m E-W ditch cut N/A Nat 254, 255, 4
256
254 ChC32.8-44 Fill (of ditch 253 11.20m 0.90m 0.22m firm clayey silt, mod sub-angular medium pebbles and sub-rounded mid brown- 255 2 4
- top) medium stones ish grey
255 ChC32.8-44 Fill (of ditch 11.20m 0.90m 0.60m firm sandy clay, freq fine sub-angular pebbles, occ sub-angular light yellow- 256 254 4
253) medium pebbles, mod small sub-rounded stones, mod medium ish/greyish
sized ash brown
256 ChC32.8-41 Basal fill (of 8.20m 0.90m 0.70m soft sandy silt, mod sub-rounded medium pebbles, freq sub-rounded mid grey 253 255 4
ditch 253) small stones
257 ChC41-42 Pit cut 1.70m 0.50m 0.33m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 255 4

258 ChC42.4-45.8 Pit cut 3.40m 0.5m 0.35m N-S elongate pit cut N/A Nat 259 4
259 ChC41-42 Fill (of pit 258) 3.20m 0.5m 0.4m redeposited natural brown 258 255 4
260 ChC47 Fill (of pit 263) 2.90m 1.40m 0.50m soft sandy clay, mod sub-rounded/sub-angular medium pebbles and mid orangish 263 2 4

stones, occ large stones (1m) brown
261 ChC55 Fill (of pit 262) 2.10m 0.50m 0.30m soft silty clay, occ sub-angular medium pebbles, mod sub-angular mid greyish 262 2 4
medium stones brown
262 ChC55 Pit cut 2.10m 0.50m 0.35m sub-rectangular pit cut N/A Nat 261, 260 4
263 ChC47 Pit cut 2.90m 1.40m 0.50m sub-rectangular pit cut N/A Nat 260 4
264 ChC125 Layer 3.90m 1.85m 0.45m soft silt, occ small burnt stone, occ flecks and small pieces of mid yellow- 266 239 3
charcoal ish brown
265 ChC122 Layer 4.10m 1.80m 0.70m soft silt, occ sub-angular small stones, mod small flecks of mortar, mid orangish 268 239 3
mod small flecks of charcoal brown
266 ChC125 Layer 3.60m 2.0m 0.60m stony mortar - duplicate of 519 mid brown- Nat 264 3
ish white
267 ChC123.2 Wall foundation 2.0m 0.80m 1.0m rubble wall foundation mid yellow- 269 268 3
ish grey
268 ChC121 Wall collapse 2.0m 1.0m 0.80m rubble layer banked up against 267 same as 519 mid greyish 267 266 3
brown

130

04E0750

269 ChC117.5 Wall 2.10m 1.20m 0.95m E-W stone wall grey Nat 265 3
270 ChC117 Fill (of trench 1.20m 0.75m 0.95m firm sandy silt mid greyish 272 239 3
272) brown
271 ChC115-119.2 Layer (dis- 2.10m 0.60m 0.20m soft silty clay, mod medium/large pices of tarmacadam dark greyish 275 2 3
turbed) brown
272 ChC16.5-17 Foundation cut 1.20m 0.75m 0.95m linear trench cut for wall N/A Nat 269 3
273 cancelled
274 ChC118.4-122 Layer 4.00m 1.80m 0.30m soft silt, freq small/flecks of charcoal, mod small pieces of decayed dark black Nat 265 3
stone, same as 520
275 ChC118.5 Wall 0.80m 0.60m 0.9m N-S wall abutts wall 269 yellowish Nat 265 3
grey
276 cancelled
277 cancelled
278 ChC126-127 Layer 1.40m 1.90m 0.80m Large sub-rounded rubble stones (0.5-0.6m) within a matrix of soft mid brown- 279 2 3
silty clay ish grey
279 ChC126-127 Layer/fill 1.80m 1.90m 0.30m firm silty pebbley clay, mod fine sub-rounded pebbles, occ sub- mid yellow- 280 278 3
rounded/sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles, freq sub-rounded ish/greyish
small/medium stones brown
280 ChC126-127 Layer 1.80m 1.90m 0.50m firm silty claybetween freq sub-angular medium stones mid grey- Nat 279 3
ish/orangish
brown
281 ChC135 Ditch cut 5.20m 1.80m 1.50m subrectangular NE-SW medieval ditch cut N/A Nat 281, 282, 3
283, 284,
285, 286

282 ChC135 Fill (of ditch 281 5.10m 1.80m 0.50m soft silt, mod sub-rounded/sub-angular pebbles, occ sub-rounded mid brown- 281 283 3
- low) small stones ish grey
283 ChC135 Fill (of ditch 4.10m 1.80m 0.25m very soft silt, occ sub-angular medium pebbles, freq charcoal flecks mid reddish 282 284, 285 3

281) brown
284 ChC135 Fill (of ditch 4.00m 1.80m 0.35m soft clayey silt, occ sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles, mod sub- mid greyish 283 286 3
281) angular/sub-rounded small stones brown
285 ChC136 Fill (of ditch 2.20m 1.80m 0.22m loose pebbley sand, freq sub-angular pebbles, occ sub-angular small mid yellow- 283 286 3
281) stones, occ small pieces of redeposited natural ish brown
286 ChC137 Fill (of ditch 1.10m 1.80m 0.20m very soft silt, mod small pieces and flecks of charcoal mid orangish 284 288 3
281) brown
287 ChC126-137 Layer 10.00+m 1.80m 0.70m firm sandy silt, occ sub-rounded pebbles, mod sub-angular small/ mid yellow- 288 2 3
medium stones ish brown
288 ChC126-139 Layer 10.00+m 1.80m 0.60m firm silt, mod sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles, occ shell flecks dark brown 284 287
289 ChC126-127 Layer 1.20m 1.80m 0.75m probable natural yellow Nat 288 3
290 ChC140 Deposit 3.20m 1.80m 2.90m stone and sand light brown- Nat 2 3
ish yellow
291 ChC141-142 Layer 5.0m 2.0m 0.30m rubble, gravel, sand all loose yellowish 290 1 3
brown

131

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292 ChA137.5 Basal fill (of 1.80m 0.50m 0.40m very soft silt, freq small/flecks of charcoal mid brown- 281 282 3
ditch 281) ish red
293 ChA158.9 Fill (of pit 294) 1.10m 1.4m 0.30m stiff clayey silt, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, occ small/flecks of dark brown 294 2 2
charcoal
294 ChA158.9 Pit cut 1.10m 1.4m 0.30m Ovate to linear pit cut, orientated N-S N/A Nat 293 2
295 ChA153.2-154.5 Fill (of pit 296) 1.2m. 0.7m 0.55m firm stony clay, very occ flecks/small pieces of brick, mod medium light yellow- 296 2 2
pieces of redeposited natural, occ fine sub-rounded pebbles and mod ish brown
medium sub-angular pebbles, occ/mod sub-angular small/medium
stones
296 ChA153.2-154.5 Pit cut (post- 1.2m 0.7m 0.55m sub-circular pit cut Nat 295 2
med)
297 ChA146.7-149.2 Fill (of pit 298) 2.5m 1.35m 0.6m soft silty clay, occ sub-rounded coarse pebbles, mod/freq sub-angu- dark orang- 298 57 2
lar small stones ish brown
298 ChA146.7-149.2 Pit cut 2.5m 1.35m 0.6m sub-circular pit cut N/A Nat 297 2
299 Cancelled
300 ChA152.1-153.1 Pit cut (post- 3.1m 1.1m 0.24m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 308 2
med)
301 ChA141.5-145.3 Pit cut 2.65m 1.80m 1.10m sub-rectangular pit cut N/A Nat 303 2
302 ChA143-145 Fill (of pit 304) 1.30m 0.70m 0.60m soft silt, freq flecks of iron pan, occ fine sub-angular pebbles, occ mid brown- 304 305 2
charcoal flecks ish grey
303 ChA142.5-145.3 Fill (of pit 301) 2.65m 1.4m 1.4m firm clayey silt, occ fine/medium sub-angular pebbles dark brown- 301 302 2
ish black
304 ChA143 Pit cut 1.30m 0.75m 0.90m sub-circular pit cut- cuts 301 303 302 2
305 ChA144 Fill (of pit 304) 1.30m 0.75m 0.35m loose silty sand, freq sub-rounded small stones and coarse pebbles, mid greyish 302 57 2

mod medium and occ fine sub-angular pebbles brown
306 ChA152 Fill (of pit 300) 1m 1.2m 0.1m hard sandy clay, freq sub-angular fine pebbles, mod sub-angular light green- 307 2 2
medium pebbles ish grey

307 ChA152 Fill (of pit 300) 3.1m 1m 0.23m firm clayey silt, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, mod sub- dark brown- 308 306 2
angular small stones ish black
308 ChA152 Fill (of pit 300) 3.1m 0.85m 0.62m firm clayey silt, occ sub-angular pebbles, occ small sub-angular dark brown 300 307 2
stones, mod small pieces of charcoal
309 ChA151.8-153.1 Pit cut 1.20m 1.30m 1.00m sub-circular pit cut N/A Nat 310, 311 2
310 ChA151.8-153.1 Fill (of pit 309) 1.15m 1.30m 0.35m firm stony silt, occ fine sub-angular pebbles, mod sub-angular me- dark brown 311 2 2
dium/coarse pebbles and small stones, freq sub-angular/sub-round-
ed medium stones, occ large (0.25m) stones, mod charcoal flecks
311 ChA153.5 Fill (of pit 309) 1.10m 1.0m 0.65m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, freq medium dark reddish 309 310 2
iron pan, occ small charcoal pieces, occ sub-angular small stones brown
312 ChA163.1-165.3 Pit cut 2.15m 0.8m 0.7m sub-circular pit cut Nat 313 2
313 ChA163.1-165.3 Fill (of pit 312) 2.15m 0.8m 0.7m very soft silt, occ sub-angular coarse pebbles, occ mortar flecks mid brown 312 2 2
314 ChA165.4-166.7 Pit cut (post- 1.75m 0.40m 0.25m sub-circular pit cut Nat 315 2
med)

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315 ChA165.4-166.7 Fill (of pit 314) 1.75m 0.40m 0.25m firm silt, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, occ mid brown 314 2 2
small sub-angular stones, occ charcoal flecks/small pieces
316 ChA166.9-170 Pit cut 2.30m 1.60m 0.35m sub-rectangular to linear pit cut N/A Nat 317 2
317 ChA166.5-170 Fill (of pit 316) 2.30m 1.60m 0.35m firm silt, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, occ sub-angular small dark brown 316 2 2
stones, occ charcoal flecks/small pieces
318 ChA169.1-171.1 Fill (of pit 323) 1.2m 0.8m 0.5m soft clayey silt, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, mid reddish 323 2 2
occ sub-angular small stones, occ flecks and small pieces of redepos- brown
ited natural
319 ChA170.7-172.2 Fill (of pit 320) 1.1m 0.75m 0.9m firm clayey silt, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, mid reddish 320 2 2
occ sub-angular small stones, occ flecks of iron pan brown
320 ChA170.7-172.2 Pit cut 1.1m 0.75m 0.9m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 319 2
321 ChA174-175.9 Fill (of pit 322) 1.75m 0.5m 0.82m soft sandy clay, mod fine angular and medium sub-rounded pebbles dark yellow- 322 2 2
ish brown
322 ChA174-175.9 Pit cut 1.75m 0.5m 0.82m irregular shaped pit cut N/A Nat 321 2
324 ChA173 Fill (of pit 325) 1.10m 0.82m 0.15m compact snady silt. Relatively sterile dark brown 325 320 2
325 ChA173 Pit cut 1.10m 0.82m 0.15 sub-rectangular pit cut, cuts pit 320 N/A 320 324 2
326 ChA175.5-177.1 Fill (of pit 327) 1.2m 0.65m 0.85m soft clayey silt, occ sub-rounded fine/medium pebbles, occ charcoal dark reddish 327 2 2
flecks, occ small pieces of iron pan brown
328 ChA178.6-180.3 Fill (of pit 329) 1.55m 0.26m 0.6m soft silt, occ sub-rounded small stones, mod charcoal flecks/small mid grey 329 336 2
pieces

330 ChA186.5-189 Fill (of pit 331) 4.2m 1.1m 2.3m soft sandy clay, occ sub-angular medium pebbles dark greyish 331 2 2
brown
331 ChA186.5-189 Medieval pit cut 4.2m 1.1m 2.3m possibly sub-circular pit cut N/A Nat 330, 342, 2
343

332 ChA245-255 Layer 14+m 1.4m 0.55m sandy silt, occ sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles, mod charcoal dark brown 333 367 3
flecks
333 ChA244.5-258 Layer 10m+ 1.4m 0.40m soft silt, occ sub-angular/sub-rounded fine/medium pebbles dark reddish 350 332 3
brown
334 ChA178.6-180.3 Fill (of pit 329) 1.13m 0.3m 0.2m soft sandy silt, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular small/medium stones dark brown 335 2 2
335 ChA178.6-180.3 Fill (of pit 329) 1.68m 0.3m 0.13m firm sandy silt, mod sub-angular pebbles light brown- 336 334 2
ish yellow
336 ChA178.6-180.3 Fill (of pit 329) 1.6m 0.3m 0.1m very soft silt, occ fine angular pebbles, mod charcoal flecks mid reddish 337 335 2
brown
337 ChA178.6-180.3 Pit cut 0.68m 0.3m 0.3m irregular shaped pit cut N/A Nat 349 2
338 cancelled duplicate of pit
331
331

133

04E0750

331
331
342 ChA180.5-187.2 Fill (of pit 331) 4.2m 0.75m 0.35m stiff sandy clay, mod sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, occ sub- light greyish 343 2 2
angular medium stones brown
343 ChA181-187.2 Fill (of pit 331) 3.2m 1.50m 0.40m firm sandy clay, occ sub-angular medium pebbles, mod sub-angular mid orangish 330 342 2
small stones, occ charcoal flecks brown
344 ChA187-189.6m Fill (of pit 346) 2.5m 1.50m 0.6m firm silty clay, mod sub-angular small stones dark greyish 345 2 2
brown
345 ChA187.4-189.5m Fill (of pit 346) 2.4m 1.50m 0.2m stiff sandy clay, occ sub-rounded small stones light yellow- 346 344 2
ish brown
346 ChA187-189.6m Pit cut 2.40m 1.50m 0.8m sub-circular pit cut Nat 345, 346 2
347 ChA190.5-193 Layer 2.60m 1.50m 0.70m stiff sandy clay, occ sub-angular medium pebbles, mod sub-angular mid orangish Nat 349 2
small stones brown
348 ChA193-209 Modern layer 9.0m 2.0m 0.3m silty clay and stones mid yellow- 344 2 2
ish brown
349 ChA178.5-180.3 Fill (of pit 337) 0.65m 0.36m 0.3m soft clayey silt, mod medium/coarse sub-angular/sub-rounded peb- dark greyish Nat 2 2
bles, occ medium sized iron slag brown
350 ChA244.5-258.4 Layer 13.9m 1.40m 1.0m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, dark brown Nat 333, 332, 3
occ charcoal flecks and small pieces 367
347
352 ChA194.4-197 Ditch cut 3.5m 1.3m 2.9m E-W linear ditch cut N/A Nat, 354, 353, 348, 2

356 358
353 ChA193-197 Fill (of ditch 4.2m 0.98m 0.4m soft sandy silt, occ sub-angular medium pebbles, mod sub-rounded dark brown 358 348 2
352) coarse pebbles

354 ChA193-194.2 Pit cut 1.3m 0.6m 0.7m sub-rectangular pit cut N/A Nat 353 2
355 ChA194.6-197 Pit fill 1.3m 0.6m 0.7m firm pebbley sand, mod sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles, freq mid yellow- 354 348 2
fine sub-rounded pebbles and sub-rounded/sub-angular small ish grey
stones, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded medium stones
356 ChA197.2-199.4 Pit cut 4.2m 1.08m 1.7m ovate pit cut Nat 357 2
357 ChA197.2-199.4 Fill (of pit 356) 2.2m 1.08m 1.7m firm silty clay, mid brownish grey, occ angular small stones mid brown- 356 348 2
ish grey
358 ChA194.6-197 Fill (of ditch 2.3m 1.3m 0.3m very soft silt, freq small sub-angular pebbles, occ coarse sub-round- dark reddish 352 353 2
352) ed pebbles, occ pockets of sand from ditch sides brown
359 ChA194.6-197 Fill (of ditch 2.20m 1.40m 0.20m sandy grey 360 358 2
352)
360 ChA194.6-197 Fill (of ditch 2.15m 1.40m 0.65m silty clay light brown 352 359 2
352)
361 ChA200.3-204.8 Layer 3.8m 1.3m 0.4m stiff silty clay, occ sub-angular medium stones dark brown 362 2 2

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362 ChA200.3-204.8 Layer 4m 1.3m 0.3m stiff sandy clay, occ rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-rounded me- mid yellow- 363 361 2
dium pebbles, occ sub-angular small stones ish brown
363 ChA200.3-204.8 Layer 3.8m 1.3m 0.4m loose pebbley sand, freq sub-angular medium pebbles, freq sub- light greyish 364 362 2
angular medium stones grey
364 ChA200.3-204.8 Fill (of pits 365 3.6m 1.3m 0.6m stiff silty clay, occ sub-rounded pebbles, occ sub-angular small/me- mid greenish 365 363 2
& 366) dium stones brown
365 ChA200.3-204.8 Pit cut 1.4m 1.3m 0.5m Pit cut, possibly medieval N/A Nat 364 2
366 ChA200.3-204.8 Pit cut 1.2m 1.3m 0.45m Pit cut, possibly medieval N/A Nat 364 2
367 ChA240-250 Fill (of pipe cut) 14m 1.2m 1m silty angular pebbles mid greenish 332 2
brown
368 Ch248-234 Layer 14m 1.4m 0.4m redeposited natural, stiff silty freq sub-angular pebbles light yellow- 369 2
ish brown
369 Ch247-230 Layer 17m 1.4m 0.5m soft sandy silt, freq sub-rounded medium.coarse pebbles, freq small dark greyish 370 368
decayed stone and flecks of iron pan brown
370 ChA247-244 Layer 1.90m 1m 0.30m redeposited natural, firm silty pebbles mid brown- 371 369
ish yellow
371 ChA247-237 Layer 10m 1.4m 0.3m compact pebbley sand, freq rounded and sub-rounded medium/ dark brown- Nat 370 3
coarse pebbles ish grey
372 ChA233-234 Pit cut 1.65m 0.65m 0.55m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 373, 374 3
373 ChA231-233 Fill (of pit 372) 1.65m 0.65m 0.40m firm silty stony clay, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-angular mid brown 372 374 3
medium pebbles and stones, occ small pieces/flecks of charcoal
374 ChA231-233 Fill (of pit 372) 1.75m 0.5m 0.15m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, dark greyish 373 369 3
occ sub-angular small syones, mod flecks/small charcoal brown
375 ChA232-224 Layer 8m 1.4m 0.65m soft silt, occ rounded fine pebbles, occ angular coarse stones, freq mid reddish 376 368

small/flecks of charcoal and ash brown
376 ChA230 Layer 0.7m 1.4m 0.4m soft sandy silt, freq charcoal flecks light yellow- 380 375
ish grey

377 ChA229 Lense 0.5m 0.5m 0.2m very soft silt, freq small/flecks of charcoal mid brown- 375 375
ish red
378 ChA228-229.6 Layer 1.6m 1.4m 0.15m firm silt , freq charcoal flecks, mod sub-angular medium/coarse light grey 379 375 3
pebbles
379 ChA226 Layer 1.4m 0.25m friable silty stones, freq angular/sub-angular small/medium stones, mid brown Nat 378 3
freq small/flecks iron pan
380 ChA230 Layer soft silt, occ rounded medium pebbles, mod small-large iron pan mid grey Nat 377 3
381 ChD0-6 Layer 2.90m 1.7m 0.2m organic wattle type material dark brown Nat 384 7
382 ChD0-6 Layer 5.6m 1.7m 06m soft silty clay mid bluish 384 383 7
grey
383 ChD0-6 Layer 5.6m 1.7m 0.56m firm sandy clay, occ angular medium pebbles, mod sub-angular mid yellow- 382 2 7
small stones ish grey
384 ChD0-6 Layer 2.70m 1.70m 0.3m strongly cemented silty sand yellowish Nat 382 7
grey

135

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385 ChA93-102 Layer 9m 1.35m 0.65m firm clayey silt, occ sub-angular fine/coarse pebbles, mod sub-angu- mid brown 386 2 2
lar medium pebbles, occ sub-rounded small stones
386 ChA95-102 Disturbed mate- 7m 1.35m 1.14m firm stony silt, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, occ sub-angu- dark greyish Nat 385 2
rial lar stones up to 0.35m, occ charcoal flecks black
387 ChA95-97 Wall (founda- 1.35m 1.6m 0.65m large stones, (c.0.4m) and small stones (c.0.2m), set with sandy light yellow- 386 2 2
tion) mortar ish brown
388 ChA100-101 Layer 1.2m 1.35m 0.4m weakly cemented silty sand, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles light yellow- 386 2 2
ish brown
389 cancelled duplicate of 373
390 ChA209-216 Layer 1.4m 1.35m 0.55m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular medium/fine pebbles, mod sub-an- dark brown 391 2 3
gular small stones, occ charcoal flecks
391 ChA209-215 Layer 7m 1.35m 0.62m redeposited natural, soft sandy clay, mod sub-angular fine/medium light orang- 392 390 3
pebbles ish yellow
392 ChA209-215 Layer 7m 1.35m 0.9m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular fine/coarse pebbles, occ sub-angular mid orangish 393 391 3
small stones, occ charcoal flecks brown
393 ChA314-216 Layer 2m 1.35m 0.97m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, occ sub-angu- mid greyish Nat 392 3
lar small stones brown
394 ChA217 Fill (of pit 398) 4m 1.4m 0.3m very soft peaty silt, poss burnt, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, freq mid yellow- 395 390 3
charcoal flecks up to large (0.12m) pieces ish orange
395 ChA217 Fill (of pit 398) 3.5m 1.4m 0.5m firm clayey silt, occ sub-rounded medium pebbles, occ-mod char- dark greyish 396 394 3
coal flecks brown
396 ChA217 Fill (of pit 398) 1.8m 1.4m 0.2m very soft peaty silt mid brown- 397 395 3
ish red
397 ChA218 Fill/layer (of pit 6.5m 1.4m 0.7m firm clayey silt, mod sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles, occ dark greyish 398 396 3

398) charcoal flecks brown
398 ChA217 Ditch cut 3.1m 1.4m 2.75m E-W linear ditch cut N/A Nat 397, 396, 3
395, 394,
401, 390

399 ChA221 Layer 3.6m 1.4m 0.6m sandy silt, mod rouded medium pebbles and small stones, freq sub- dark brown- Nat 400 3
rounded coarse pebbles ish grey
400 ChA222 Layer 2m 1.4m 0.35m soft peaty silt, red burnt layer, freq charcoal flecks and small pieces mid/dark 399 397 3
brownish red
401 ChA217-222 Lense 0.82m 1.35m 0.1m firm sandy pebbles, freq sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium light brown- 397 395 3
pebbles, mod sub-angular small stones ish grey
402 ChA222 Layer 1.2m 1.4m 0.4m firm clayey silt, occ sub-rounded medium and freq sub-rounded dark brown- 401 403 3
coarse pebbles, freq charcoal flecks ish grey
403 ChA222-224 Layer 1.3m 1.2m 1.1m very soft clay, freq flecks to medium sized charcoal yellowish 402 375 3
black
404 ChA224-225 Lense 1m 1.35m 0.2m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, mid reddish 407 390 3
mod flecks/small charcoall, freq ash flecks/small, mod flecks/small orange
iron panning
405 ChA223.5 Layer 0.7m 1.2m 0.2m soft silty clay and sub-angular medium stones brownish 403 403 3
grey

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406 ChA225 Layer 2m 1.4m 0.45m soft peaty silt, freq flecks/small charcoal mid brown- 379 375 3
ish red
407 ChA224 Layer 2.44m 1.4m 0.79m firm clayey silt, occ sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles, occ dark brown 403 404 3
charcoal flecks
408 ChB236 Layer c.20m 1.1m 0.18m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular fine pebbles dark greyish 411 2 6
brown
409 ChB239-242 Layer 4.90m 1.1m 0.15m compact stony sand, mod sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, freq light yellow- 412 411 5
sub-angular small stones/chalk/lime ish white
410 ChB236 Layer 8.50m 1.1m 0.45m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles mid orange 413 412 5
411 ChB236 Layer 10+m 1.1m 0.80m firm sandy clay, mod sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium mid brown 409 408 5
pebbles, mod sub-angular small stones, occ sub-angular medium
stones, occ flecks/small charcoal and iron pan
412 ChB236 Layer 5.50m 1.1m 0.20m firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular fine/medium pebbles mid brown 410 411 5
413 ChB236 Layer 1m= 1.1m 0.18m firm clayey silt, mod sub-rounded fine pebbles mid brown- Nat 412 5
ish grey
414 ChB245 Layer 4m 1.0m 0.20m loose sandy stones and mortar, freq sub-rounded/sub-angular/ Light yellow- 428 422 6
rounded small/medium stones and coarse pebbles, occ sub-angular ish brown
fine/medium pebbles
415 ChB246.1-246.6 Fill (of grave 1) 0.7m 0.50m 1.1m firm clayey silt, with sub-angular medium stones mid brown- 416 422 6
ish grey
416 ChB246.1-246.6 Fill (of grave 1) 0.50m 0.40m 1.1m firm clayey silt with sub-angular medium stones mid brown- 417 415 6
ish black
417 ChB246.1-246.6 Grave 1 1.10m 0.50m 1.10m square E-W grave cut 414 416 6
418 ChB244-248 Layer 3m 1.0m 0.10m firm clayey silt, occ sub-rounded medium pebbles, occ charcoal dark brown- 419 408 6

flecks ish grey
419 ChB245.5-246 Lense 1.1m 0.60m 0.10m redeposited natural, soft sandy silt, occ sub-rounded fine/medium mid yellow- 420 422 6
pebbles ish brown

420 ChB245 Layer 3.2m 1.0m 0.4m soft sandy silt, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded medium pebbles, mod mid yellow- 414 419 6
flecks of mortar ish-brownish
grey
421 ChB248 Grave cut 0.55m 1.00m 0.22m ovate/rectilinear grave cut N/A 431 424 6
422 ChB244-255 Layer 13.0m 1.0m 0.50m firm clayey silt, occ rounded coarse pebbles, mod sub-angular/sub- dark orang- 419 408 6
rounded fine/medium pebbles ish brown
423 ChB248 Fill (of grave 2) 0.9m 0.45m 0.1m soft sandy silt mid yellow- 424 422 6
ish brown
424 ChB248 Fill (of grave 2) 0.9m 0.45m 0.1m very soft clayey silt, occ sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles at mid brown- 421 423 6
base, mod decay stone flecks ish grey
425 ChB249 Grave cut III 0.75m 1.20m 0.40m sub-rectangular cut N/A 414, 441 426 6
426 ChB249 Fill (of grave 1.25m 0.55m 0.2m very soft sandy silt, occ sub-rounded medium pebbles, mod decayed mid brown- 425 422 6
425) stone flecks ish grey
427 cancelled

137

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428 ChB247.5 Fill (of poss 0.67m 0.38m 0.26m compact pebbley sand, mod angular fine pebbles, occ angular small yellowish 429 422 6
grave) stones grey
429 ChB247.5 Grave cut 0.67m 0.38m 0.26m sub-rectangular cut N/A Nat 428 6
- (poss)
430 ChB255-257 Wall - tony 1.40m 1.20m possible wall 444 442 6
431 ChB244-250 Layer 4.50m 1.20m 0.25m firm silty clay, mod rounded/sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles, mid brown- Nat 414 6
mod flecks of decayed stone ish grey
432 ChB245-244 Layer c.1m 1.2m 0.1m firm peat dark reddish Nat 431 6
brown
433 ChB250-255 Layer/fill (of 0.9m 0.6m 0.14m soft silt orangish 437 422 6
438) black
434 ChB255 Grave cut VI 0.6m 0.5m 0.9m irregular shaped grave cut N/A Nat 435 6
435 ChB255 Fill (of grave VI) 0.6m 0.5m 0.9m soft silty clay, occ sub-rounded/sub-angular pebbles mid brown 434 422 6
437 ChB250-252 Fill (of cut 438) 1.30m 1.00m 0.68m soft clayey silt, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded pebbles and small/ dark greyish 438 433 6
medium stones brown
438 ChB250-252 Linear cut 1.30m 1.00m 0.68m linear E-W cut N/A Nat 437 6
439 ChB251 Layer 1.50m 1.10m 0.40m Loose sand light yellow- 440 skele4 6
ish white
440 ChB251 Layer 1.20m 1.10m 0.08m rounded medium stones mid brown Nat 439 6
441 ChB251 Layer c1m 1.10m 0.1m soft clayey silt, occ sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles, occ decay light yelow- Nat 139 6
stone flecks ish brown
442 ChB255-262 Layer 7m 1.15m 0.40m soft clayey silt, mod rounded/sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles light brown- 455 443 6

ish grey
443 ChB255-261 Lense 6m 1.10m 0.03m redeposited natural, firm silty clay, occ sub-rounded fine/medium light brown- 442 2 6
pebbles ish yellow
444 ChB254-256 Layer 2.6m 1.0m 0.3m soft clayey silt, occ rounded medium/coarse pebbles, freq mortar mid greyish 445 422 6

flecks brown
445 ChB255 Layer 2.6m 1.0m 0.12m compact pebbley sand, freq rounded/sub-rounded medium/coarse mid brown- 446 444 6
pebbles, freq iron pan flecking ish grey
446 ChB254-256 Layer 2.6m 1.0m 0.12m soft sandy silt, occ sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles, freq iron mid brown- 447 445 6
pan flecks ish grey
447 ChB254-256.5 Layer 3.0m 1.0m 0.15m soft clayey silt, freq iron pan flecks light yellow- Nat 446 6
ish grey
448 ChB257 Layer/Lense 1.10m 0.50m 0.10m compact silty sand, occ angular coarse pebbles, freq angular fine dark greyish 449 442 6
pebbles brown
449 ChB256.5-259.3 Layer/fill 2.80m 1.0m 0.50m soft sandy silt, occ sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod sub-rounded mid grey 450 448 6
medium/coarse pebbley, occ charcoal flecks
450 ChB256.8 Grave cut 1.20m 0.50m 0.40m sub-rectangular E-W cut N/A 445, 451 449 6
451 ChB257-263 Layer (natural?) 6.0m 1.0m 0.2m soft clayey silt, freq iron pan flecks mid brown- 452 449 6
ish yellow
452 ChB257-267 Layer (natural?) 6.0m 1.0m 0.26m compact sand, occ sub-angular medium/coarse pebbles dark black Nat 451 6

138

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454 ChB264 Layer 2.2m 1.0m 0.40m soft pebbley silt, freq rounded/sub-rounded/sub-angular fine mid greyish 458 460 6
pebbles, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded medium pebbles, occ sub- brown
angular coarse pebbles, mod iron pan flecks and mod flecks/small
pieces of degraded stone
455 ChB262 Linear cut 0.8m 0.6m 0.4m sub-rectangular E-W cut N/A Nat 442 6
456 ChB261 Grave cut (poss) 0.9m 0.75m 0.55m sub-rectangular E-W cut N/A Nat 442 6
457 ChB264 Pit cut 0.8m 0.55m 0.6m sub-rectangular E-W pit cut N/A Nat, 466 458 6
458 ChB264 Fill (of pit 457) 2.0m 0.9m 0.7m very soft stony silt, freq angular coarse pebbles, mod angular me- dark greyish 457 454 6
dium pebbles, slate fill brown
459 ChB265 Layer 3.20m 1.20m 035m soft clayey silt dark blackish Skele13, Nat 457, 456 6
brown
460 ChB265.2 Pit cut 0.7m 0.6m 0.9m sub-rectangular E-W pit cut N/A 454 461 6
461 ChB265.2 Fill (of pit 460) 0.7m 0.6m 0.9m soft silt, mod sub-rounded medium pebbles, occ sub-rounded coarse dark brown- 460 2 6
pebbles, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded small stones, mod iron pan ish grey
flecks
462 ChB272 Pit cut 1.90m 0.5m 0.38m irregular pit cut N/A 464 462 6
463 ChB272 Fill (of pit 462) 1.90m 0.5m 0.25m soft sandy clay, occasional sub-rounded medium stones dark grey 464 462 6
464 ChB272 Fill (of pit 462) 1.90m 0.5m 0.12m very soft sandy clay, oc sub-rounded coarse pebbles mid greyish 463 463 6
black
465 ChB261 Fill (of poss 0.6m 0.4m 0.2m firm clayey silt, mod medium and occ coarse sub-rounded/sub-an- mid greyish 456 454 6
grave) gular pebbles, occ iron pan flecks brown
466 ChB262 Fill (over 1.42m 1.2m 0.28m very soft silt, occ small pieces/flecks of charcoal, freq felspar flecks dark brown- skele12 456, 457 6
skele12) ish black

467 ChB272 Cut (of pit or 0.45m 0.45m 0.43m circular cut - pit or post hole N/A Nat 467 6
post hole)
468 ChB272 Fill (of 467) 0.45m 0.45m 0.43m compact clayey sand, mod angular medium stones mid brown- 467 470 6

ish grey
469 ChB266.5 wall 0.68m 0.14m 0.25m single course of N-S wall, large sub-angular and sub-rounded rub- mid grey skele20 2 6
ble, no mortar
470 ChB271 Layer 4.25m 1.20m 0.50m firm silty clay, mod charcoal flecks dark brown- Nat 453 6
ish grey
471 ChB272 Lense 1.00m 1.00m 0.12m soft clayey silt, occ sub-rounded medium/coarse pebbles, occ iron mid yellow- 470 453 6
pan flecks ish brown
472 ChB268 Layer 4.0m 1.00m 0.15m firm silty sand, occ rounded medium pebbles light yellow- 481 527 6
ish brown
473 ChB273 Layer 9.20m 1.10m 0.20m compact stony layer, freq angular medium/coarse pebbles and small Light yellow 481 474 6
stones
474 ChB273 Layer 6.0m 1.10m 0.22m friable silt, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles dark brown 473 2 6
475 ChB273 Fill (of post-hole 0.24m 0.24m 0.24m very soft clayey silt, occ sub-angular fine pebbles mid grey 476 470 6
476)

139

04E0750

476 ChB273 Cut (of post- 0.24m 0.24m 0.24m sub-rectangular post-hole N/A Nat 475 6
hole)
477 ChB270.97 Fill (of post-hole 0.11m 0.09m 0.15m very soft clayey silt, occ sub-angular fine pebbles, occ charcoal mid grey 478 470 6
478) flecks
478 ChB270.97 Cut (of post- 0.11m 0.09m 0.15m sub-circular cut N/A Nat 477 6
hole)
479 ChB268-270 Layer 1.95m 1.00m 0.16m stony layer, compact silty stones, freq angular/sub-angular medium/ dark brown Nat 481 6
coarse pebbles, occ angular-sub-angular small stones, mod iron pan
flecks
480 ChB268 Lense 0.70m 1.00m 0.04m firm silt dark greyish Nat 459 6
black
481 ChB269-276 Layer 11.0+m 1.00m 0.40m soft silt, mod sub-rounded medium pebbles, occ sub-angular coarse dark brown 477 472 6
pebbles, freq iron pan flecks
482 ChB273 Layer 1.85m 0.20m 0.45m friable silty sand, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles, occ sub- mid brown Nat 481 6
rounded medium stones
483 ChB287-295 Layer 8.00m 1.00m 0.32m rubble layer, loose sandy stones, sub-angular granite stones mid brown- 484 2 7
ish grey
484 ChB288 Layer 8.00m 1.00m 0.26m soft silty clay, occ angular pebbles, mod angular small stones light yellow- 485 483 7
ish brown
485 ChB287-295 Layer 10.0m 1.00m 0.45m firm clayey silt, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded medium/coarse peb- mid greyish 486 484 7
bles, occ iron pan flecks brown
486 ChB293 Fill (of cut 487) 0.85m 0.30m 0.25m very soft peaty silt black 487 485 7
487 ChB293 Linear cut 1.00m 0.30m 0.28m E-W possible drain cut N/A Nat 486 7
488 ChB296-297 Fill (of pit 490) 1.00m 1.58m 0.15m firm silty clay mid yellow- 489 485 7

ish brown
489 ChB296-297 Fill (of pit 490) 1.00m 1.58m 0.35m firm silty clay dark yellow- 490 488 7
ish brown

490 ChB296-297 Pit cut 1.00m 1.58m 0.51m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 488, 489 7
491 ChB296-295 Fill (of pit 492) 1.00m 0.30m 0.30m soft silty clay, occ angular small stones light green- 492 485 7
ish black
492 ChB295 Pit cut 0.30m 0.30m 0.30m ovate pit cut N/A Nat 491 7
493 ChB302 Fill (of ditch 1.00m 0.60m 0.30m very soft stony silt, mod sub-angular/sub-rounded medium/coarse mid orangish 494 485 7
495) pebbles, freq small pieces/flecks of iron pan, freq charcoal flecks brown
494 ChB300 Fill (of ditch 1.60m 1.00m 0.60m firm silty clay, mod angular medium pebbles, mod sub-angular dark greyish 495 493 7
495) small/medium stones black
495 ChB301 Ditch cut 1.70m 1.00m 0.70m sub-rectangular/linear ditch cut N/A Nat 493, 494 7
496 ChB305 Wall 1.00m 0.80m 0.40m friable sandy stones light yellow- Nat 497 7
ish white
497 ChB304-309 Layer 4.50m 0.93m 0.16m stony layer, soft stony clay, sub-angular/sub-rounded pebbles dark greyish 496 484 7
brown

140

04E0750

498 ChB306 Layer 2.90m 0.90m 0.28m mixed mortar layer, firm sandy clay, occ sub-rounded medium/ mid brown- 499 497 7
coarse pebbles, freq iron pan flecks, freq flecks to medium sized ish yellow
mortar
499 ChB305-309 Layer 6.30m 0.86m 0.05m mortar layer, compact sand light white Nat 498 7
500 ChB314 Layer 9.0m 2.10m 1.70m firm clayey silt, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles and small mid brown 501 503 7
stones, occ small pieces of charcoal
501 ChB314 Fill (of ditch 1.10m 2.20m 2.10m firm silty clay, occ sub-angular fine/medium pebbles dark greyish 502 500 7
502) black
502 ChB314 Ditch cut 1.10m 2.10m 0.50m linear E-W cut N/A Nat 501 7
503 ChB312 Layer 1.45m 2.10m 0.60m firm silty clay, mod sub-rounded fine pebbles, mod mortar flecks/ light brown 500 484 7
small pieces
504 ChB311 Wall foundation 0.75m 2.10m 1.40m Rubble, sandy stones, mod sub-angular small/medium stones, occ mid yellow Nat 497, 503 7
large angular stones (0.14x0.3m)
505 ChB313-314 Lense 0.50m 2.10m 0.15m firm clayey silt, occ sub-angular fine pebbles, occ sub-rounded small mid brown Nat 500 7
stones
506 ChB221 Layer/fill 4.50m 1.10m 0.60m soft clayey silt - same as c225 dark brown 510 2 5
507 ChB220 Wall 2.50m 0.85m 1.00m E-W wall, 1-2 upper courses, below is foundation rubble light greyish Nat 2 5
brown
508 ChB221 Fill 2.50m 1.10m 0.50m firm clayey silt, occ pieces of straw greyish black 509 510 5
509 ChB221 Ditch cut 4.0m 1.10m 1.50m E-W ditch cut N/A Nat 510, 508 5
510 ChB221 Fill/layer 3.50m 1.10m 0.45m organic silty layer greyish 508 506 5
brown
511 ChB257 Fill of Grave N/A N/A N/A fill over Skele 7 N/A 445 444 6

512 ChB266 Fill of Grave N/A N/A N/A fill over Skele 13 N/A Nat 459 6
515 ChB255 Fill of Grave N/A N/A N/A fill over Skele 6 - duplicate of C.435 N/A 434 435 6

517 ChC126 Wall 2.0m 1-1.5m 2.1m E-W wall, connects to wall 524, sub-angular granite in sandy mor- brownish Nat 525 3
tarwith brown clay packing, 11 courses stone size ranges between grey
0.2m x0.2m and 0.6m x 0.4m
518 ChC125 Layer 1.20m 0.8m 0.6m probably a duplicate of C264, soft silty sand, freq mortar, disturbed mid brown 524 525 3
519 ChC125 Layer 1.20m 2.0m 0.6m possibly a duplicate of layer C.266 stony layer, freq mortar light yellow- 520 524 3
ish brown
520 ChC125 Layer 1.0m 2.0m 0.20m soft silty burnt layer, freq charcoal, occ medium sized plaster black 521 519 3
521 ChC125 Layer 1.0m 2.0m 0.20m redeposited natural, mod flecks of mortar mid brown- 522 520 3
ish yellow
522 ChC125 Layer 0.70m 2.0m 0.35m clayey silt with stones, occ flecks of mortar mid greyish 526 521 3
brown
523 ChC127 Fill (against wall 2.0m 0.15m 0.95m soft silt compressed. dark brown 517 288 3
517)

141

04E0750

524 ChC125 Wall 1.85m 0.3m 1.30m N-S wall, connects to wall 517, sub-angular granite in sandy mor- brownish 519 518 3
tarwith brown clay packing grey
525 ChC126 Layer 4.0m 2.0m 0.5m probably a duplicate of C.278, rubble, mixed deposit of stone and mid brown 517, 518, 524 2 3
silty clay, disturbed
526 ChC126 Layer 0.6m 1.5m 0.10m soft silt, burnt black Nat 522 3
527 ChB236-312 Modern pipe 76m 0.9m c1m connects to drain 81 at N orange multi 2 3
& fill
528 ChB218 Layer 2.90m 1.10m 0.50m Compact clay layer light grey Nat 195 5
529 ChA100-144 ChB Flagstones 314m 0.3m 0.15m Granite flagstone base of stone lined drain grey 7 5 2, 4, 5
0-236 ChC0-40
84a ChB 25.2-26.55 Basal fill of c.97 1.35m 0.5m 0.18m silt mid brown- 97 84 4
ish grey
Skele1 ChB246 skele (in cut 0.70m 0.40m N/A lying E-W, head inclined upright, skull and mixed one, poor condi- N/A 417, 416 422, 415 6
417) tion
Skele10 ChB254.5 skele 0.55m 0.25m N/A badly damged, upper half of articulated skele N/A 446 445 6
Skele11 ChB256.8 skele (in 450) 0.70m 0.40m N/A lying E-W, head inclined forward, right arm stretched/displaced S, N/A 450 449 6
left arm across mid section, lower portion of legs missing
Skele12 ChB262.5 skele 1.10m 0.35m N/A lying E-W, skull unber west baulk, almost complete N/A Nat 466 6
Skele13 ChB266 skele 0.60m 0.70m N/A lying E-W N/A Nat 459 6
Skele14 ChB267 skele 0.65m 0.40m N/A lying E-W, skull dammaged lies facing slightly S, remains only to N/A Nat 480 6
mid-section
Skele15 ChB267.5 skele (partial) 0.40m 0.30m N/A is this same as 25?, overlies 14 N/A 480 460 6
Skele16 ChB268 skele (skull) 0.25m 0.20m N/A E-W lying skeleton heavily truncated by 527 N/A Nat 479 6

Skele18 ChB269.1 skele (skull) 0.20m 0.1m N/A E-W lying skeleton heavily truncated by 527 N/A Nat 479 6
Skele2 ChB248 skele (in cut 0.85m 0.40m N/A lying E-W, head inclined slightly forward, arms alondside, right arm N/A 421 424, 423 6

421) bent at elbow and hand on pelvis; brittle
Skele20 ChB266 skele 0.75m 0.30m N/A lying E-W, badly compressed, beneath a pipe and the pathway N/A skele 21 459 6
Skele21 ChB266 skele (under 0.40m 0.15m N/A E-W, legs only running under W baulk truncated by 2 pipes N/A Nat skele20 6
skele20)
Skele22 ChB268 skele (only skull frag frag N/A under 25 N/A Nat 479 6
frags)
Skele23 ChB267.8 skele (under frag frag N/A disturbed E-W semi-articulated skele, under skele 25 N/A Nat 480, Skele25 6
skele25)
Skele25 ChB268 skele 0.70m 0.43m N/A lying E-W, head facing S -SE (into right shoulder), upper left arm N/A Nat 479 6
along side, right arm fragmented, over skele 23
Skele26 ChB276 skele (partial in frag frag N/A coffin aligned E-W containing undisturbed upper body, which has N/A Nat skele26, 481 6
coffin) been dragged S by natural soil processes
Skele3 ChB249 skele (in cut 1.30m 0.50m N/A lying E-W, head slightly inclined forward, arms by side, a 2nd skull/ N/A 425 422 6
425) mandible are disturbed/backfill

142

04E0750

Skele4 ChB251 skele (infant) 0.50m 0.25m N/A lying E-W, head facing S (damaged), arms alongside, legs displaced N/A 439 440 6
to N
Skele4a ChB251 2 skulls & ribs 0.15m 0.15m N/A 2 fragmented skulls, assoc ribs, in baulk west of skele4 N/A 440 422 6
Skele6 ChB255 skele (upper 0.30m 0.25m N/A lying E-W, head facing S (damaged), arms alongside N/A 445 444 6
half)
Skele7 ChB255 skele (N of 8) 0.75m 0.35 N/A Badly compacted skeleton lying E-W N/A 445 444 6
Skele8 ChB256 skele (skull) 0.18m 0.18 N/A only a skull and a few fragmentary bones aligned E-W N/A 444 444 6
Skele9 ChB251.5 skele (female 1.0m 0.4m N/A lying E-W, head facing south, arms missing N/A 439 422 6
- poss preg)
800 ChB220 Cut / Depres- 2.80m 1.8m 0.8m Probable natural depression N/A Nat 399 3
sion
801 ChB224 Cut / Depres- 2.30m 1.8m 1.0m Probable natural depression N/A Nat 406, 402 3
sion
802 ChB230 Cut / Depres- 2.10m 1.8m 0.48m Probable natural depression N/A Nat 380 3
sion
803 ChC80 Layer extensive 1.8m 0.1m Redeposited Natural yellowish Nat 239 4
brown
804 ChB131.5 Lense 1.20m 0.7m 0.07m Redeposited Natural yellowish 133 2 4
brown
805 ChC9 Pipe cut 1.80m 1.80m 1.75m E-W pipe cut N/A Nat 2 4
806 ChB11 Lense 1.50m 0.60m 0.01m Redeposited Natural yelowish 87 82 4
brown
807 ChB303-D9 Granite Blocks 22m 1.80m 0.30m angular granite, partially dressed light grey multi 2 7


143


12.2 Appendix 2: Stratigraphic Matrix

Please see attached CD for stratigraphic matrix



12.3 Appendix 3: Finds Register

Licence No. Context No. Find No. Material Description Type
04E0750 5 1 Ceramic Wall tile Pearlware
04E0750 5 2 Ceramic Body sherd Casteldermot type
04E0750 7 1 Glass
04E0750 9 1 Stone Rotary quern fragment
04E0750 9 4 Glass
04E0750 9 5 Glass
04E0750 11 1 Ceramic Body sherd Glazed red earthenware
04E0750 15 1 Ceramic Body sherd Stoneware
04E0750 25 11 Ceramic Body sherd Leinster cooking ware
04E0750 26 1 Ceramic Rim sherd Leinster cooking ware
04E0750 26 3 Ceramic Base sherd Casteldermot type
04E0750 26 21 Ceramic Body sherd Saintonge green glazed
04E0750 26 22 Ceramic Body sherd Dublin-type coarse ware
04E0750 26 23 Ceramic Handle sherd Dublin-type coarse ware
04E0750 26 24 Ceramic Rim sherd Dublin-type coarse ware



04E0750 26 26 Ceramic Handle sherd Dublin-type coarse ware
04E0750 27 6 Ceramic Rim sherd Casteldermot type
04E0750 27 10 Ceramic Base sherd Leinster cooking ware
04E0750 27 32 Metal Iron Nail in two fragments
04E0750 27 33 Metal Iron Nail in two fragments
04E0750 29 1 Ceramic Rim/Handle sherd Casteldermot type



04E0750 33 1 Metal Slag
04E0750 34 1 Metal Iron Nail
04E0750 36 1 Ceramic Body sherd Black glazed ware
04E0750 36 5 Ceramic Body sherd Creamware
04E0750 36 7 Glass
04E0750 36 8 Glass
04E0750 36 9 Glass
04E0750 36 10 Ceramic Body sherd Tin glazed earthenware
04E0750 36 14 Ceramic Handle sherd Mottled ware
04E0750 36 14 Ceramic Clay pipe Stem
04E0750 36 19 cancelled
04E0750 47 1 Metal Iron slag
04E0750 50 1 Metal
04E0750 50 2 Metal
04E0750 52 13 Metal
04E0750 52 14 Metal
04E0750 52 15 Metal
04E0750 53 1 Metal Slag ? Med



04E0750 56 4 Ceramic Handle sherd Casteldermot type
04E0750 58 5 Metal Iron Nail fragment
04E0750 58 6 Metal Nail
04E0750 62 2 Metal Iron Staple



04E0750 63 1 Ceramic Rim sherd Transfer printed ware
04E0750 63 2 Ceramic Body sherd Pearlware
04E0750 69 1 Ceramic Drain pipe
04E0750 75 5 Ceramic Handle sherd Dublin-type coarse ware?
04E0750 75 7 Natural DISCARDED
04E0750 80 1 Stone Roof slate
04E0750 81 3 Ceramic Clay pipe
04E0750 82 1 Metal Iron Horseshoe fragment?
04E0750 83 1 Metal Slag Post-Med
04E0750 83 1 Ceramic Roof tile Pantile
04E0750 83 2 Metal Slag Post-Med



04E0750 84 12 Glass
04E0750 84 13 Glass
04E0750 105 15 Ceramic Rim/Handle/Spout sherd Casteldermot type
04E0750 105 27 Ceramic Rim/Base sherd Casteldermot type



04E0750 108 1 Glass Fragment Window glass
04E0750 110 1 Glass
04E0750 110 2 Glass
04E0750 110 4 Ceramic Rim sherd Black glazed ware
04E0750 110 6 Brick
04E0750 110 7 Metal Iron Key
04E0750 112 2 Glass
04E0750 112 3 Glass
04E0750 112 4 Glass
04E0750 112 6 Glass
04E0750 112 7 Glass
04E0750 112 8 Glass
04E0750 112 9 Glass
04E0750 112 10 Glass
04E0750 112 11 Glass
04E0750 112 12 Glass
04E0750 112 13 Glass
04E0750 112 14 Glass
04E0750 112 15 Glass



04E0750 119 7 Ceramic Body sherd Bristol/Staffordshire slipware
04E0750 119 9 Ceramic Rim sherd Tin glazed earthenware
04E0750 119 11 Ceramic Clay pipe stem
04E0750 119 12 Glass
04E0750 119 16 Metal
04E0750 119 17 Metal
04E0750 119 18 Metal
04E0750 119 19 Metal
04E0750 119 20 Metal
04E0750 119 21 Metal
04E0750 119 22 Metal
04E0750 119 23 Metal
04E0750 119 24 Metal
04E0750 121 1 Ceramic Rim sherd Glazed red earthenware
04E0750 121 2 Ceramic Handle sherd North Devon gravel tempered
04E0750 121 6 Ceramic Rim sherd North Devon gravel tempered
04E0750 121 9 Glass Body sherd Bristol/Staffordshire slipware
04E0750 121 11 Ceramic Base sherd North Devon gravel tempered



04E0750 121 37 Ceramic Clay pipe Bowl
04E0750 121 38 cancelled Clay pipe
04E0750 121 78 Metal Iron lump Unidentified
04E0750 121 79 Metal Iron Hook



04E0750 133 6 Metal Slag Post-Med / Med mix
04E0750 133 7 Metal Slag Post-Med / Med mix
04E0750 135 1 Ceramic Base sherd Glazed red earthenware
04E0750 135 2 Ceramic Body sherd North Devon sgraffito
04E0750 135 4 Ceramic Rim sherd Bristol/Staffordshire slipware
04E0750 135 8 Ceramic Body sherd North Devon sgraffito
04E0750 135 13 Glass
04E0750 135 14 Glass
04E0750 137 1 Glass
04E0750 137 3 Glass
04E0750 137 4 Glass
04E0750 139 Nos 2-11 cancelled
04E0750 139 12 Glass
04E0750 139 13 Glass
04E0750 139 14 Glass
04E0750 139 15 Glass
04E0750 139 16 Glass
04E0750 139 17 Glass



04E0750 143 2 Glass
04E0750 143 3 Stone Roof slate
04E0750 148 3 Ceramic Body sherd Mottled ware
04E0750 148 5 Ceramic Body sherd Stoneware
04E0750 148 7 Ceramic Base sherd Mottled ware
04E0750 148 11 Ceramic Roof tile Pantile
04E0750 149 4 Metal Iron Slag?
04E0750 152 1 Ceramic Rim/Spout sherd Casteldermot type
04E0750 153 7 Ceramic Body sherd Dublin-type?
04E0750 159 7 Ceramic Spout sherd Casteldermot type
04E0750 161 5 Ceramic Body sherd North Devon gravel free
04E0750 161 9 Metal Iron Hook



04E0750 162 6 Ceramic Base sherd Black glazed ware
04E0750 163 2 Ceramic Body sherd Frechen
04E0750 172 9 Glass
04E0750 172 10 Glass
04E0750 173 8 Ceramic Body sherd North Devon gravel tempered
04E0750 180 2 Ceramic Body sherd Dublin-type cooking ware
04E0750 183 1 Glass
04E0750 183 2 Glass
04E0750 183 3 Glass
04E0750 183 4 Metal Iron Unidentified mass



04E0750 195 1 Glass Border fragment Window glass
04E0750 205 1 Ceramic Ridge tile? Casteldermot type
04E0750 211 5 Ceramic Base sherd Tin glazed earthenware
04E0750 223 2 Metal Pot fragment



04E0750 234 2 Metal Iron Threaded screw
04E0750 234 14 Ceramic Handle sherd Leinster cooking ware



04E0750 255 54 Glass
04E0750 255 55 Glass
04E0750 255 56 Glass
04E0750 255 57 Glass
04E0750 255 58 Glass
04E0750 255 59 Glass
04E0750 255 60 Glass
04E0750 255 61 Metal Iron Artefact
04E0750 255 62 Metal Iron Artefact
04E0750 256 5 Metal Iron Horseshoe fragment
04E0750 256 Nos 40- cancelled
43



04E0750 264 1 Moulding
04E0750 265 1 Metal Iron Nail head
04E0750 265 7 Bone Handle
04E0750 265 8 Ceramic Ridge tile North Devon gravel tempered
04E0750 265 9 Glass
04E0750 265 10 Glass
04E0750 265 11 Glass
04E0750 265 12 Glass
04E0750 265 15 Ceramic Base sherd Tin glazed earthenware



04E0750 265 23 Ceramic Rim sherd North Devon sgraffito
04E0750 265 24 Metal Copper Pin
04E0750 265 Nos 31- cancelled Clay pipe
39
64
102
108
04E0750 265 109 Metal Iron Buckle
04E0750 265 115 Metal Iron Unidentified lump
04E0750 265 116 Metal Iron Unidentified lump
04E0750 265 136 Metal Iron Unidentified object
04E0750 265 137 Metal Iron Nail fragments
04E0750 265 138 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 139 Metal Slag



04E0750 265 140 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 141 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 142 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 143 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 144 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 145 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 146 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 147 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 148 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 149 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 150 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 151 Metal Slag
04E0750 265 152 Metal Slag
04E0750 270 4 Ceramic Rim sherd Dublin-type cooking ware
04E0750 295 1 Ceramic Base sherd Dublin-type coarse ware



04E0750 308 3 Ceramic Handle sherd Black glazed ware
04E0750 308 11 Ceramic Handle sherd Black glazed ware
04E0750 311 1 Ceramic Body sherd Dublin-type ware



04E0750 328 6 Ceramic Base sherd Dublin-type cooking ware
04E0750 328 12 Ceramic Base sherd Dublin-type cooking ware
04E0750 332 5 Ceramic Body sherd Miscellaneous French
04E0750 332 6 Ceramic Rim/Handle sherd Redcliffe?
04E0750 332 23 Ceramic Body sherd Miscellaneous French



04E0750 332 42 Ceramic Body sherd Anglo-Netherlands slipware
04E0750 332 51 Ceramic Body sherd Saintonge green glazed
04E0750 333 1 Metal Copper/Copper alloy Sheet metal fragment
04E0750 333 7 Ceramic Base sherd Redcliffe?



04E0750 390 1 Ceramic Body sherd Miscellaneous French?
04E0750 390 2 Ceramic Body sherd Miscellaneous French?



04E0750 392 1 Metal Iron Sheet metal fragment
04E0750 417 1 Ceramic Base sherd Stoneware
04E0750 417 4 Glass
04E0750 417 5 Glass
04E0750 440 1 Ceramic Rim sherd Stoneware
04E0750 459 1 Metal Iron Blade
04E0750 469 1 Ceramic Body sherd Transition ware
04E0750 469 3 Metal Copper alloy Coin
04E0750 482 1 Glass Base fragment Wine bottle
04E0750 510 1 Ceramic Base sherd Bristol/Staffordshire slipware
04E0750 510 2 Ceramic Handle sherd Bristol/Staffordshire slipware
04E0750 510 3 Ceramic Handle sherd Bristol/Staffordshire slipware
04E0750 510 4 Ceramic Rim sherd Bristol/Staffordshire slipware
04E0750 512 5 Ceramic Base sherd Transition ware



04E0750 514 3 Ceramic Body sherd Glazed red earthenware:slipware



12.4 Appendix 4: Catalogue of Artefacts
Other Artefacts
Bone Artefacts
Handle (04E0750:265:7) L. 52.3mm, W. 15.3mm, Th. 12.8mm. Incomplete. Faceted, triangular.
Handle end flat. Metal (probably iron oxide) remains.

Stone Artefacts
Roof Slate (04E0750:80:1) L. 102.2mm, W. 69.4mm, Th. 14.6mm. Incomplete. Greenish gray (5G,
5/1) with iron oxide staining. Broken tile with circular perforation (D. 8.2mm).

Roof Slate (04E0750:143:3) L. 109.6mm, W. 79.2mm, Th. 22.6mm. Incomplete. Grayish green (5G,
5/2). Broken tile with circular perforation (D. 10.04mm).

Rotary quern stone (04E0750:9:2) Three fragments of granite rotary quern stone.
L. 250mm, W. 180mm, Th. 72mm and L. 170.5mm, W. 140.4mm, Th. 70.3mm and L.170mm, W,
110.2mm, Th. 75mm. D. of central perforation 80mm. Incomplete.

Stone column (04E0750:-:1) L. 325.7mm, D170mm. Incomplete. A small broken shaft section of
a limestone column or pillar was recovered during excavations in the village of Castledermot. The
limestone piece of masonry measures 345mm in maximum length and has a diameter of 147mm at
its squared. The diameter of the column fragment increases slightly along its length to a maximum of
167mm at the break. A horizontal band of moulding, in ogee pattern, extends around the circumfer-
ence of the piece 100mm from the broken end. The column is perfectly circular and features a finely
executed all over vertical dressing in the form of a closely spaced narrow filleting (5mm from crest
to crest). The squared end of the column shaft is slightly spalled but still exhibits some of its original
scudding to grip the mortar. The fragment was found in proximity to the market square out of context
and no doubt much removed from its original location. This broken shaft section of column, is prob-
ably Medieval in date.

Metal Artefacts
Nail (04E0750:129:1) Fe. L. 55.9mm, Th. (of shank) 13.7mm, D. of head 22.5mm. Complete. Flat
sub-circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:129:2) Fe. L. 35mm, Th. (of shank) 12.1mm, D. of head 17mm. Incomplete. Flat sub-
circular headed. Shank square in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:129:3) Fe. L. 53mm, Th. (of shank) 6.4mm, D. of head 14mm. Incomplete. Flat sub-
circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank lightly bent. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:129:4) Fe. L. 30.05mm, Th. (of shank) 8.3mm, D. of head 17.3mm. Incomplete and



broken. Flat sub-circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post
Medieval.

Nail head (04E0750:295:2) Fe. D. of head 22.2mm. Incomplete. Flat sub-circular. Corroded. Not
conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:295:3) Fe. L. 53.8mm, Th. (of shank) 10.06mm, W. of head 14.1mm. Incomplete. Flat
rectangular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:137:2) Fe. L. 46.2mm, Th. (of shank) 7.8mm, D. of head 13.2mm. Complete. Flat sub-
circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.


Nail (04E0750:161:8) Fe. L. 54.3mm, Th. (of shank) 8.3mm, D. of head 19mm. Complete. Flat sub-
circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight, terminal lightly bent. Not conserved.
Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:3) Fe. L. 36mm, Th. (of shank) 10mm, W. of head 16mm. Incomplete. Flat square
headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:4) Fe. L. 61mm, Th. (of shank) 10.05mm, W. of head 14.4mm. Incomplete and
broken. Flat headed (broken). Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Me-
dieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:5) Fe. L. 53mm, Th. (of shank) 13.7mm, D. of head 18.7mm. Complete? Flat sub-
circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail head (04E0750:265:6) Fe. D. of head 25.9mm. Incomplete. Flat circular. Corroded. Not con-
served. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:121:65) Fe. L. 52.4mm, Th. (of shank) 3.6mm, W. of head 13.8mm. Complete. Flat

Nail (04E0750:121:66) Fe. L. 23.5mm, Th. (of shank) 3.5mm, D. of head 13mm. Complete. Flat sub-
circular headed. Shank square in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:121:67) Fe. L. 22mm, Th. (of shank) 6.5mm, D. of head 13.2mm. Incomplete. Flat



Nail (04E0750:121:68) Fe. L. 48mm, Th. (of shank) 12mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectangular
in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:121:69) Fe. L. 26.5mm, Th. (of shank) 9.4mm, D. of head 18.3mm. Incomplete. Flat

Nail (04E0750:121:70) Fe. L. 30mm, D. (of shank) 5mm, D. of head 17.5mm. Incomplete. Flat sub-
circular headed. Shank circular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:121:71) Fe. L. 33.2mm, Th. (of shank) 7.9mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectangu-
lar in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:121:72) Fe. L. 29mm, Th. (of shank) 10.04mm, D. of head 11.2mm. Incomplete. Flat
sub-circular headed. Shank square in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.



Nail (04E0750:121:75) Fe. L. 25mm, Th. (of shank) 7.9mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectangular

Nail (04E0750:121:76) Fe. L. 30.07mm, Th. (of shank) 10.05mm, D. of head 17.7mm. Incomplete.
Flat sub-circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank bent. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:117) Fe. L. 36.5mm, Th. (of shank) 9mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectangu-

Nail (04E0750:265:118) Fe. L. 32.2mm, D. (of shank) 10.03mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank circu-

Nail (04E0750:265:119) Fe. L. 38mm, Th. (of shank) 9.3mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectangu-

Nail (04E0750:265:120) Fe. L. 31mm, Th. (of shank) 15.2mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectan-
gular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.



Nail (04E0750:265:121) Fe. L. 44.7mm, D. (of shank) 11.2mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank sub-
circular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:122) Fe. L. 20.05mm, Th. (of shank) 12.2mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rec-
tangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:123) Fe. L. 23.6mm, D. (of shank) 5.1mm, D. of head 24.4mm. Incomplete. Flat
sub-circular headed. Shank circular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:124) Fe. L. 37.4mm, Th. (of shank) 16mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectan-

Nail (04E0750:265:125) Fe. L. 32.8mm, Th. (of shank) 8.2mm, D. of head 13.6mm. Incomplete. Flat
sub-circular headed. Shank triangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:126) Fe. L. 47.9mm, D. (of shank) 14.3mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank sub-
circular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:127) Fe. L. 66.5mm, Th. (of shank) 12.2mm, W. of head 21mm. Complete. Flat

Nail (04E0750:265:128) Fe. L. 36.5mm, D. (of shank) 13mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank sub-cir-
cular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:129) Fe. L. 32.3mm, Th. (of shank) 6.8mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank rectan-

Nail (04E0750:265:130) Fe. L. 18.4mm, Th. (of shank) 7mm, W. of head 12.5mm. Incomplete. Flat
rectangular headed. Shank triangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:131) Fe. L. 33.9mm, Th. (of shank) 8mm, W. of head 15mm. Incomplete. Flat
rectangular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank lightly bent. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:132) Fe. L. 15.7mm, Th. (of shank) 4.2mm, W. of head 13mm. Incomplete. Flat
headed (broken). Shank rectangular in section. Shank straight. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:133) Fe. L. 34.9mm, Th. (of shank) 6.2mm, D. of head 26mm. Incomplete. Flat
sub-circular headed. Shank rectangular in section. Shank lightly bent. Not conserved. Post Medi-
eval.



Nail (04E0750:265:2) Fe. L. 146.9mm, D. (of shank) 4.7mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank circular
in section. Shank lightly twisted. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail (04E0750:265:3) Fe. L. 77.3mm, Th. (of shank) 5.1mm. Incomplete. Headless. Shank elliptical

Nail (04E0750:27:32-33) Fe. L. 49mm, Br. 5.1mm. W./D. 5mm. Conserved. Two joining fragments.
The surfaces of the nail are corroded with soil embedded in the corrosion layer. The nail is very fragile.
It is totally mineralised; there is no core remaining.

Nail (04E0750:35:1) Fe. L. 87mm, Br. 6mm. W. 3mm. Conserved. Headless. Shank rectangular in
section.

Nail (04E0750:35:2) Fe. L. 60mm, Br. 5mm. W. 3mm. Conserved. Head offset. Shank rectangular
in section.

Nail (04E0750:58:5) Fe. L. 23mm, Br. 5mm. W./D. 5mm. Conserved. Fragment consisting of a head
and the uppermost portion of the shank. The head is flat and diamond-shaped when viewed from
above. The shank fragment is square in section and tapers slightly.

Nail (04E0750:62:1) Fe. L. 28mm, Br. 7mm. W./D. 10mm. Conserved. The shape of this nail suggests
that it is an example of the type used to secure horseshoes to horses’ hooves.

Nail (04E0750:65:2) Fe. L. 28mm, Br. 4mm. W./D. 10mm. Conserved. Head slightly offset. Shank
square in section and tapers. Tip lacking.

Nail (04E0750:515:1) Fe. L. 40mm, Br. 4mm. W. 4mm. Conserved. Headless nail or shank. Rectan-
gular in section.

Nail (04E0750:515:2) Fe. L. 27mm, Br. 6mm. W. 11mm. Conserved. Irregularly shaped head. Shank
rectangular in section and tapers.

Nail (04E0750:511:2) Fe. L. 27mm, Br. 17mm. W./D. 16mm. Conserved. Head square in shape and
large relative to the shank. Shank square in section and tapers.

Nail (04E0750:431:1) Fe. L. 43mm, Br. 10mm. W./D. 13mm. Conserved. Irregularly shaped head.
Shank square in section. The tip is lacking.

Nail (04E0750:416:1) Fe. L. 45mm, Br. 7mm. W./D. 8mm. Conserved. Headless. Shank square in
section and tapers. The tip is lacking.



Nail (04E0750:379:1) Fe. L. 34mm, Br. 7mm. W./D. 15mm. Conserved. Heavily corroded and totally
mineralised. The shape is best seen in the x-ray. Rectangular in section.

Nail (04E0750:333:2) Fe. L. 55mm, Br. 13mm. W./D. 10mm. Conserved. Head irregular in shape
with a flat upper surface. Shank rectangular in section.

Nail (04E0750:332:3) Fe. L. 42mm, Br. 6mm. W./D. 5mm. Conserved. Shank square in section and
bent at a right angle.

Nail (04E0750:293:1) Fe. L. 26mm, Br. 9mm. W./D. 7mm. Conserved. Horseshoe nail? Square head.
Shaft rectangular in cross-section. The tip is very tapered in cross-section.

Nail (04E0750:256:3) Fe. L. 33mm, Br. 8mm. W. 11mm. Conserved. Nail shank.

Nail (04E0750:256:4) Fe. L. 40mm, Br. 18mm. W. 21mm. Conserved. Flat and sub-round head.
Shank square in section and tapers to a point.

Nail (04E0750:195:6) Fe. L. 30mm, Br. 4mm. W. 7mm. Conserved. Iron shank or headless nail.
Shank square in section and tapers.

Nail (04E0750:256:4) Fe. L. 36mm, Br. 4mm. W. 14mm. Conserved. Head domed. Shank square in
section.

Nail (04E0750:94:1) Fe. L. 70mm, Br. 6mm. W. 10mm. Conserved. Irregularly shaped and slighly
domed head. Shank square in section and tapers. Tip is lacking.

Nail (04E0750:128:1) Fe. L. 25mm, Br. 14mm. W. 24mm. Conserved. Short, thick iron nail. Rectan-
gular and flat head, if viewed from above. Shank rectangular in section and tapers.

Nail (04E0750:125:11) Fe. L. 17mm, Br. 4mm. W. 7mm. Conserved. Small iron nail. Shank square
in section and tapers to a point.

Nail (04E0750:125:12) Fe. L. 32mm, Br. 6mm. W. 12mm. Conserved. Fragment with irregularly
shaped and slightly domed head. Flat and sub-round head. Shank rectangular in section.

Nail? (04E0750:256:4) Fe. L. 52mm, Br. 5mm. W. 20mm. Conserved. This artefact appears to be a
nail. However its head has an unusual shape. Parallel to the line of the shank rather than perpendicular
to it, it is roughly oval in outline and has flat sides. Shank square in section.



Nail head (04E0750:265:134) Fe. D. of head 13.8mm. Incomplete. Flat circular. Corroded. Not con-
served. Post Medieval.



Nail fragments (04E0750:265:137) Fe. L. 32.3mm, W. 16.5mm, Th. 8.3mm. Incomplete. Corroded
nail shanks (probably 3) stuck together. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Nail fragment (04E0750:105:49) Fe. L. 18mm, W. 7mm, Br. 5mm. Conserved. Shannk fragment the
end of which is curled over.

Nail fragment (04E0750:105:50) Fe. L. 30mm, W. 7mm, Br. 5mm. Conserved. Shank square in sec-
tion and tapers.

Nail fragment (04E0750:105:51) Fe. L. 44mm, W. 7mm, Br. 6mm. Conserved. Shank square in sec-
tion and tapers.

Staple (04E0750:62:2) Fe. L. 65mm, Br. 4mm. W./D. 30mm. Conserved. U-shaped. Rectangular in
section and with each of the two ends taping to a point.

Hook (04E0750:121:79) Fe. L. 59.3mm, D. (of stem) 3mm. Incomplete. Circular in section. Bent
terminal. Stem twisted. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Hook (04E0750:161:9) Fe. L. 93.6mm, Th. (of stem) 3mm. Incomplete. Solid shank, rectangular in
section. Bent terminal. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Key (04E0750:119:15) Fe. L. 94.8mm, Th. (of shank) 10.09mm. Incomplete. Bow missing. Shank
rectangular in section. First part of bit present. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Key (04E0750:110:7) Fe. L. 68.5mm, Th. (of shank) 10.03mm. Incomplete. Ring bow broken. First
part of shank present. Shank elliptical in section. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Key (04E0750:464:1) Fe. L. 71mm, Br. 35mm, W./D. 8mm. Conserved. Oval ring bow. Directly be-
low the ring bow the stem has two coil decorations. The bit has two wards and a projecting stem that
are parallel to the stem.



Buckle (04E0750:265:109) Fe. L. 45mm, Br. 12mm. W./D. 36mm. Conserved. Consisting in a square
simple frame and a pin.

Blade (04E0750:459:1) Fe. L. 62mm, Br. 4mm, W./D. 12mm. Conserved. Triangular in section. The
back of the blade has a small step rising towards the tang, part of wich has survived. The tip is lack-
ing.

Pin (04E0750:265:24) Cu. L. 25.3mm, D. (of shank) 0.8mm, D. (of head) 1.6mm. Complete. Club-
headed with an incised line. Plain shank, circular in section.

Horseshoe? (04E0750:82:1) Fe. L. 48mm, W./D. 20mm, Br. 3mm. Conserved. This iron artefact ap-
pears to be a heel fragment of a horseshoe. The intact end tapers to a point. In the broken end there are
remains of a rectangular perforation.

Horseshoe fragment (04E0750:256:5) Fe. L. 89mm, W./D. 24mm, Br. 3mm. Conserved. Heel frag-
ment with two nail holes.

Coin (04E0750:469:3) Cu. Alloy. Conserved. Size of a halfpenny. The faint design on its obverse and
reverse are not legible. There are no signs of any legends. It may be a counterfeit. A portion (about 10%)
is lacking.

Threaded screw (04E0750:234:2) Fe. L. 67mm, Br. 6mm. W./D. 12mm. Conserved. Even though
this artefact is from a medieval context (the fill of medieval pits C.235, C.237 and C.238), it appears
to be a modern ferrous metal screw.

Sheet metal fragment (04E0750:392:1) Fe. L. 56mm, Br. 4mm. W./D. 39mm. Conserved. Possibly
an offcut.

Sheet metal fragment (04E0750:333:1) Cu/Cu. Alloy L. 26mm, Br. 0.5mm. W./D. 13mm. Con-
served. One worked edge. There is a perforation in the sheet metal but it appears to be accidental rather
than intentional.

Artefact (04E0750:255:61) Fe. L. 42mm, Br. 5mm. W./D. 5mm. Conserved. This artefact appears to
be a small iron tool, possibly a chisel. Its shank is square in section and tapers at one end. The other
end is chisel-ended.

Artefact (04E0750:255:62) Fe. L. 45mm, Br. 6mm. W./D. 7mm. Conserved. Iron shank or headless
nail. Shank square in section and tapers.



Slag? (04E0750:149:4) Fe. This artefact appears to be a lump of slag. It is slightly magnetic.

Unidentified (04E0750:121:78) Fe. L. 19.8mm, W. 12.3mm, Th. 9.1mm. Incomplete. Corroded
lump. Sub-circular in section. Not conserved. Post Medieval.

Unidentified (01E0750:265:110) Fe. L. 66mm, W. 50.04mm, Th. 41.5mm. Incomplete. Corroded
mass. Sub-circular in section. Not conserved. Post Medieval.


Unidentified (01E0750:265:112) Fe. L. 73.1mm, W. 55mm, Th. 33.4mm. Incomplete. Corroded

Unidentified (01E0750:265:113) Fe. L. 36.4mm, W. 30.03mm, Th. 23mm. Incomplete and broken.
Corroded mass. Sub-circular in section. Not conserved. Post Medieval.




mass with animal tooth (probably ovine) stuck. Sub-circular in section. Not conserved. Post Medi-
eval.

Unidentified (01E0750:265:136) Fe. L. 36mm, W. 18.2mm, Th. 8.3mm. Incomplete. Corroded flat
object. Rectangular in section. Not conserved. Post Medieval.




Clay Pipes
Stems
Stem (04E0750:256:46) L. 50.07mm, D. 6.6mm. Incomplete.


Stem (04E0750:256:79) L. 55mm, D. 9.2mm. Incomplete.






Stem (04E0750:256:73) L. 28.5mm, D. 6mm. Incomplete.


Stem (04E0750:256:56) L. 77.8mm, D. 9.3mm. Incomplete. Spur present.

Stem (04E0750:256:52) L. 59.1mm, D. 8.6mm. Incomplete. Spur present.















Stem (04E0750:256:24) L. 39mm, D. 8mm. Incomplete.

































Stem (04E0750:240:6) L. 40.09mm, D. 8.2mm. Incomplete. First part of bowl present.















Stem (04E0750:119:11) Fragment. L. 14.3mm. Incomplete.
























Stem (04E0750:121:36) L. 31.2mm. Incomplete (broken).



























Bowls*
Bowl (04E0750:265:65) Fragment. L. 23.4mm, W. 11mm.

Bowl (04E0750:265:103) Fragment. L. 43.4mm, W. 17.3mm. Lip present.

Bowl (04E0750:264:8) Fragment. L. 28.5mm, W. 9.3mm.

Bowl (04E0750:264:29) Fragment. L. 29.3mm, W. 16.5mm.



Bowl (04E0750:141:59) Fragment. L. 23.2mm, W. 10.05mm. Spur present. Similar to Fig. 4.3.1,
pag.249, in Lane 2003. Dating: 1690-1750.

Bowl (04E0750:121:37) L. 49mm, D. 18mm. Complete. Lip present. First part of stem present. Bul-
bous with plain rim and straightish sides.

Bowl (04E0750:121:39) L. 45.2mm, D. 13.8mm. Incomplete. Lip present. First part of stem present.
Slightly bulbous with rouletted rim. Spur untrimmed. Similar to Fig. 12:1:32, pag.368, in Lane 1997.
Dating: 1640-1670.

Bowl (04E0750:161:10) L. 38.2mm, D. 20.06mm. Incomplete. Spur present. Slightly bulbous, with
a stylised ‘Mulberry tree’ on each side. This is made up of a set of six raised dots forming a triangular
shape. Similar to Fig. 12:1:29, pag.368, in Lane 1997. Usually dated to the second half of the 17th
century.

Bowl (04E0750:223:1) L. 43.3mm, D. 19.6mm. Incomplete. First part of stem present. Bulbous, with
rouletting on the rim. Similar to Fig.12:1:19, pag.368, in Lane 1997, as regards the shape. Dating:
second half of the 17th century.

Bowl (04E0750:211:8-11) L. 37.7mm, D. 16mm. Incomplete. Lip present. Small bulbous, spurred
bowl with chinned shape. Similar to Fig.12:1:3, pag.368, in Lane 1997, as regards the shape. Dating:
middle of the 17th century.

Bowl (04E0750:265:30) L. 50mm, D. 15.7mm. Complete. First part of stem present. Straight-sided,
plain bowl with thin walls. The base is large and flat. Similar to Fig.12:2:24, pag.373, in Lane 1997, as
regards the shape. This bowl is dated to the second half of the 18th century. As the Castledermot bowls
present a lower base, an earlier dating may be appropriate.

Bowl (04E0750:265:25) L. 36.1mm, D. 17.3mm. Incomplete. Lip present. Straight-sided, plain bowl
with thin walls. Similar to Fig.12:2:24, pag.373, in Lane 1997, as regards the shape. This bowl is dated
to the second half of the 18th century. As the Castledermot bowls present a lower base, an earlier dating
may be appropriate.

Bowl (04E0750:265:41) L. 39mm, D. 18.5mm. Incomplete. First part of stem present. Straight-sided,
plain bowl with thin walls. The base is large and flat. Similar to Fig.12:2:24, pag.373, in Lane 1997, as
regards the shape. This bowl is dated to the second half of the 18th century. As the Castledermot bowls
present a lower base, an earlier dating may be appropriate.




with thin walls. The base is large and flat. Similar to Fig.12:2:24, pag.373, in Lane 1997, as regards
the shape. This bowl is dated to the second half of the 18th century. As the Castledermot bowls present
a lower base, an earlier dating may be appropriate.

Bowl (04E0750:265:29) L. 44mm, D. 15.9mm. Incomplete. Lip present. Straight-sided, plain bowl
with thin walls. Similar to Fig.12:2:24, pag.373, in Lane 1997, as regards the shape. This bowl is dated
to the second half of the 18th century. As the Castledermot bowls present a lower base, an earlier dating
may be appropriate.

Bowl (04E0750:265:40) L. 32.7mm, D. 17.6mm. Incomplete. Lip present. Plain bowl with slightly
rouletted rim. Similar to a bowl imported from England, Fig.12:2:1, pag.373, in Lane 1997, as regards
the shape. Dating: early 18th century.

with thin walls. The base is large and high, with a heavy overhang on the front side.

* The diameter considered is the maximum diameter of the bowl. When the bowl lip is present the
diameter is taken on the rim of the bowl.

Bibliographic References
Lane 1997. Lane S., The clay pipes, section 12:I, in “Late Viking Age and medieval Waterford –
Excavations 1986-1992”, Waterford 1997 (pages 366-374).

Lane 2003. Lane S., Clay pipes, in “Excavations in Cork City, 1984-2000”, Cork 2003 (pages 248-
251).

Notes
A fragment of plaster mould (04E0750:264:1) is also present. L. 56.4mm, W. 36mm, Th. 10mm.

There’s a group of five bowls from context 265 (No. 25,29,30,41,42) that present the same features.
The shape of the bowls reminds to the late 18th century, also if the spur is quite high, compared with
the reference’s one.

Two of the bulbous bowls (121:37 and 223:1) present a not common slightly trimmed spur, as the same
shape is usually found in association with flat a base (See bibliographic references).



12.5 Appendix 5: Pottery Report

The pottery and glass
from
Castledermot, Co. Kildare
(04E0750)

Clare McCutcheon MA MIAI

A total of 844 sherds of pottery were recovered from the site. Following some
reassembly within and between contexts this was reduced to 744 sherds of which 585
(78.65%) are medieval in date. A further six sherds of structural ceramics were also
recovered and these are listed in Table 3.
A single shard of glass, the base of a later 18th century wine bottle, was recovered
from Area 6, context 482, a layer/fill of brown sand that indicated the presence of a
further grave cut extending west.

Quantification:
The fabric types have been identified visually and the detailed information is
presented in Table 1 (medieval) and Table 2 (late and post-medieval). The number of
sherds in each fabric type is listed and the minimum number of vessels (MNV)
represented by these sherds. This minimum number is based on the presence of
rim/handle junctions, as this is the most accurate method of determining the presence
of a jug. As jugs represent the majority of the forms produced, this method of
quantification ensures at least that the glazed wares can be accurately quantified. It is
safer and more useful for indicating overall use of pottery at any particular time if
conservative and consistent numbers can be produced on a site-by-site basis, leading
to greater use for researchers in the future. The minimum vessels represented (MVR)
gives a more subjective indication of the possible number of jugs, taking the variety of
handle, bases and spouts into account. The probable form and the date range of the
fabric types are also listed in the table. More detailed discussion is included in the
report with regard to the medieval pottery. The late medieval and post-medieval
material is widely found in excavations in Ireland cf. Dublin and Cork (McCutcheon
1995a; 2003), Waterford and Galway (Meenan 1997; 2004).



Table 4 contains the identification of the pottery by context, with the museum finds
number and, where appropriate, the type of sherd i.e. R, S, B, RH for rim, spout, base
and rim/handle respectively. The plus sign (+) is used to indicate where two or more
sherds have been reassembled. Sherd links were noted between two upper fills of the
ditch in Area 1: 25 and 26.
The presence of Dublin-type ware certainly indicates a broadly thirteenth century
date. The small quantity of the earlier Dublin-type coarseware keeps this broad date
range within the thirteenth century although the Leinster Cooking Ware has an even
longer date range from the later twelfth to the mid-fourteenth century. Castledermot
was an important town in its own right in the medieval period with regular Justiciary
Courts where cases were heard for a wide area. It was also on the main highway from
Dublin to Kilkenny and other parts south so it is perhaps somewhat surprising that
such a small quantity of French wares were recovered with only two sherds of
Saintonge green glazed ware. Documentary evidence that shows that 'wine was sent to
TRISTLEDERMOT (Dysert-dermot, or Castledermot), Co. Kildare, for the Lords
Justices in 1280' (Westropp 1912, 402) and the French wares in particular were
associated with the wine trade from Bordeaux. It is clear, that Castledermot was not
reliant on the passing trade to and from Dublin, however, and a local pottery
production is clearly evidenced, perhaps at Castledermot itself. It may well have been
made by a pottery from the Dublin area, with its bigger market for the material, as the
lack of variety in designs and decorative motifs on medieval pottery in Ireland is
particularly noteworthy. A similar pottery assemblage from west of Main Street,
Castledermot (E. O'Donovan 1996) also contained a small quantity of Saintonge and
Dublin-type wares with the balance appearing to be locally made (McCutcheon
forthcoming (a)). Thin-sections of sherds from that assemblage showed that the
quartz-rich clays could have been from fairly local but different clay sources
(McCorry forthcoming).
Pottery was made locally in medieval Ireland but local requirements influenced the
quantity present in any particular area. Given that pottery was almost exclusively used
in the areas of Anglo-Norman influence, and even there it was not a high status item
or the most widely used medium for tablewares, its importance can often be over-
rated in the modern period. Within and around Dublin, the market appears to have
been largely served by the local production that may well have been associated with
Crocker Street, Dublin named as such as early as 1190 (Brooks 1936, 22).



Excavations at Maynooth Castle, at High Street, Trim and on the Finglas to Asbourne
by-pass at Cookstown and Muckerstown/ Wotton townlands have certainly produced
substantial quantities of pottery identifiable as being within the tradition of the
Dublin-type wares (McCutcheon forthcoming (b & c); in prep (a & b)). Only at High
Street, Trim was there evidence of a different clay type, previously designated Trim
ware (Sweetman 1978). This appears to be similar to and contemporary with the later
thirteenth and fourteenth century finewares found in Dublin, Kilkenny and Cork
amongst other centres. In contrast to Dublin, Cork's assemblages may include up to
70% Saintonge wares in the thirteenth century while Dublin may have the same
percentage of locally produced wares. The reason for this is not the greater
sophistication of the Cork people but rather a straightforward case of economics.
Access to both port cities was considerably different with ships sailing right into Cork
city and landing material directly onto the market quay while in Dublin, the turbulent
nature of the river required goods to be unloaded into smaller boats at Dalkey before
being brought up river. As already noted, pottery was already a low status item, rarely
mentioned individually in customs dues, and so the return was further lessened with
over-handling. Also, the countryside extending from Dublin was much more firmly in
the control of the Anglo-Normans than was the case in Cork. For these reasons, it
made good economic sense to be as self-sufficient as possible and, as the major centre
of production, the evidence is mounting that the medieval pottery of Dublin had a
wide range of distribution.



Fabric-type Sherds MNV MVR Form Date

Leinster Cooking Ware 134 1 >8 2 jugs, >6 cooking pots L12th-14th
Dublin-type coarseware 9 1 3 Pipkin, 2 jugs L12th-E13th
Dublin-type ware 2 - 1 Jug 13th
Dublin-type cooking ware 14 - 1 Cooking pot 13th
Castledermot-type 418 9 >10 Jugs, dripping dish 13th-14th
Redcliffe? 3 1 1 Jug M13th-14th
Miscellaneous French 3 - 1 Jug 13th
Saintonge green glazed 2 - 1 Jug 13th-14th
Total medieval 585 12 >26

Table 1: Medieval pottery from Castledermot (04E750).

Leinster Cooking Ware:
'Leinster Cooking Ware is the single most widespread medieval pottery type in
Leinster' (Ó Floinn 1988, 340). It has been found in varying quantities on both urban
and rural sites from Dungarvan to Dublin and further north. The fabric contains large
plates of mica, quartz grits and other inclusions such as decomposed feldspar (ibid
327).
The sherds represent the typical cooking pots with everted rims, ovoid bodies and
sand-marked bases. The latter are characteristic of this fabric type, the probable result
of having been placed on a bed of sand during construction (ibid.). In addition, two
jugs are represented in the assemblage. Based on the large assemblages of Leinster
Cooking Ware at Carrickmines Castle and Merrion Road excavations (McCutcheon in
prep (c & d)), these would have been small, with strap handles decorated in a variety
of designs, with pinched spouts, decorated rims and the typical sand-gritted bases so
diagnostic of Leinster Cooking Ware. One of the strap handles was undecorated while
the second was decorated with a series of three lines of stabbing, a fourth line being
added in at the wider portion of the lower handle.



Dublin-type wares:
The designation of a fabric with the suffix -type is recommended pottery practice to
indicate that a ware has been consistently found in a particular area while evidence for
a production centre or kiln which has not yet been discovered (Blake & Davey 1983,
39-40). The general term London-type, for example, has been adopted to describe
wares that share general traditions and clay sources (Pearce et al 1985, 2). A fuller
discussion of the names of the Dublin-type wares has been detailed elsewhere
(McCutcheon 2000, 120-23; 2005) and only a general outline is included in this
report.
The relative dating of the Dublin-type wares has been developed as a result of
consistent recovery in the stratigraphic levels of the Dublin excavations, and the
absolute dating is developing by the association of imported wares, and the dating
information from coins and dendrochronology. The variety of Dublin-type wares and
their consistent recovery through later 12th to early 14th century levels has assisted in
the relative dating of other locally made wares in Ireland. To date no pottery
production site has been found in Dublin along Crocker Street at the west of the
medieval city. Pottery wasters have been recovered at excavations in the Iveagh
Markets to the south of the medieval wall (McCutcheon in prep (b)) and ridge tile
production, in clay similar to Dublin-type coarse ware has been recovered at the
Cornmarket (Wren forthcoming).

Dublin-type coarseware: This is a coarse micaceous fabric, the vessels are generally
hand-built, closely paralleling the contemporary Ham Green B ware in both shape and
decoration. These were the first glazed vessels made in Dublin and probably in
Ireland, and their production was as a direct consequence of the close links with
Bristol from the late twelfth to the early thirteenth century. Two jugs and a pipkin are
represented in the small assemblage. While the jugs are a fairly standard design with
strap handle, pulled or applied spout and thumbed base, pipkins are less common. The
evidence for such a vessel, a small, possibly single serving item, is the characteristic
projecting rod handle with curl or curved end.



Dublin-type ware: This is a less coarse micaceous fabric, the vessels are generally
wheel-thrown, and the production and use appears to date broadly from the early
thirteenth to early fourteenth century (McCutcheon 2000, 122).
A number of reasons have been suggested for the sagging base and the
accompanying thumbing or pinching etc. on medieval jugs, but it was certainly
deliberately done, most probably to facilitate a steady placing of the jug in or near the
fire to heat wine or other liquid.

Dublin-type cooking ware: This is a generic term used to cover cooking ware from
Dublin that is clearly not Leinster Cooking Ware, i.e. while unglazed and somewhat
micaceous, it does not contain large amounts of quartz and the bases are not sand-
gritted. The forms, however, are again the typical medieval cooking pots with everted
rims, ovoid bodies and slightly sagging bases.

Castledermot-type:
While the underlying clays in the region around and to the south of Dublin are very
similar, the pottery from Castledermot appears to be locally made based on the firing
techniques and resulting colour. The vessels here tend to fire lighter in colour than
similar jugs from Dublin although it would still be impossible to identify them as
Castledermot-type unless one was certain of the provenance. This is in contrast to
Adare-type ware, for example, which has a number of characteristics that make it
instantly recognisable (McCutcheon forthcoming (d)) such as rapid firing, a sandwich
effect in colour and blasting of air pockets.
Of the 21 strap handles from the jugs recovered, eleven fragments were
undecorated while one had a single incised line down the handle. Eight of the handles
had three incised lines while one had an incised wavy line with somewhat random
slashes on either side. A further handle was a twisted rod shape, possibly associated
with a form of puzzle jug. The final handle was an almost V-shaped rod handle with
an incised line.
Six of the rim sherds had applied thumbed strips, probably for decoration, but these
applied strips also served a useful purpose in assisting the grip on the jug rim. Several
of the bases had marks of thumbing, some continuous, some more widely spaced,
while of the five spouts recovered, three were pulled and two were applied.
The dripping dish fragment (H. c.30mm) probably represents a rectangular dish



with a single projecting handle. This was used to collect the fat and juices dripping
from the meat roasting on the spit—the simple addition of a small amount of flour
would have made an excellent gravy.

Redcliffe
By 1250 the Ham Green potters had been put out of business by the wheel-thrown
Redcliffe ware, also from Bristol (Ponsford 1991, 95). Smaller quantities of this ware
are found in Ireland, especially in the area of the Pale. As noted above, by the mid-
13th century pottery was being produced widely in Ireland and in general the settlers
were becoming more self-sufficient. In the more southern areas such as Cork city,
however, Redcliffe represents a sizeable percentage of the medieval assemblage,
reflecting both the ease of access to the city by ships arriving from Bristol and the
hazards of developing a low status craft in a hostile neighbourhood (McCutcheon
1995b, 12).
Three sherds are here identified as Redcliffe ware because of the distinctive colour
and firing technique that produces a dark grey core and cream/beige surfaces. It
should be noted, however, that similar ware was produced in the Kells Priory, Co.
Kilkenny area (McCutcheon in press), and thin-sections was needed to confirm that it
was more likely to be from the locality than from England.

Miscellaneous French:
Three sherds green glazed whiteware were recovered. These wares appear to be from
mid-west or centre west of France but the exact provenance is as yet unknown. Such
wares are found all over Ireland, however, and in general are a useful indicator of a
later twelfth to early thirteenth century date (McCutcheon 2005).

Saintonge mottled green glazed:
The wares from the Saintonge region of south-west France were imported into Ireland
and Britain as by-products of the extensive wine trade (Chapelot 1983; Deroeux et al.
1994) and are likely to be found on almost every Anglo-Norman site in Ireland. The
fabric of the all the Saintonge wares is generally the same, a fine white micaceous
fabric with occasional quartz. The mottled green glaze results from the addition of
copper filings to the clear lead glaze.



Fabric-type Sherds MNV MVR Form Date

Transition ware 8 - 1 Jug? 16th-17th
Frechen 2 - 1 Jug 17th
Tin glazed earthenware 7 - 1 Bowl 17th
Southwark manganese 2 - 1 Bowl 17th
North Devon gravel free 1 - 1 Bowl 17th
North Devon gravel tempered 5 - 1 Bowl 17th
North Devon sgraffito 3 - 1 Plate 17th
Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 13 - 1 Cup 18th
Mottled ware 14 - >2 Tankards 18th
Anglo-Netherlands slipware 1 - 1 Plate 18th
Creamware 9 - 1 Plate 18th
Black glazed ware 34 - >2 Cup, storage vessel 18th-19th
Glazed red earthenware 53 - 4 Plate, pancheon, 2 bowls 18th-19th
Glazed red earthenware: slip 1 - 1 Jug? 18th-19th
trailed
Pearlware 1 - 1 Plate 19th-20th
Transfer printed ware 1 - 1 Plate 19th-20th
Stoneware 4 - 2 Tankard 19th-20th
Total post-medieval 159 - >21

Table 2: Post-medieval pottery from Castledermot (04E750).



The term 'Transition ware' is used to describe sherds of glazed red earthenware
jugs found in Ireland, and probably made in Ireland, that carry evidence of both
medieval and post-medieval traditions. That is they are glazed on the exterior in the
manner of the medieval wares but the shape and technique reflects a later
development without yet being clearly identified with the later seventeenth to
nineteenth century jugs. It is still a very subjective and rather nebulous working
description for this shadowy group of ceramics.
As noted above, the post-medieval wares are commonly found on excavations in
Ireland. The types are almost entirely English-made, from the seventeenth century
North Devon wares to the eighteenth and nineteenth century wares, primarily
manufactured in the Staffordshire potteries (cf. Jennings 1981; Draper 1984).

Fabric type Sherds Form Date
Castledermot-type 1 Ridge-tile 13th-14th
North Devon gravel tempered 1 Ridge-tile 17th
Pantile 2 Roof-tile L17th-18th
Pearlware 1 Wall tile 19th-20th
Drainpipe 1 Drainpipe 19th-20th
Total structural ceramics 6

Table 3: Structural ceramics from Castledermot (04E750).



Bibliography
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pottery. London.
Brooks, E. St. J. 1936 Register of the Hospital of S. John the Baptist without the New Gate,
Dublin. Dublin.
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R. Hodges (eds), Ceramics and trade. 49-53. Sheffield.
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Bryggen excavations in Bergen, Norway', The Bryggen Papers Supplementary series No.
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Jennings, S. 1981 Eighteen centuries of pottery from Norwich. Norwich.
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Excavations at Essex Street West, Dublin, 40—54, 59—67. Dublin
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(unpublished).
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(ed.), Medieval Dublin 1, 117-25. Dublin.
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City 1984-2000. 197-235 Cork
McCutcheon, C. 2005 The medieval pottery from the waterfront excavations at Wood Quay,
Dublin. Dublin.
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Priory, Co. Kilkenny. DOEHLG, Dublin.
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Castledermot.
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Co. Limerick.
McCutcheon, C. in prep (a) 'The medieval pottery', in R. Clutterbuck, Excavations at
Cookstown, Co. Meath.



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Muckerstown/ Wotton, Co. Meath.
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Carrickmines Castle, Co. Dublin.
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Road, Dublin.
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and medieval Waterford: Excavations 1986-1992. 338-55. Waterford.
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376-404. Bray.

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Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 78C, 127-98.
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settlers and trade,' Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 30, 361—428.
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Dublin.



Context Sherd type Finds number
5 Castledermot-type 2, 3
Pearlware 1(wall tile)
11 Glazed red earthenware 1
15 Stoneware 1
25 Leinster Cooking Ware 11
Castledermot-type 1+4+10+15+17+F26:20, 2, 3+16, 5-8, 13
Glazed red earthenware 9, 12+14
26 Leinster Cooking Ware 1+2+5+6+7+11®, 8-10, 13-15, 17-19
Dublin-type coarseware 22, 23(H), 24®, 25, 26(H)
Castledermot-type 3+4+12(B), 16, 20+F25:1+4+10+15+17
Saintonge green glazed 21
27 Leinster Cooking Ware 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10(B), 12, 13+14+20®, 15-17, 18(B), 19, 21®,
22-25, 27, 28+29, 30
Castledermot-type 3+7, 6®, 11(B), 26, 31
29 Castledermot-type 1+3+4+6+7+8+9+10+11+14+15+16+17+18+19+20(RH),
2+5+12+13(B)
33 Leinster Cooking Ware 3®
36 Tin glazed earthenware 10+16
Creamware 5, 6, 11, 12, 13®, 15, 17, 18
Mottled ware 14(H)
Black glazed ware 1
Glazed red earthenware 2+3+4+20
38 Castledermot-type 1
52 Leinster Cooking Ware 5, 6
Castledermot-type 1-4, 7, 8(B), 9
Castledermot-type 1, 2, 4(H)
Castledermot-type 1, 4
62 Leinster Cooking Ware 3, 6, 12-15, 20, 24
Castledermot-type 4(RH), 5, 7, 8(RH), 9-11, 16-19, 21-23, 25-31
63 Transfer printed ware 2®
Pearlware 1
64 Leinster Cooking Ware 5-7
Castledermot-type 1-4
65 Castledermot-type 1®



69 Drainpipe 1
Dublin-type coarseware? 5(H)
Castledermot-type 1, 2(B), 3, 4®, 6(B)
Bone 7 (discarded)
83 Glazed red earthenware 2, 3
Pantile 1
84 Leinster Cooking Ware 9-11
Castledermot-type 2(H)
Tin glazed earthenware 5
Glazed red earthenware 1, 3, 4, 6, 7+8
96 Leinster Cooking Ware 4(B), 5(B), 7(B)
Castledermot-type 1(B), 2, 6, 8
Creamware 3
Black glazed ware 4
Castledermot-type 2
105 Leinster Cooking Ware 1®, 2-4, 6-8, 9®, 11, 12
Castledermot-type 5, 10, 13(B), 14, 15+16+25+26+29+30+31+33+37+38+42+
43+44(RHS), 17, 18+20, 19(B), 21, 22(B), 23, 24+27+33,
27(RB), 28+35+41, 32(B), 34, 36, 40(B)
Black glazed ware 5
Glazed red earthenware 4, 7
110 Black glazed ware 4®, 5®
119 Tin glazed earthenware 9®
Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 7
Black glazed ware 13
121 Leinster Cooking Ware 12, 15, 17(B)
Tin glazed earthenware 24, 25®
North Devon gravel tempered 2(H), 6®, 11(B), 19+21
Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 8, 9



Black glazed ware 3®, 4, 10, 13, 14, 18®
Glazed red earthenware 1®, 5, 16, 20
125 Black glazed ware 2-4, 6+7
Stone 8 (discarded)
Glazed red earthenware 1®, 2, 3, 5
135 North Devon sgraffito 2, 8
Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 4®, 5, 6
Black glazed ware 3
Glazed red earthenware 1(B), 7+9
Tin glazed earthenware 2
Mottled ware 3, 4, 7(B), 8(B)
Pantile 11
Stoneware 5
152 Castledermot-type 1+2(RS)
Castledermot-type 2, 4, 5, 6, 8
Dublin-type? 7
159 Leinster Cooking Ware 9(B)
Castledermot-type 1(B), 2-4, 5®, 6, 7(S), 8, 10(B), 11-13, 14(H), 15®, 16
161 Castledermot-type 1, 3(H)
North Devon gravel free 5
Black glazed ware 2, 4
162 Black glazed ware 6(B)
Glazed red earthenware 1+2+4+5, 3+7
163 Frechen 2+3
Tin glazed earthenware 1®
Glazed red earthenware 4
172 Castledermot-type 7(B)
Mottled ware 6(B)
Black glazed ware 1, 8
Glazed red earthenware 2-5
North Devon gravel tempered 8



Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 5
Black glazed ware 4
Glazed red earthenware 6+7
175 Leinster Cooking Ware 1(B), 2(B)
Glazed red earthenware 3, 4, 5+6, 7-9
Dublin-type cooking ware 2
185 Mottled ware 1, 2+3
188 Dublin-type coarseware 1
Castledermot-type 2
190 Castledermot-type 1, 2, 4-6, 7+14, 8, 9, 12, 13
Mottled ware 3, 10(B), 11(B)
205 Castledermot-type 1(ridgetile?)
208 Glazed red earthenware 1®
211 Dublin-type coarseware 6
Castledermot-type 1+4(B)
Frechen 2
Tin glazed earthenware 5(B)
225 Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 1(B)
228 Castledermot-type 1-3, 4(RS), 5-9
230 Castledermot-type 1(RH), 2, 3, 4(H), 5, 6, 7(B), 8®, 9-15
234 Leinster Cooking Ware 3, 10+11+14®, 12, 13
Castledermot-type 5, 6(B), 7, 8(RS), 9®, 15(H)
Castledermot-type 1(B), 4, 5
243 Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 2
Black glazed ware 1
254 Leinster Cooking Ware 2®, 4®, 7
Castledermot-type 1(B), 3, 5+6+10(H), 8, 9, 11(B), 12, 13, 14(B), 15(B), 16(B),
17(B), 18
255 Leinster Cooking Ware 2+10®, 7, 14, 17, 29



Castledermot-type 1, 3-5, 6(B), 8(H), 9, 11(B), 12, 13, 15, 16(B), 18-20, 22, 23,
24(B), 25-28, 30, 31(H), 32-35, 36(H), 37(B), 38-43,
44+51+52(RS), 46, 48-50
Castledermot-type 1
264 Mottled ware 2
265 Tin glazed earthenware 15(B)
North Devon gravel tempered 8(ridgetile)
North Devon sgraffito 23®
Black glazed ware 13®, 14, 16, 17+20, 18, 19
270 Dublin-type cooking ware 4®
Castledermot-type 2(B), 3, 5, 6(B), 7, 9, 10
Mottled ware 8
284 Castledermot-type 1-3
288 Castledermot-type 1-5, 6+8, 7, 9, 10(H), 11(H)
293 Castledermot-type 2, 3(B)
295 Dublin-type coarseware 1(B)
Castledermot-type 1, 4, 5
Castledermot-type 1+12(H), 2(B), 4(B), 6+7+8+9+10(H)
Black glazed ware 3(H), 11(H)
311 Castledermot-type 2(H), 3(RS), 4-6
Dublin-type 1
317 Castledermot-type 1-3
318 Leinster Cooking Ware 5(B), 6
Castledermot-type 1(B), 2, 3+7(B), 4, 8(B)
319 Castledermot-type 7(H), 8, 9(H), 10(H), 11, 12
321 Castledermot-type 1(RS), 2(B)
326 Castledermot-type 1+2+4+5, 3
328 Dublin-type cooking ware 1-5, 6(B), 7-11, 12(B)
332 Leinster Cooking Ware 7, 12, 13(H), 17, 22+35(B), 25, 31, 45, 50, 54, 56



Castledermot-type 4, 8, 10, 11(B), 14(B), 16(H), 18-20, 21(B), 24, 26®, 27-30,
32(B), 33, 34, 36, 37(H), 38, 39, 40(B), 41, 44, 46-49, 52, 53,
55, 57-59
Redcliffe? 6(RH)
Miscellaneous French 5, 23
Saintonge green glazed 51
Anglo-Netherlands slipware 42
333 Leinster Cooking Ware 4+12®, 9+41®,16+26(H), 40, 42, 64, 72(B)
Castledermot-type 2, 3(B), 5, 6, 10-12, 13(S), 14, 15, 17, 18(B), 19, 20, 21(B),
22(RH), 23, 24(H), 25, 27(B), 28-32, 34(RH), 35-39, 41, 43-
50, 52(B), 53-58, 59(B), 60, 61, 62(B), 63, 65, 66(B), 67,
68(RH), 69-71, 73-76
Redcliffe? 7(B), 8+33+51(B)
358 Leinster Cooking Ware 3®, 5, 6
Castledermot-type 1+3+4, 5®, 6
Castledermot-type 2, 3, 4+5(S), 6
379 Castledermot-type 6, 7, 8+9, 10
Miscellaneous French? 1+2
395 Castledermot-type 1-3, 4®, 5, 6
417 Mottled ware 2
Stoneware 1(B)
440 Stoneware 1®
463 Glazed red earthenware 1(B), 2
469 Transition ware 1
Glazed red earthenware 2(B)



481 Transition ware 1
500 Leinster Cooking Ware 1(B)
Bristol/Staffordshire slipware 1(B), 2(H), 3(H), 4®
Transition ware 3, 4, 5(B), 6
514 Transition ware 1, 2
Glazed red earthenware: slip 3
trailed
Stone 2(discarded)

Table 4: Pottery identification by context.

Site information:
The following table lists the contexts containing pottery by area as they appear in the
stratigraphic report. The quantity of sherds in each fabric type is also listed, indicating
the number of sherds following reassembly rather than the original number found on
the site. The date range suggested is only the date range of the pottery found in each
feature and does not attempt to be prescriptive for the suggested dating of any
particular feature.

Area Context Context description Fabric-type & quantity Date
(century)
1 5 Silt over stony base (C10) Castledermot-type (x2) 19th
Pearlware (x1)
1 15 Upper fill of pit (C19) Stoneware (x1) 19th
1 11 Dark brown clay layer Glazed red earthenware (x1) 19th
1 25 Upper fill of ditch (C24) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
Castledermot-type (x8) disturbed
Glazed red earthenware (x2)
1 26 Upper fill of ditch (C24) Leinster Cooking Ware (x10) E13th



Dublin-type coarseware (x5)
Castledermot-type (x3)
Saintonge green glazed (x1)
1 29 Basal deposit of ditch (C24) Castledermot-type (x2) 13th
1 33 Basal fill of ditch (C24) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L12th?
1 50 Fill of ditch cut (C49) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
1 52 Fill of pit (C59) Leinster Cooking Ware (x2) 13th
1 38 Layer sealing medieval Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
features, disturbed
1 36 Layer mid-trench Area 1 Tin glazed earthenware (1) 18th
Creamware (x8)
Mottled ware (x1)
Black glazed ware (x1)



2 63 Modern pit Transfer printed ware (x1) 19th
Pearlware (x1)
2 69 Pipe cut Drainpipe (x1) 19th
2 308 Basal fill pit (C300) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 19th with
Castledermot-type (x4) residual or
Black glazed ware (x2) 13th
disturbed
2 295 Fill of pit (C296) Dublin-type coarseware (x1) 13th?
2 65 Basal fill of pit (C72) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
2 62 Mid-fill of pit (C72) Leinster Cooking Ware (x8) 13th
2 61 Upper fill of pit (C72) Castledermot-type (x2) 13th
2 313 Fill of pit (C312) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
2 330 Basal fill of pit (C331) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L12th?
2 75 Fill of pit (C79) Leinster Cooking Ware (x2) E13th
Dublin-type coarseware (x1)
Dublin-type (x1)
2 358 Lower fill of cut (C352) Leinster Cooking Ware (x3) 13th



2 362 Layer Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
2 364 Layer Castledermot-type (x2) 13th
3 265 Layer Tin glazed earthenware (x1) 18th
North Devon gravel tempered (x1)
North Devon sgraffito (x1)
3 264 Layer Mottled ware (x1) 18th
3 270 Fill of foundation trench Dublin-type cooking ware (x1) 13th
(C272) Castledermot-type (x7) disturbed
Mottled ware (x1)
3 520 Burnt layer Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L12th?
3 390 Upper fill of ditch cut (C398) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
Miscellaneous French (x1)
3 395 Fill of ditch cut (C398) Castledermot-type (x6) 13th
3 397 Basal fill of ditch cut (C398) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
3 284 Fill of ditch (C281) Castledermot-type (x3) 13th
3 369 Layer Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L12th?
3 333 Brown silty layer Leinster Cooking Ware (x7) M-L13th
Redcliffe? (x2)
3 332 Brown silty layer Leinster Cooking Ware (x11) M-L13th
Redcliffe? (x1)
Miscellaneous French (x2)
Saintonge green glazed (x1)
Anglo-Netherlands slipware (x1)



4 243 Lower fill of pit (C246) Bristol/Staffordshire slipware (x1) 18th
4 83 Fill of pit (C90) Glazed red earthenware (x2) 18th
Pantile (x1)
Castledermot-type (x4) disturbed or
Creamware (x1) 18th with
residual
Tin glazed earthenware (x1) 18th with
Glazed red earthenware (x5) residual
4 100 Lower fill of pit (C101) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
Black glazed ware (x1) 18th with
residual
Black glazed ware (x1) disturbed or
Glazed red earthenware (x2) 18th with
residual
4 110 Fill of pit (C111) Black glazed ware (x2) 18th
4 117 Clay fill of pit (C118) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
4 119 Upper fill of pit (C120) Tin glazed earthenware (x1) 18th
Bristol/Staffordshire slipware (x1)
4 121 Middle fill of pit (C120) Leinster Cooking Ware (x3) 18th
Tin glazed earthenware (x2)



4 125 Stony clay fill of pit (C126) Black glazed ware (x4) 18th
4 135 Upper fill of pit (C136) North Devon sgraffito (x2) 18th
4 148 Basal fill of pit (C136) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L18th/19th
Mottled ware (x4)
Stoneware (x1)
Pantile (x1)
4 255 Middle fill of ditch (C253) Leinster Cooking Ware (x5) 13th
4 256 Basal fill of ditch (C253) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
4 228 Upper fill of ditch cut (C229) Castledermot-type (x9) 13th
4 230 Basal fill of ditch cut (C229) Castledermot-type (x15) 13th
4 234 Fill of pits (C235, C237 & Leinster Cooking Ware (x4) 13th
C238) Castledermot-type (x6)
4 80 Upper fill of pit (C93) Castledermot-type (x2) 13th



4 112 Basal fill of pit (C113) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
4 250 Pit Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
4 159 Upper fill of pit (C150) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
4 149 Sealing fill of pit (C150) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
4 152 Primary fill of pit (C150) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
4 153 Primary fill of pit (C150) Leinster Cooking Ware (x2) 13th
Dublin-type ware (x1)
4 122 Upper stony fill of pit (C124) Castledermot-type (x1) 13th

5 211 Lenticular deposit built up Dublin-type coarseware (x1) 17th/18th?
against wall (C208) Castledermot-type (x1)
Frechen (x1)
5 510=227 Upper fill of ditch (C509) Castledermot-type (x1) 18th
5 163 Lower fill of pit (C164) Frechen (x1) 17th/18th
5 162 Mid-fill of pit (C164) Black glazed ware (x1) 18th
5 161 Upper fill of pit (C164) Castledermot-type (x2) L17th/18th
North Devon gravel free (x1)



5 172 Clay layer over pit (C176) Castledermot-type (x1) 18th
Mottled ware (x1)
5 175 Layer Leinster Cooking Ware (x2) 18th
5 221 Layer Glazed red earthenware (x1) 481
5 204 Layer of stones under (C172) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L12th?
5 205 Redeposited natural under Castledermot-type (x1 Ridge-tile) 13th
(C204)
5 185 Layer of silt in clay layer Mottled ware (x2) 18th
(C160)
5 207 Layer overlying wall (C215) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L12th?
5 225 Back-fill of ditch (C509) Bristol/Staffordshire slipware (x1) 18th
5 180 Upper fill of pit (C178) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
Dublin-type cooking ware (x1)
5 208 Wall Glazed red earthenware (x1) 18th
5 188 Redeposited layer at wall Dublin-type coarseware (x1) 13th
(C215) Castledermot-type (x1)
5 191 Redeposited layer at wall Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
(C215)
5 190 Lowest layer at wall (C215) Castledermot-type ware (x10) 13th
Mottled ware (x3) disturbed



6 469 Wall Transition ware (x1) 17th/18th
6 481 Silt layer sealing cemetery Transition ware (x1) 15th/16th?
6 417 Grave cut Skeleton 1 Mottled ware (x1) 19th
Stoneware (x1)
6 422 Layer of brown silt over Castledermot-type(x1) 13th
Skeleton 4
6 442 Fill of pits (C455 & C456) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) 13th
6 440 Natural subsoil Stoneware (x1) 19th/20th
6 511 Fill around skeleton 7/13? Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
6 512 Fill around skeleton 13 Castledermot-type (x1) 15th/16th
Transition ware (x4)
6 514 Fill around skeleton 17 Transition ware (x2) 17th/18th
Glazed red earthenware: slip
trailed (x1)
6 454 Layer sealing mantle (C466) Leinster Cooking Ware (x2) 13th
over Skeleton 12
6 516 Fill around skeleton 26 Castledermot-type (x1) 13th
7 500 Layer sealing ditch (C502) Leinster Cooking Ware (x1) L12th?



12.6 Appendix 6 Human Remains

Report on Human Remains from Castledermot

By: Linda Fibiger



1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Summary of Archaeological Work
Archaeological excavations along a 720 m long service trench in Castledermot, Co.
Kildare, carried out by Eachtra Archaeological Projects, revealed the presence of
human skeletal remains. These were located within a 32 m long stretch of the trench
South of Castledermot, an area which appeared to be located outside the medieval
town (A. Harte pers. comm.). 25 partial burials, including 20 adults, three adolescents
and two juveniles, as well as a quantity of disarticulated remains, were hand-
excavated and recorded. On the basis of associated finds, all individuals were dated
to the later medieval period (M. Dowd pers. comm.).

1.2 Preservation, Post-Excavation Processing and Burial Rite
An inventory of the bones present and an assessment of the state of preservation for
each individual are given in the catalogue. Preservation of the skeletal remains ranged
from good and poor, but the majority of remains were either moderately (44%) or
poorly (48%) preserved, with only 8 % of burials in good condition (Fig. 1). This was
the result of a combination of the limited extent of the excavation and therefore
incomplete retrieval of the skeletal remains as well as post-depositional degradation
processes, soil conditions, excavation damage and post-excavation processing.
Cranial remains were frequently fragmented or incomplete, and fragmentation of the
postcranial skeleton was widespread. Elements consisting predominantly of
trabecular bone (ribs, vertebrae and pelvis) were generally incomplete or broken.

In addition to assessing the general condition of the human bone, a minimum number
of individuals (MNI) represented by all the skeletal remains from Castledermot was
calculated based on the overall number of major bones and joints of the skeleton
present. This will be discussed further in Section 2.2.3. During post-excavation
processing, all bones were carefully cleaned using water, sponges and soft brushes,
air-dried and stored in re-sealable polythene bags.



Good
8%

Poor
48%

Moderate
44%

Figure 1. Skeletal Preservation

All articulated remains were oriented east-west with the head at the western end of the
grave, which is characteristic for Christian burials. Traces of coffins in the form of
nails or timber fragments survived in four cases. All articulated remains appeared to
have been interred in an extended and supine position, with both arms extended by the
side of the body.

1.3 Aims and Objectives
The nature of the excavations at Castledermot, consisting of a single long trench
measuring between 1.4 m and 1.8 m in maximum depth, resulted in a relatively
random and incomplete skeletal assemblage. Partial skeletal remains will often result
in a reduced amount of biological and bio-cultural data available for analysis, and the
lack of contextual information regarding cemetery size and layout made it impossible
to assess how representative this sample is for the rest of the cemetery population.
The basic aim of the osteological analysis therefore was to record as much biological
and palaeopathological data as possible with a view of possibly shedding further light
on the nature of the sample, i.e. whether the remains were part of the medieval parish
cemetery or represented a particular population group.



In view of the future use of this report for comparative purposes, particular emphasis
was placed on outlining the analytical criteria employed for sex assessment, ageing,
metric analysis and palaeopathological diagnosis and including primary data in the
form of tables and appendices whenever possible. The osteological analysis was
based on standards outlined in the Heritage Council Publication ‘Human remains in
Irish archaeology. Legal, scientific, planning and ethical considerations’ (O’Sullivan
et al. 2002) and the BABAO/IFA Paper ‘Guidelines to the standards for recording
human remains’ (Brickley & McKinley 2004).

2. ANALYSIS

2.1 Burial Position
As all remains were incomplete and mostly consisted of the upper body or skull only,
a detailed analysis of burial positions within the assemblage was not possible.
Generally, the majority of remains appeared to have been interred in a supine and
extended position. In three cases, the left or right arm was slightly flexed at the elbow
with the hand or lower arm resting on the pelvis (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Burial 2. © Eachtra Archaeological Projects



Another variation included a number of individuals whose heads faced sideways
rather than being in a completely supine position; however, this could be accidental or
post-depositional rather than deliberate positioning.

2.2. Demography
Demographic analysis of the human skeletal remains from Castledermot involved
establishing the minimum number of individuals present (MNI) as well as age and sex
assessment.

2.2.1 Sex Assessment
Recognisable sexually dimorphic features or differences in size and shape between
male and female skeletons originate in hormonal differences, mainly the presence of
testosterone in the male body. These morphological differences between males and
females are most pronounced in the pelvis due to the biological requirements of
childbirth, followed by the cranium and mandible. If all of these skeletal elements are
available for analysis, accuracy for sex assessment can be as high as 97 % (Meindl et
al. 1985).

Metric methods for sex assessment, based on size differences between males and
females, are available. These differences in size, however, can vary considerably
between populations. Discriminate functions therefore are, by their nature,
population-specific, and available standards are generally based on modern
anatomical collections which are far removed in time and space from the
archaeological remains under study (Roberts & Cox 2003: 30). It was therefore
decided not to apply any complex metric sexing method. Occasionally, femoral or
humeral head size of poorly preserved remains was compared to that of better-
preserved, already sexed individuals to aid sex assessment.

Sex assessment is reliable for adult skeletal remains only. Testosterone levels in males
rise for a short time just before birth, resulting in slight morphological differences
between male and female neonates. The more visible expression of these differences,
however, does not start to develop until the onset of puberty with its more marked rise
of testosterone levels in the male body at this stage, reaching its final expression with
skeletal maturity in the early to mid twenties (Mays 1998: 38).



Ten morphological features of the pelvis and thirteen morphological features of the
skull and mandible were compiled for sex assessment and scored as male, possibly
male, female, possibly female or indeterminate (Table 1). Due to the incompleteness
of the remains, however, only a much smaller number of traits could be examined on
each individual. This resulted in a final composite score (male, possibly male,
female, possibly female, indeterminate) based on all observable traits. A total of 20
adults were present at Castledermot, including nine males, eight females and three
unsexed adults (Fig. 3).

Table 1. Adult Sexing: Morphological Features of the Pelvis and Skull (M=Male, F=Female)
Pelvis Skull
Sub-pubic angle Supraorbital margins
(Greater in F) (M-rounded; F-sharp)
Sciatic notch Supraorbital ridges
(M-narrow, deep; F-wide, shallow) (More pronounced in M)
Ventral arc Glabella
(Present on F only) (More pronounced in M)
Pelvic inlet Frontal eminences
(M-heart-shaped; F-circular) (F more pronounced than M)
Sacral curvature Parietal eminences
(M-more pronounced) (F more pronounced than M)
Ilium Zygomatic root
(M-high, vertical; F-laterally divergent) (M-extends beyond external auditory meatus)
Ischiopubic ramus Nuchal crest
(M-slightly everted/thick; F-strongly (More pronounced/rugose in M)
everted/thin)
Obturator foramen Mastoid processes
(M-large/ovoid; F-smaller/triangular) (Larger in M)
Acetabulum Depth of digastric fossa
(M-large/laterally divergent; F- (M deeper than F)
smaller/anterior-laterally divergent)
Pre-auricular sulcus Palate
(Higher frequency in F) (M-larger, u-shaped; F-smaller, parabolical)
Gonial flare/rugosity
(More pronounced in M)
Gonial angle
(M-approximately 90°; F- >90°)
Mental tubercles
(M-often bilateral)
(After Herrmann et al. 1990: 73ff; Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994: 16ff)



Adult-Unsexed (3)

Male (6)

Female? (3)

Male? (3)
Female (5)

Figure 3. Adult Sex Distribution

2.2.2 Age Assessment
Age-related changes observable on the skeleton during childhood and early adulthood
are the result of growth and maturation. With skeletal maturity in the mid-twenties,
age-assessment is mostly based on degenerative changes. Age categories used in this
report are as follows:
Neonate Around the time of birth (≤ 1 month)
Infant < 1 year
Juvenile 1-12 years
Adolescent 13-17 years
Young Adult 18-25 years
Young Middle Adult 26-35 years
Old Middle Adult 36-45 years
Mature Adult 45+ years

Methods used for skeletal age assessment are more precise for juvenile and adolescent
individuals, as the development of bones and teeth during the early stages of life
progress in a well-documented manner. In this report, neonatal/infant remains were
aged by recording long bone length (Scheuer et al. 1980), whereas ageing of juveniles
was based on observing dental calcification, growth and eruption (Smith 1991;



Ubelaker 1989: Fig. 71). This was supplemented by recording the appearance of
epiphyses and degree of epiphyseal fusion or by recording long bone length in older
juveniles, adolescents and where teeth were not available (Scheuer & Black 2000).

Adult age assessment was based on observing the final stages of epiphyseal fusion in
early adulthood as well as recording degenerative changes throughout life. The stages
of fusion of the medial clavicle, iliac crest (Webb & Suchey 1985) and 1st and 2nd
sacral body (Scheuer & Black 2000) were observed to distinguish young adults from
older individuals, whereas middle adult and mature individuals were aged based on
morphological changes of the pubic symphysis (Brooks & Suchey 1990) and the
auricular surface of the ilium (Lovejoy et al. 1985). If preservation was insufficient,
individuals were only classified as skeletally mature (> 25) where possible or simply
as ‘Adult’.

The total 25 articulated burials analysed for this report included 2 juveniles, 3
adolescents and 20 adults (Fig. 4).

Juvenile (2)

Adolescent (3)

Adult (20)

Figure 4. Age Distribution

The two juvenile individuals present were aged approximately 2 years and between 5
and 6 years respectively. It should be noted that the only infant remains recovered



were the neonatal left and right clavicle, left humerus and left rib associated with
Burial 9. These were not recorded as articulated remains, and it is impossible to
determine their exact relationship with Burial 9. It should be noted that the ratio of
adult versus juvenile individuals at Castledermot does not correspond to the age
distribution expected for community cemeteries of the period, where high infant and
child mortality would be expected to result in a much higher percentage (up to 50 %)
of juveniles present. This distribution, however, is most likely to be the result of the
limited extent of the excavation.

In the adult group, six individuals were aged between 18 and 25 years, one was aged
between 26 and 35 years, four were aged between 36 and 45 years and nine could
only be broadly classified as ‘Adult’, including two individuals that were probably
aged over 30 years. The ‘Young Adult’ category included two males, 2 females and
two unsexed adults. In the ‘Young Middle Adult’ category, one male was present,
whereas two males and two females were part of the ‘Old Middle Adult’ category.
Four males, four females and one unsexed individuals could only be broadly
classified as ‘Adult’ (Table 2).

Table 2. Adult Age Distribution
18-25 years 26-35 years 36-45 years 45+ years Adult >17 yrs
Male 2 1 1 - 2
Male? - - 1 - 2
Female 1 - 2 - 2
Female? 1 - - - 2
Adult 2 - - - 1
Total 6 1 4 - 9

2.2.3 Minimum Number of Individuals
To calculate the minimum number of individuals (MNI) represented by the articulated
and disarticulated skeletal remains from Castledermot, an inventory of the main bones
and joints of the skeleton present was completed for all infant, juvenile/adolescent and
adult remains (Tables 3, 4 and 5).



Table 3. MNI Adult Burials (Highest number in each group highlighted)
Male/Male? Female/Female? Adult
L R L R L R
Frontal 4 5 6 6
Occipital 7 8 3
Petrous Temporal 7 7 7 7 3 3
Maxilla 6 8 5 5 2 2
Mandible 9 9 6 6 2 2
Medial Clavicle 3 5 6 6 1
Lateral Clavicle 4 4 4 4 1
Glenoid 6 5 6 5 1
Proximal Humerus 4 4 5 4 1
Distal Humerus 4 5 3
Proximal Radius 3 4 1 3
Distal Radius 2 4 1 2
Proximal Ulna 4 4 3 3 1
Distal Ulna 2 3 2 2
Proximal Femur 1 1 2 4 1 1
Distal Femur 1 1
Proximal Tibia 1 1
Distal Tibia 1 1
Proximal Fibula
Distal Fibula 1 1
Calcaneus 1
Talus 1 1

Table 4. MNI Adolescent, Juvenile and Infant Burials (Highest number in each group
highlighted)
Juvenile/Adolescent Infant
L R L R
Frontal 1
Occipital 3
Petrous Temporal 2 1
Maxilla 2
Mandible 2 3
Medial Clavicle 1 1
Lateral Clavicle 1 1
Glenoid 3 3
Proximal Humerus 2 3
Distal Humerus 2 3
Proximal Radius 2 3
Distal Radius 2 2
Proximal Ulna 1 2
Distal Ulna 2 2
Proximal Femur 1 2
Distal Femur 1
Proximal Tibia
Distal Tibia
Proximal Fibula
Distal Fibula
Calcaneus
Talus
Pars basilaris
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis



Table 5. MNI Disarticulated Remains (Highest number in each group highlighted)
Adults Juveniles/Adolescents Infants
L R L R L R
Frontal 1 1
Occipital 2 1
Petrous Temporal 1 1 1 1
Maxilla 1 1 1
Mandible 3 3
Medial Clavicle 1 1 1 1
Lateral Clavicle 1 1
Glenoid 2 1 2
Proximal Humerus 1 1 2 1
Distal Humerus 1 2 1
Proximal Radius 2
Distal Radius 1 1
Proximal Ulna 1 1
Distal Ulna 1
Proximal Femur 2
Distal Femur 2
Proximal Tibia 1
Distal Tibia 1
Proximal Fibula
Distal Fibula
Calcaneus 1
Talus
Pars Basilaris
Ilium 1 1
Ischium
Pubis

Considering the MNI of the articulated and disarticulated remains together, the overall
MNI for the remains from Castledermot included 20 adults (left mandible), five
adolescents and juveniles (left glenoid) and one infant (left medial clavicle).

2.3 Metric Summary and Adult Stature
In order to record the physical characteristics of the skeletal remains from
Castledermot and to calculate adult stature, sets of measurements based on the
standards in Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994) were taken on the bones of each individual
whenever preservation was sufficient. This included 22 measurements of the cranium
and mandible and 28 post-cranial measurements for adults, twelve post-cranial
measurements for juveniles and adolescents and four measurements of the cranium
and mandible and 16 post-cranial measurements for neonates and infants. All
measurements are listed in Appendices 6.3 and 6.4, and a summary for the adult
metric data is given in Tables 6 and 7.



Table 6. Summary of Male and Female Cranial Measurements in cm
Measurement Males/Males Females/Females?
n min max mean n min max mean
Cranial Length 2 18.3 18.7 18.5
Cranial Breadth 2 14.1 14.9 14.5
Bizygomatic diameter 1 13.2
Basion-Bregma height 1 13.2
Cranial base length 2 9.7 9.9 9.8
Biauricular breadth 2 12.2 13.7 12.9 2 11.6 12.2 11.9
Minimum frontal breadth 1 10.2
Upper facial height 1 12
Upper facial breadth 1 10.5
Nasal height 1 5
Nasal breadth 1 2.1
L orbital breadth 1 4
R orbital breadth
L orbital height 1 3.3
R orbital height
Maxillo-alveolar breadth 1 6.5 3 6.1 6.5 6.3
Maxillo-alveolar height 1 5.5 2 5.3 5.5 5.4
Frontal chord 1 11.2
Parietal chord 3 11.3 12.5 11.7 1 12.5
Occipital chord 3 9.5 9.8 9.6 4 8.4 9.6 9.1
Chin height 3 3.6 3.6 3.6 5 2.5 3.2 2.8
Bigonial width 2 9.6 10.5 10 6 9.3 10.3 9.7
Bicondylar breadth 1 12.5 5 10.8 11.9 11.4
Minimum ramus breadth L 4 2.8 3.4 3.1 5 2.8 3.1 2.9
Minimum ramus breadth R 1 3 1 2.6
n=numbers available for measurement, min=minimum, max=maximum



Table 7. Summary of Male and Female Post-Cranial Measurements in cm
Measurement Males/Males? Females/Females?
n min max mean n min max mean
L Clavicle length 3 14.6 16.9 15.8 3 13.5 16.1 14.8
L Clavicle mid-circumf 3 3.6 4.4 4.0 3 3.6 4 3.8
L Scapula height
L Scapula breadth 1 10
L Glenoid length 4 3.7 4.3 3.9 3 3.5 4 3.7
L Glenoid width 3 2.5 2.9 2.7 2 2.7 3.2 2.9
L Humerus length 2 33.1 34.6 33.8 1 30.4
L Humerus epicondylar width 3 6 6.9 6.4 2 6.3 6.7 6.5
L Humerus head diameter 2 4.5 4.7 4.6 2 4 4.4 4.2
L Humerus min circumf midshaft 2 6.8 7 6.9 1 6.4
L Radius length 1 25.5 1 23.7
L Ulna length 1 26.5 1 25.8
Sacrum ant length
Sacrum ant sup breadth 1 11.5
L Os coxae height 1 22.8
L Femur length
L Femur oblique length
L Femur epicondyl breadth
L Femur midshaft circumf
L Femur head diameter 1 4.7 2 4.2 4.2
L Femur A-P subtrochan diameter 1 2.9 2 2.6 2.7 2.6
L Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 1 3.2 2 3 3.2 3.1
L Tibia length
L Tibia prox epiphys breadth
L Tibia dist epiphys breadth
L Tibia A-P diameter
L Tibia M-L diamter
L Fibula length
R Clavicle length 2 15.1 15.1 3 12.8 15.7 14.3
R Clavicle mid-circumf 3 3.6 4.2 3.8333 3 3.6 4.1 3.8
R Scapula height 1 17.3
R Scapula breadth 1 10.1
R Glenoid length 3 4 4.2 4.0667 3 3.5 4.1 3.8
R Glenoid width 3 2.6 3.1 2.9 2 2.8 3.2 3
R Humerus length 1 33.9
R Humerus epicondylar width 2 6.2 6.6 6.4
R Humerus head diameter 1 4.7 2 4 4.4 4.2
R Humerus min circumf midshaft 1 7.2
R Radius length 3 23.8 25.6 24.5 1 22.3
R Ulna length 2 26.9 28.2 27.55 1 25.8
R Os coxae height 1 19.5
R Femur length
R Femur oblique length
R Femur epicondyl breadth
R Femur midshaft circumf
R Femur head diameter 1 4.7 4 3.8 4.2 4.1
R Femur A-P subtrochan diameter 3 2.4 2.6 2.5
R Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 3 2.9 3.2 3
R Tibia length
R Tibia prox epiphys breadth
R Tibia dist epiphys breadth
R Tibia A-P diameter
R Tibia M-L diameter
R Fibula length
n=numbers available for measurement, min=minimum, max=maximum



Stature of the sexed adult individuals from Castledermot was calculated based on the
regression formulae developed by Trotter (1970). Although this method was
developed on American anatomical collections, at present it is the most widely used
formula for stature calculation applied to archaeological populations and therefore at
least allows a degree of comparability with other reports. All primary data has been
listed in Appendix 6.3 for further comparisons.

Where possible, the left femur and/or tibia were used for calculating stature, and if
these bones were not available, the right femur and/or tibia, the left humerus or radius
or the right humerus or radius were used. Standard error ranges for each individual
are given in the catalogue.

Only three adult males and two adult females had sufficiently preserved long bones
available for stature calculation (Fig. 5). Average female stature at Castledermot was
160.3 cm and average male stature 173.2 cm.

180
177

175 172.3
170.3

170
Height in cm

165

160.1
160 160.6

155

150

Figure 5. Adult Male (Blue) and Adult Female (Pink) Stature



Stature and body proportions are influenced by hereditary and environmental as well
as social factors. To put the Castledermot stature calculations into context, they were
compared to results from other Irish populations of Medieval and Post-Medieval date
(Table 8). This shows that the Castledermot results are above average Medieval
values for both sexes.

Table 8. Adult Stature Comparison
Site Male Female Reference
Mean n Mean n
Stature Stature
Castledermot, Co. Kildare 173.2 3 160.3 2 This Report
(Medieval)
Ratoath, Co. Meath 164.9 9 155.8 9 Fibiger 2005
(5th-9th century)
Mt. Gamble, Co. Dublin 168.3 50 157.6 65 Geber 2005
(AD 550-1160)
Johnstown 1, Co. Meath 169.7 47 158.6 57 Fibiger 2004
(5th - 17th century )
Waterford City 168.2 26 158.3 14 Power 1995
(mid 13th-early 17th century)
St. Mary’s Cathedral, 175 17 156 6 Power 1995
Limerick
(Post-Medieval)

2.4 Dental Health and Disease
A total of 20 partial or complete dentitions from articulated burials were available for
observation. This included nine males, six females, two unsexed adults, one
adolescent and two juveniles. For each individual, the number of teeth present, the
number of teeth lost ante-mortem or post-mortem as well as any dental diseases or
anomalies were recorded and data for each age group was summarised. In addition,
percentage frequencies for ante-mortem tooth loss, caries, abscesses, calculus and
enamel hypoplasia in the sexed adult group were calculated based on the number of
observable tooth positions or teeth present as well as on the number of individuals
affected.

2.4.1 Dental Wear
Attrition or dental wear is the wearing away of tooth enamel as a result of chewing or
grinding. In an Irish context, it is more pronounced in prehistoric and pre-
industrialised populations with coarser diets or non-mechanised milling techniques.



The latter allow for the presence of residual grit and larger particles in bread-flour,
which results in greater tooth wear. Overall tooth wear for each individual was
recorded as slight, moderate or severe based on the scoring system of Brothwell
(1981: 72).

2.4.2 Calculus
Calculus is a mineralised plaque deposit commonly occurring in archaeological
populations. It can range from small flecks to substantial lumps (Fig. 6) and generally
builds up faster with a sucrose-rich diet (Roberts & Manchester 1995: 55). Although
its occurrence is usually painless, it can contribute to the development of other dental
conditions, such as infections and periodontal disease.

Figure 6. Burial 13. Mandibular teeth with calculus deposits. L. Fibiger

2.4.3 Periodontal Disease
Periodontal disease is essentially an inflammation of the soft tissues surrounding the
teeth, initially affecting the edges of the gums (gingival margins) but in its advanced
stages also impacting on the underlying bone. It is only the latter stage of the
condition that can be diagnosed on skeletal remains and presents as visible resorption



of the alveolar process. At the same time, the usually snug fit of the tooth root in the
alveolus becomes increasingly loosened. Plaque, calculus, abscesses and metabolic
diseases can all contribute to the development of the condition (Ortner & Putschar
1985: 442). The presence of periodontal disease was recorded as mild, moderate or
severe (Brothwell 1981: 155).

2.4.4 Caries
Caries lesions can vary in appearance from discolorations of the enamel surface to
substantial cavities in the tooth crown or root (Fig. 7). They are the result of a
combination of bacterial activity and the presence of carbohydrate. During the
fermentation of food sugars, the bacteria create acids which demineralise teeth and
eventually result in macroscopic defects (Roberts & Manchester 1995: 46). Any
naturally occurring fissures or cavities on the tooth increase the risk for developing
caries, as they allow for the accumulation of food debris and plaque and therefore
increase bacterial activity. The presence or absence of caries was recorded for each
tooth.

Figure 7. Burial 14. First right mandibular molar with caries (cavity). L. Fibiger

2.4.5 Dental Abscesses
Dental abscesses are usually diagnosed through the presence of draining sinuses in the
alveolar bone of the maxillae or mandible (Fig. 8). They are caused by infection as a
result of exposure of the pulp cavity or root of the tooth to bacterial attack, or where



severe periodontal disease leads to an accumulation of plaque between the teeth and
the gums. In the course of the infection, pus starts to build up within the chamber in
the bone, which results in increasing pressure and eventually a sinus (hole) develops
to allow the pus to drain out (Roberts & Manchester 1995: 50). The presence of a
dental abscess was scored when a draining sinus was present.

L. Fibiger

Figure 8. Burial 13. Maxillary sinus as result of dental abscess.

2.4.6 Ante-Mortem Tooth Loss
Ante-mortem tooth loss was diagnosed when an observable tooth socket had been
filled in by new bone formation. Tooth loss can be the result of continued eruption of
teeth due to severe tooth wear or occurs secondary to periodontal disease, caries or
dental abscesses.

2.4.7 Dental Enamel Hypoplasia
Enamel hypoplasia manifests itself in the form of lines, grooves or pits on the enamel
surface of the tooth crown (Fig. 9). It is the result of a systemic disturbance during
tooth formation, such as nutritional stress or disease (Hillson 1996: 165).



Figure 9. Burial 14. Right mandibular teeth with hypoplastic defects. L. Fibiger

As crown formation of the permanent teeth is complete by approximately the seventh
year, dental hypoplasia only indicates systemic disturbances during foetal
development and early childhood (Holst & Coughlan 2000:83).

2.4.8 Adult Dental Disease
A total of 473 tooth positions and 415 teeth from 17 articulated adult individuals were
available for observation (Table 9).

Figure 10 demonstrates that the percentage frequencies for different conditions based
on the number of teeth or tooth positions are generally very low (except for calculus,
which is a frequent occurrence in most archaeological populations). In contrast,
percentage frequencies based on the number of individuals affected are noticeably
higher (Fig. 11).



Table 9. Adult Dental Disease (Articulated Burials)
Male/Male? Female/Female? Adult Total
n-Teeth n-Indiv. n-Teeth n-Indiv. n-Teeth n-Indiv. n-Teeth n-Indiv.
Observable 235 9 176 6 62 2 473 17
tooth positions
Ante-mortem 8 2 10 3 1 1 19 6
tooth loss
Post-mortem 21 8 9 4 2 2 32 14
tooth loss
Unerupted - - 1 1 - - 1 1

Congenitally 5 3 2 1 - - 7 4
absent
Teeth present 201 9 155 6 59 2 415 17

Calculus 171 9 144 6 37 2 352 17

Caries 6 4 3 2 4 2 13 8

Abscesses 10 4 9 3 1 1 20 8

Enamel 32 2 16 1 28 1 76 4
hypoplasia
Periodontal - 2 - 3 - 1 - 6
disease

100
92.9
Male Unsexed Adult
Female Total 85 84.8

80

62
60
47.4

40

18.7 18.3
20
10.3
6.7
3.4 5.6 1.6
4 3.5 1.9 3.1 4.2 5.1
1.6
4.2
0
AM Tooth Loss Caries Abscesses Calculus Enamel
Hypoplasia

Figure 10. Adult Dental Disease Percentages (Teeth Affected)



100
100 100 100
Male 100 100
Female
80
Unsexed Adult
Total

60
50 50 50 50 50
47 47
44.4 44.4
40 35 33.3

22.2 22.2 23.5
20 16.6

0
AM Tooth Loss Caries Abscesses Calculus Enamel
Hypoplasia

Figure 11. Adult Dental Disease Percentages (Individuals Affected)

Within the sexed sample, all dental conditions were present in both the male and
female group, and there were no striking differences in the percentage frequencies
between the two sexes based on the number of teeth and tooth positions. Although
the sample is small, it is notable that almost half of the adult sample was affected by
advanced dental conditions like caries and dental abscesses, and that about a third had
lost teeth during life. Even when keeping the limitations of such a small sample in
mind, it still appears that dental health in the group appeared to have been moderate to
poor. The only dental condition noted in the juvenile/adolescent sample was calculus.

Where comparative data for other archaeological populations was available, it was
generally, with the exception of caries rates, based on the number of individuals
present rather than the number of teeth available. In addition, results for males and
females were grouped together in many reports, making it necessary to treat all adults
at Castledermot as one group for comparative purposes. Studies based on samples
made up of adult as well as juvenile individuals were not included. Table 10
compares the occurrence of dental disease at Castledermot with contemporary
populations from Ireland and Britain as well as with later Irish populations, indicating
that frequencies for the different dental diseases at Castledermot are within the range
recorded for other medieval assemblages.



Table 10. Adult Dental Disease Comparison (Percentage of Individuals Affected)
Site AM tooth Calculus Caries Abscesses Periodontal
loss Teeth Indiv. disease
Castledermot, Co. Kildare
(Medieval) 35 % 100 % 3.1 % 47 % 47 % 35.2 %
This Report
Johnstown 1, Co. Meath
(Medieval) 45 % 93.5 % 4.5 % 37.6 % 46.8 % 11.7 %
Fibiger 2004
Great Britain
(c.1050-c.1550) 36.4 % 59.1 % 5.5 % 52.6 % 26.2 % 37.5 %
Roberts & Cox 2003
Dominican Priory,
Drogheda 30 % 100 % 6.5 % 46.6 % 30 % 20 %
(13th-14th century)
Halpin & Buckley 1995
Fishergate, York
(Late 10th-12th cent.) 3.2 % n.a. 4.3 % 38 % 1.9 % n.a.
Stroud & Kemp 1993
Creagh Junction,
Ballinasloe 91.6 % 75 % 35.9 % 83.3 % 50 % 91.6 %
(Post-Medieval)
Fibiger 2002

2.4.9 Dental Anomalies
The only dental anomaly noted at Castledermot was congenitally absent 3rd molars in
four individuals (Burials 2, 8, 12 and 26). Late eruption or non-development of third
molars is a familial trait, and third molars are absent or rudimentary in between 7 and
26 % of modern white populations. It is clear from twin and family studies that there
is a strong hereditary component in tooth numbers, although it is unlikely to be a
simple Mendelian system (Goose & Appleton 1982: 185).

2.5 Joint Disease
Joint degeneration is the inevitable result of general wear and tear the human body is
subjected to throughout life, therefore degenerative joint disease is probably the most
frequently occurring pathological condition recorded on archaeological skeletal
remains. Although primarily a degenerative condition and to a large extent age-
related, a small number of cases can have infectious origins or develop secondary to
trauma or other pathological conditions. An accurate assessment of its pattern of
occurrence within a population group depends on the degree of survival of observable
joint surfaces. It should be remembered that preservation at Castledermot was often



poor and incomplete, and none of the burials presented with a complete set of
observable joint surfaces.

The changes which are visible on the skeleton are the immediate result of wear and
tear of the joint or joint cartilage, which acts as a buffer between the bony elements of
a joint during life. The main diagnostic features include osteophyte formation (bony
growth around the joint margin), porosity (characterised by pitting of the joint
surface) and eburnation (polishing of the joint surface as result of bone-to-bone
contact) (Fig. 12). The latter is pathognomonic of osteoarthritis (Rogers & Waldron
1995: 36), but unless it was present, the more general term degenerative joint disease
(DJD) was used and indicated that at least two joint changes other than eburnation
were present. Intervertebral joints can also be affected by Schmorl’s Nodes, small
depressions in the superior or inferior surface of the vertebral body that are caused by
herniation of disc material into the adjacent vertebral body. They are considered to be
a result of considerable (compressive) strain on the spine during heavy labour or
lifting, especially during the second and third decade of life. Other indicators of joint
degeneration can be new bone formation on the joint surface or changes in the size or
shape of the joint (joint contour change).

L. Fibiger

Figure 12. Burial 11. Osteoarthritis of left elbow with eburnation on humeral capitulum.



2.5.1 Spinal Joint Disease
Nine males and eight females had partial or complete spines available for observation.
Table 11 summarises the number of spinal joints that were examined (as number of
observable vertebrae), including vertebral bodies and vertebral articular facets. In
cases where the vertebral bodies had eroded or damaged anterior margins, an accurate
assessment of the presence of osteophytosis could not be completed and only changes
on the superior and inferior body surface were recorded. As a result, the count of
observable vertebral bodies has been subdivided into an overall count (A) and one
excluding those with incompletely preserved anterior margins (B). Tables 12 and 13
summarise the number of vertebral elements affected by degenerative joint disease.
This included six males and six females with degenerative changes of vertebral bodies
and one male and four females with degenerative changes of vertebral articular facets.

Table 11. Observable Vertebral Bodies and Articular Facets Present
Male/Male? Female/Female? Total
A B A B A B
Cervical bodies 51 50 41 39 92 89
Thoracic bodies 61 55 52 51 113 106
Lumbar bodies 21 21 20 14 41 35
S1 Body 2 2 4 3 6 5
Anterior Atlanto- 9 n.a. 6 n.a. 15 n.a.
Axial Joint
Cervical facets 51 n.a. 38 n.a. 89 n.a.
Thoracic facets 59 n.a. 52 n.a. 111 n.a.
Lumbar facets 22 n.a. 21 n.a. 43 n.a.
S1 Facet 2 n.a. 3 n.a. 5 n.a.
*A-All vertebral bodies; B-Vertebral bodies with intact anterior margins only

Table 12. Spinal Joint Disease: Vertebral Bodies*
Spinal Males/Males? Females/Females?
Segment OP PO SN OP PO SN
Cervical bodies 1 - - 1 2 -

Thoracic bodies 10 - 12 7 - 13

Lumbar bodies 3 - 3 9 2 1

S1 - - - 1 - -

*OP=Osteophytes; PO=Porosity; SN=Schmorl’s Nodes



Table 13. Spinal Joint Disease: Vertebral Articular Facets*
Spinal Males/Males? Females/Females?
Segment OP PO EB OP PO EB
Anterior Atlanto- 1 - - 3 - -
Axial Joint
Cervical facets - - - 2 1 2

Thoracic facets 1 2 - 1 - -

Lumbar facets - - - 1 1 1

S1 - - - 1 1 1

*OP=Osteophytes; PO=Porosity; EB=Eburnation

Percentage frequencies of spinal joint disease are illustrated in Figures 13 & 14.
Although the sample from Castledermot is very small, some general trends can be
observed. Schmorl’s nodes in the lumbar region appear to be noticeably more
frequent in the male sample (Fig. 13), whereas antlanto-axial osteophytosis seems to
be more common in females (Fig. 14).

100
Male
Female
80
64.2
60

40 33.3
25
18.1 19.6
20 13.7 14.2 14.2
10
4.8 5
2 2.5
0
es

ity

es

ity
es

es

es
es
os

os
yt

yt
yt

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od

od
ph

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ba
Sc
ac
c

C

rS
vi

m
or

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er

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Lu
Th

ac
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Lu
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Figure 13. Percentage Frequencies of Spinal Joint Disease: Vertebral Bodies



100
Male
Female
80

60
50

40
33.3 33.3 33.3

20 11.1
5.2 2.6 5.2 3.3 4.7 4.7 4.7
1.61.9
0
es

n
ity

n
es

n
es

ity
es

ty
ty

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tio
io

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si
si
os

os
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at
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Figure 14. Percentage Frequencies of Spinal Joint Disease: Vertebral Articular Facets

The lumbar spine is the weight-bearing segment of the vertebral column and
Schmorl’s nodes develop as a result of compressive strain placed on the spine during
the second and third decade of life, thus probably pointing towards differences in
activity patterns between males and females during this period of life. This might
also be apparent in the higher frequency of females showing changes in the upper
cervical spine, indicating frequent rotation of the head. It should be borne in mind,
though, that these general observations are based on a very small sample.

Another degenerative change observed on one female thoracic vertebral body was
intervertebral osteochondrosis, a crescent-shaped lesion with an irregular surface
disrupting the anterior to lateral margin of the superior or inferior vertebral body
(Kelley 1982). Like Schmorl’s Nodes, these are the result of changes in the adjacent
intervertebral disc, related to functional wear and degeneration of the disc.

2.5.2 Extra-Spinal Joint Disease
Nine males, eight females and three unsexed adults had extra-spinal joints available
for observation. Table 14 summarises the number of joints showing degenerative
changes out of the total number that could be observed. One male and three females



were affected by degenerative joint disease, presenting with at least two of the
indicators of joint disease discussed above. The only notable feature is the prevalence
of degenerative joint disease of the shoulder in the female group, but as the overall
sample of preserved joints was very small, no further interpretations were attempted

Table 14. Extra-Spinal Joint Disease (Number Affected/Number Present)
Joint Male/Male? Female/Female? Adult (Unsexed)
L R L R L R
Temporomandibular 0/8 8 0/7 0/6 0/2 0/2
Acromioclavicular 0/4 3 0/5 0/3 - 0/1
Sternoclavicular 0/4 6 0/6 0/5 - 0/1
Glenohumeral 0/5 5 3/5 2/5 - 0/1
Ribs 1/6 1/6 0/8 0/8 - 0/1
Elbow 0/4 5 1/1 0/3 - 0/1
Wrist 0/2 3 ½ 0/2 - -
Hand 0/2 2 0/2 0/4 - -
Hip 0/2 2 0/5 0/5 0/1 0/1
Knee - - - - 0/1 0/1
Ankle - - - - 0/1 0/1
Foot - - - - 0/1 0/1

2.6. Metabolic Disorders
Cribra orbitalia
Cribra orbitalia is characterised by increased porosity and thinning of the outer table
of the skull with a simultaneous increase in the diploë layer. The lesion can be found
on the roof of the orbits and was traditionally believed to be an indicator of acquired
iron deficiency or anaemia. As a response, the body would attempt to increase iron-
production, which results in a thinning of the outer surfaces of the bone and
corresponding expansion of the diploë or marrow-containing middle layer,
characterised by the porotic appearance of the orbits. Factors that can contribute to
iron deficiency anaemia are numerous, however, and diet is only one of a group of
potential causes also including physiological processes within the body causing
inadequate iron absorption, excessive bleeding and gastrointestinal infections (Ortner
2003: 369; Stuart-Macadam 1991: 105). The term cribra orbitalia should therefore



be used as a descriptive, rather than a diagnostic term (Ortner, pers. comm.). Scoring
of cribra orbitalia lesions was based on the system of Stuart-Macadam (1991: Fig.
9.3.a). Only one case was present at Castledermot (Table 15), observed on the right
orbit of Burial 18, an adolescent.

Table 15. Cribra Orbitalia (Affected Orbits/ Total Number Present)
Male Female Adult Juvenile/Adolescent
L R L R L R L R
0/5 0/3 0/5 0/4 - - - 1/1

2.7 Infectious Disease
Infectious diseases were one of the major causes of death in the past, as they still are
today. These diseases, however, often kill an individual quickly and therefore do not
leave any visible signs on the skeleton. What we observe in skeletal material are
more chronic conditions that the affected individual survived for months or even
years. In addition, different infectious diseases can result in very similar changes to
the bone and proliferative lesions (where new bone is laid down) are common with
but not exclusive to many infectious diseases. Infections might also develop
secondary to other conditions, such as trauma. It is therefore not always possible to
ascribe observed skeletal changes to a particular disease.

Infections identified on skeletal remains can be roughly divided into specific and non-
specific, i.e. those conditions attributed to a specific infective agent and others that
could be caused by a number of organisms such as staphylococcus or streptococcus
bacteria or a range of viruses, fungi and parasites (Ortner 2003: 179ff).

Pulmonary Infection
One case of pulmonary infection was noted at Castledermot. Burial 10 was a young
adult male aged between 18 and 25 years. A deposit of woven bone was present on
the visceral aspect of one right rib shaft. Another plaque-like deposit of slightly
porous compact bone was present on the visceral aspect of right rib 11 or 12. On the
11th or 12th left rib, porous and slightly lamellar woven bone and some porous
compact bone were noted all along the visceral aspect of the rib shaft (Fig. 15). The



lesions indicate the presence of a chronic infection, active at the time of death.
Differential diagnosis included non-specific pulmonary infection and tuberculosis.

Figure 15. Burial 10. Left 11th or 12th rib with woven bone deposit. L. Fibiger

Transmission of tuberculosis between humans results from infected droplets carrying
microbacterium tuberculosis. In addition, the bovine form of the disease,
microbacterium bovis, is transmitted from animals to humans mainly through infected
animal products such as milk (Ortner 2003: 227; Roberts & Buikstra 2003: 4-5).
Initially, the disease develops in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract respectively, and
dormant periods and re-infection at a later point can occur. The main factors
influencing transmission are crowded living conditions, close contact with animals,
ingestion of infected animal products and more individual immune status. In a
clinical context, only between three and five percent of infected patients develop
skeletal lesions, and it should therefore be borne in mind that diagnosis of the disease
in an archaeological assemblage probably indicates a much higher rate of infection
within the population than indicated skeletally. The most frequently affected part of
the skeleton is the spine, followed by the hip and knee, though new bone formation on
the ribs, as observed on Burial 10, appears to be relatively common as well (Roberts
et al. 1994; Roberts & Buikstra 2003: 89). The latter changes, however, can also
occur as a result of other pulmonary conditions, such as pneumonia and pleuracy,
(Mays et al. 2002), which all have to be considered as possible causes for the lesions
seen on Burial 10.



Another Burial, an older adult female (Burial 11) presented with an isolated
perforating lesion on right rib shaft. The nature of its edges and the lack of bony
remodelling appear to exclude a fracture as the cause of the lesion. Although specific
conditions such as tuberculosis can result in similar changes, the isolated nature of the
lesion does not allow for such an advanced diagnosis. The changes could be the result
of a localised condition, such as a cyst or a localised infection.

2.8 Trauma
Fractures
The number and type of fractures observed in a population is closely related to a
number of biological and socio-cultural factors, such as age, sex and activity-patterns
(Lovell 1997). Fractures can occur either as primary injuries, secondary to
pathological conditions that reduce the mechanical strength of a bone or as stress
fractures after periods of repetitive mechanical stress.

At Castledermot, two adult individuals presented with healed fractures (Table 16).

Table 16. Fractures
Burial No. Age & Sex Fracture Present
Burial 2 Male?, 36-45 years Spondylolysis lumbar vertebra 5, unilateral (left), partly
reunited
Burial 7 Female?, > 25 years Healed fracture of 2 left and 2 right rib shafts

Spondylolysis is a stress fracture of the pars interarticularis of the vertebral arch, the
segment of bone between the superior and inferior articular facets of a vertebra
(Standaert & Herring 2000: 415), usually affecting the lower lumbar region of the
spine. One case was present at Castledermot, affecting the 5th lumbar vertebra of
Burial 2, an adult male aged between 36 and 45 years (Fig. 16). Clinically, the
condition has been shown to occur in families (Fredrickson et al. 1984), but its high
frequency among athletes points towards a significant role of habitual and strenuous
movement for its occurrence. A recent study of British skeletal populations has
established a link between the incidence of spondylolysis and a higher number of
other traumatic lesions among those with the condition, pointing towards a ‘high-risk-



life-style which predisposes the individuals to suffering accidental injuries as well as
stress fractures of the lower spine (Fibiger 2001).

Figure 16. Burial 2. Spondylolysis of 5th lumbar vertebra. L. Fibiger

One adult female (Burial 7) presented with five healed rib fractures. Rib fractures are
most likely to occur either as the result of inter-personal violence or a fall, though in
this case it is not possible to ascribe the lesions to one particular cause.

Os Acromiale
Os acromiale is a condition characterised by incomplete fusion of the acromion
process of the scapula, which usually fuses with the main part of the acromion by
approximately 20 years (Liberson 1937; Scheuer & Black 2000: 270). Traditionally,
os acromiale is thought to have developmental origins, but its high frequency among
the soldiers recovered from the Mary Rose and among those involved in the Battle of
Towton during the War of the Roses, indicates that its occurrence in some individuals
at least might be an activity-related skeletal adaption (Knüsel 2000: 115; Stirland
2000: 121ff). Non-fusion of the joint would allow for a greater range of shoulder
movements, and the aetiology of the condition would then be very similar to that of an
avulsion fracture.



One case of os acromiale was present at Castledermot, affecting the left shoulder of
an adult female aged between 36 and 45 years. Although the right scapula was poorly
preserved, there was some indication that the condition might have affected both
shoulders.

Soft Tissue Trauma
Syndesmophytes and enthesophytes occur at sites of insertions for ligaments and
tendons respectively and are the result of repetitive irritation, inflammation or
microtrauma (Pavlov 1995: 3246). One enthesophyte was noted at Castledermot, on
the left lateral humerus of Burial 3, an adult male aged between 36 and 45 years. The
lesion occurred in the area of insertion for M. brachioradialis, involved in flexion of
the forearm.

Enthesopathies and Cortical Defects
Enthesopathies (characterised by bony growth) and cortical defects (characterised by
depressions in cortical bone) occur at insertion sites of tendons and ligaments to bone.
They both result from continuous micro-trauma or stresses exerted on these areas
during muscular activity (Knüsel 2000: 113ff). Their occurrence was noted and
included in the catalogue.

2.9 Congenital Anomalies, Developmental Defects and Non-metric Traits
Congenital anomalies affect approximately 4.5 % of newborn infants. 90 % of these
defects are genetic and they can range in severity from small variants with no
functional consequence to the individual, to severe defects not compatible with life
(Aufderheide & Rodríguez-Martin 1998: 51).

Four cases of congenital or developmental anomalies were noted in the assemblage
(Table 17). This included cleft neural arches of the cervical spine and one additional
lumbar vertebra, all of which would not have had any notable consequences for the
affected individual.



Table 17. Congenital and Developmental Anomalies
Burial No. Age & Sex Anomaly present
Burial 3 Male, 36-45 years Cleft neural arch of Atlas; 6 lumbar vertebra present
Burial 12 Female, 36-45 years Cleft neural arch of atlas
Burial 15 Female, > 25 years Cleft neural arch of atlas
Sample 156-DAR Adult Cleft neural arch of atlas

Non-metric traits are anatomical variants and their origin is a combination of
biological (genetic) and environmental (non-genetic) factors. Although their
occurrence has been applied to the study of population relationships (Hallgrímsson et
al. 2004), the validity of this approach is subject to ongoing discussions (Saunders
1989; Tyrell 2000). More large-scale multi-disciplinary population studies are needed
to establish the scientific value of scoring a large number of these traits, especially as
no comprehensive list of the potentially most useful traits has been developed to date.
A small selection of traits was scored for each adult individual from Castledermot
(Table 18) and the results have been included in the catalogue.

Table 18. Non-Metric Traits Scored for Each Adult Burial
Trait Affected Skeletal Element
Metopic suture Frontal
Supraorbital notch Frontal
Supraorbital foramen Frontal
Parietal foramen Parietals
Coronal ossicle Frontal/Parietals
Saggital ossicle Parietals
Lambdoid ossicle Parietal/Occipital
Divided hypoglossal canal Occipital
Palatine taurus Maxilla
Mandibular taurus Mandible
Septal aperture Humerus
Vastus notch Patella
Squatting facet Tibia



3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The osteological analysis of the human skeletal remains from Castledermot indicated
the presence of a population group that included adults, juveniles and infants, which
were probably part of a community cemetery. Although the assemblage was small
and overall preservation was incomplete and relatively poor, a number of conditions
such as dental disease, degenerative joint disease, trauma, infection and congenital
anomalies were recorded. Almost as many adult females as adult males were present,
and age distribution centred on the Young Adult (18-25 years) and Old Middle Adult
(36-45 years) age groups. The ratio of adult versus juvenile did not correspond to the
pattern expected for the period, i.e. the proportion on non-adults remained below the
expected 30-50 %. It is not possible to assess whether this is a reflection of the
cemetery population as a whole and related to differential burial practice for juveniles,
or simply the result of the limited extent of the excavation. Average adult stature of
both sexes was higher than in other Medieval populations, though it should be borne
in mind that the Castledermot sample was rather small.



4. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aufderheide, A.C. & C. Rodríguez-Martin 1998. The Cambridge encyclopaedia of
human paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brickley, M. & J.I. McKinley (eds.) 2004. Guidelines to the standards for recording
human remains. IFA Paper No. 7. Southhampton/Reading: BABAO and IFA.

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5. CATALOGUE

ABBREVIATIONS

Dental General
AMTL Ante-mortem tooth loss VB Vertebral body
U Unerupted VF Vertebral facet
x Tooth lost ante-mortem C Cervical vertebra
/ Tooth lost post-mortem T Thoracic vertebra
C Caries LV Lumbar vertebra
A Abscess S Sacral vertebra
c Calculus R Right
R Root only L Left
E Erupting EB Eburnation
H Hypoplasia TMJ Temporomandibular joint
NP Not present (unobservable) ACJ Acromioclavicular joint
B Broken post-mortem SCJ Sternoclavicular
Con Congenitally absent GHJ Glenohumeral joint
JCC Joint contour change
DJD Degenerative joint disease
VB Vertebral body
VF Vertebral articular facet
n.a. Not available

Permanent Dentition
Right Maxilla Left Maxilla
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Right Mandible Left Mandible

Deciduous Dentition
Right Maxilla Left Maxilla
e d c b a a b c d e
e d c b a a b c d e
Right Mandible Left Mandible

Anatomical elements used for sex and age assessment and stature calculations are given in
brackets where available.



BURIAL 1
Sex: Female (Skull)
Age: 18-25 years (Epiphyseal fusion, auricular surface)
Stature: n.a.

Bones present: Fig. 17
Condition: Poor
Burial type: Wooden coffin? (Possible coffin nails present)
Burial position: Supine and (?)extended.
Burial orientation: East-West (Head to the West)
Associated DAR: Right maxillary 1st and 2nd premolar (Adult).
Dentition:
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
U c c c c c c c c c c c c c c

Dental pathology: Calculus (30/31-slight to moderate).
Skeletal pathology: -
Non-metric traits: Supraorbital foramen (R).

BURIAL 2
Sex: Male? (Pelvis, skull)
Age: 36-45 years (Auricular surface, pubic symphysis)
Stature: 170.3 ± 4.32 cm (R radius)

Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Wooden coffin?
Burial position: Supine and extended. R arm slightly flexed at elbow and R hand
resting on pelvis. L arm slightly flexed at elbow.
Associated DAR: 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebra, 2 thoracic vertebral arches and R 2nd and
3rd metacarpal (Adult).
Dentition:
NP NP NP NP / c c NP c cA cA R RA NP NP
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
NP NP c c c c / c c / cA c c cC c Con

Dental pathology: Caries (1/17-occlusal), abscess (4/22), calculus (16/17-slight) and
severe dental wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Osteophytosis dens facet. VB osteophytosis C4, T6-11. VB
osteophytosis T9. VF porosity T8-9.
Extra-spinal DJD: Porosity of L&R SCJ and L rib facet. OP of R rib facet.



Trauma: Unilateral (left) spondylolysis of LV5, partially reunited, no olisthesis.

DAR associated with Burial 2 and 3
Bones present: 2 R rib shaft fragments, partial L ilium, L humerus proximal ¾ (Head
diameter: 4.0 cm), distal humeral diaphysis fragment, R radius proximal ¾ and L
femoral diaphysis fragment (Adult).

BURIAL 3
Sex: Male (Pelvis, skull)
Age: 36-45 years (Auricular surface)
Stature: 172.3 ± 4.05 cm (L Humerus)

Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Wooden coffin?
Burial position: Supine and extended.
Associated DAR: Partial cranium including frontal, occipital, L&R temporal, L&R
Zygomatic and sphenoid greater wing fragments (Male), R mandibular ramus and
condyle (M?), mandibular R medial and lateral incisor, canine, 1st premolar, M1-M3
and L mandibular M1 (all with calculus deposits slight dental wear), L acromion and
partial scapular spine, 1 L and 5 R vertebral rib ends, upper thoracic body and partial
arch, L pubic symphysis, acetabular fragment, fragmented L ulna (Max. length: ~27
cm), L distal radial fragment, fragmented L femur (Head diameter: 4.8 cm; epicondyl.
breadth: 8.0 cm; AP diameter: 3 cm; ML diameter: 3.2 cm), R greater trochanter and
femoral diaphysis fragments, L 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th metacarpal, 1st proximal hand
phalanx, 1st distal hand phalanx, R 3rd metatarsal (Adult), partial occipital, partial R
clavicle (Projected max. length: ~7 cm), 1 R and 1 L vertebral rib end, partial R
humeral diaphysis (Projected max. length: ~ 10 cm), L humeral mid-diaphysis
fragment and R radial diaphysis fragment (Juvenile).
Dentition:
c c xA cH c c c c c c c cH cH c c c
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c c xA xA cH cH c c c c cH cH cH c x c

Dental pathology: AMTL (4/32), abscess (3/32), linear dental enamel hypoplasia
(8/30), calculus (28/28-slight to moderate) and slight to moderate dental wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: VB osteophytosis T3-4, T6, T8, LV1-3. Schmorl’s nodes T6-12, LV1-3.
VF ostephytosis T5. L lateral compression of VB T8.
Extra-spinal DJD: Osteophytosis of L&R TMJ and hip. DJD L&R rib head and facet.
Trauma: Small exostosis at L lateral supracondylar ridge (humerus).
Congenital anomalies: 6th lumbar vertebra present. Cleft neural arch of C1.
Miscellaneous conditions: Robust insertion for L&R M. deltoid (Humerus).



BURIAL 4
Sex: n.a.
Age: 5-6 years (Teeth)
Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine and extended. Head facing South.
Associated DAR: Mandible (see below), rib shaft fragment, L 5th metacarpal, proximal
hand phalanx, R navicular (Adult), clavicular shaft fragment, partial manubrium, 4 L
vertebral rib ends, 6 rib shaft fragments, L humeral diaphysis proximal 2/3 (Projected
max. length: >11 cm), L tibial diaphysis proximal 2/3 and distal fragment and L&R
fibular diaphysis fragments (Juvenile).

Adult Mandible
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
/ x / / / x x / / / / x x xA? Con?

Dentition:
U c c / /? NP NP NP c c NP NP NP
7 6 e d c b a a b c d e 6 7
7 6 e d c b 1 1 b c d e 6 7
U c c NP c E E / / c c /

Dental pathology: Calculus (9/14-slight to moderate) and very slight dental wear.

BURIAL 4A
Sex: n.a.
Age: 2 years (Teeth)

Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Associated DAR: Partial L maxilla (see below), partial occipital, L parietal and L
Zygomatic, L(?) clavicular shaft fragment, L rib shaft fragment (Adult).
Adult L Maxilla:
/ / c c / NP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8



Dentition:
NP NP NP NP NP NP
6 e d c b a a b c d e 6
6 e d c b a a b c d e 6
U NP / / U

Dental pathology: -

BURIAL 5 - DAR
Bones present: R humerus distal ¾ (Epicondylar width: 5.8 cm), R ulna proximal 2/3,
R radius proximal ½ (Adult), L humerus proximal 2/3 (Projected max. length: >16
cm), L proximal ulna diaphysis fragment and radial diaphysis fragment (Juvenile).

BURIAL 6
Sex: n.a.
Age: Older Adolescent 16-20 years (Epiphyseal fusion)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine and extended. Head facing South?
Associated DAR: L mandibular M1 (c), 3 rib shaft fragments (1x facet osteophytosis),
L femoral head and proximal diaphysis fragment, L 5th metatarsal, intermediate hand
phalanx (Adult), L ulna diaphysis fragment (Adolescent), L atlas and L partial scapula
including glenoid and partial acromion (Juvenile).
Dentition:
c NP NP NP NP NP NP NP
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E c c c c c c c c c c c c c /

Dental pathology: Calculus (14/24-slight) and slight dental wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Schmorl’s nodes(?) T9-11.

BURIAL 7
Sex: Female? (Skull)
Age: Adult > 25 years (Probably older middle adult)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Poor



Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine and extended. Right arm slightly flexed at elbow with R hand
resting on pelvis. L hand resting on upper L femur.
Associated DAR: L lateral tibial condyle, femoral condyle fragment.
Dentition: n.a.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: VB osteophytosis LV4-5. VB porosity LV4-5. VF osteoarthritis with
osteophytosis, porosity and eburnation LV5-S1.
Trauma: Healed fractures of 2 L rib shafts (no bony reunion but probably ligamentous
connections between fracture end) and 2 R rib shafts with one multiple fracture (no
bony reunion).

DAR situated over Burial 7
Bones present: 2 parietal fragments, R mandibular process, 4 R vertebral rib ends,
cervical articular facet and thoracic arch and body fragments (Adult).

BURIAL 8
Sex: Male? (Skull)
Age: Adult > 25 years
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine. Head facing South.
Associated DAR: 3 L rib shaft fragments, partial L&R pelvis (M?; 36-45 years),
partial LV5 and S1 and fibular diaphysis fragment (Adult).
Dentition:
Con c c NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Con? c c c c c NP NP NP c / c c Con?

Non-metric traits: Supraorbital foramen (L).

BURIAL 9
Sex: Female? (Pelvis)
Age: 18-25 years (Auricular surface, epiphyseal fusion)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Moderate



Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine and extended. Head facing South.
Associated DAR: Neonatal L (44.6 mm) and partial R clavicle, L 2nd (?) rib and L
humeral diaphysis proximal half. This bone was found associated with/near the
pelvic cavity of Burial 9.
Dentition: n.a.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Schmorl’s nodes T6-8. VF osteophytosis T4.
Extra-spinal DJD: Osteophytosis of L rib head.
Non-metric traits: Supraorbital notch.

BURIAL 10
Sex: Male (Skull)
Age: 18-25 years (Auricular surface, epiphyseal fusion)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Dentition:
NP NP c c c c c c / / c c c c c /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c c c c c c / / c c c c c c c c

Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Schmorl’s nodes T8-12.
Infection: A deposit of woven bone is present on the visceral aspect of one R rib shaft
in the area of the rib angle. Another plaque-like deposit of slightly porous compact
bone is present on the visceral aspect of the angle area of R rib 11 or 12. On L rib 11
or 12 porous and slightly lamellar woven bone and some porous compact bone are
present all along the visceral aspect of the rib shaft. The lesions indicate the presence
of a chronic infection, active at the time of death. Differential diagnosis included non-
specific pulmonary infection and tuberculosis.
Miscellaneous conditions: Cortical defect at insertion of R M. biceps brachii (Radius).

BURIAL 11
Sex: Female? (Cranium)
Age: Older Adult (Degree of DJD)
Stature: 160.1 ± 4.45 cm (L Humerus)

Condition: Good



Burial type: Simple
Burial position: n.a.
Dentition:
cH H c cH cH c c cH cH c c c cH cH
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
cH cH c c c cH cH c c cH cH c c c cH cH

Dental pathology: Calculus (29/32-slight to moderate), pitted enamel hypoplasia
(16/29), mild periodontal disease and slight to moderate tooth wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Osteophytosis of dens. VB osteophytosis C5, T5, T9, T12, LV1, KV3.
VB porosity C5-6. Schmorl’s nodes T8-12. VF porosity C2.
Extra-spinal DJD: Porosity of L ACJ and L&R rib head. Osteophytosis of L&R hip.
DJD L&R GHJ. Osteoarthritis of L elbow and wrist with eburnation on the distal
humerus, proximal radius and 1st metacarpo-phalangeal joint.
Infection: A perforating, lytic lesion is present at the superior edge of the visceral
aspect of a R(?) rib shaft fragment. The perforation divides into two at its inferior
edge. The appearance of the margin of the lesion and the absence of remodelling
indicates an infectious rather than traumatic origin for the changes observed.
Differential diagnosis includes localised infection and cyst.
Miscellaneous conditions: Robust insertion for L&R M. gluteus maximus (Femur).
Non-metric traits: Supraorbital notch (L&R).

BURIAL 12
Sex: Female (Pelvis & skull)
Stature: 160.6 ± 4.24 cm (R Radius)

Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple
Associated DAR: Partial adult mandible (F?).
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
NP NP NP NP c NP NP NP / c c c c c c c

Dentition:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Con c c c c c c c c c / c c c c Con



Dental pathology: Calculus (29/29-slight to moderate) and slight to moderate dental
wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: VB osteophytosis T7, T9-10, LV3-5. Intervertebral osteochondrosis T9.
Slight lateral L compression of VB LV3.
Extra-spinal DJD: Osteophytosis of R hip. DJD L&R GHJ.
Trauma: Os acromiale L scapula. R acromion damaged post-mortem, but defect was
possibly bilateral.
Congenital anomalies: Cleft neural arch C1.
Miscellaneous conditions: Pronounced sternal body curvature. Enthesopathy at
insertion of R M. gluteus maximus (Femur). Robust R linea aspera (Femur). Robust
insertions for L&R M. pectoralis major and M. teres major (Humerus) and L&R ilio-
femoral ligament (Femur).

BURIAL 13
Sex: Female (Skull)
Age: Older Middle Adult (Degree of DJD)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple
Dentition:
c c c c c c c c c RA C /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c c x x c c c c c c c c x c c c

Dental pathology: AMTL (3/32), caries (1/27-occlusal), abscess (1/32), calculus
(22/27), mild to moderate periodontal disease and slight to severe dental wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Osteophytosis of dens and dens facet of axis. VB osteophytosis T10.
Schmor’s nodes T7-11. VF ostephytosis C2-3. VF eburnation C2-3. Lateral R
compression of VB T9.
Extra-spinal DJD: DJD L GHJ.

BURIAL 14
Sex: Male (Skull)
Age: 18-25 years (Epiphyseal fusion)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple



Dentition:
E H cH c c cH cH cH cH cH cH H H /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
H CH cH cH cH cH cH cH cH cH cH cH CA?H cH /

Dental pathology: Caries (2/30-occlusal and proximal), abscess (1/32), severe linear
and pitted dental enamel hypoplasia (24/30), calculus (20/30-slight) and mild dental
wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Schmorl’s nodes T9-12, LV2-3.
Extra-spinal DJD: Porosity of R GHJ.
Miscellaneous conditions: Cortical defect at insertion of R costoclavicular ligament
(Clavicle), R M. pectoralis major (Humerus) and R M. deltoid (Clavicle).
Non-metric traits: Supraorbital foramen (R).

BURIAL 15
Sex: Female (Skull)
Age: > 25 years
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Dentition:
/ c xA cA? c c c c c c c c c xA xA xA
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
cC c xA c c c c / c c c c c c c cC

(25/25-slight to moderate), mild periodontal disease and slight dental wear
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: VB osteophytosis T11, LV1-2, S1.
Extra-spinal DJD: Osteophytosis of L&R rib facet.
Congenital anomalies: Cleft neural arch C1.

BURIAL 16
Sex: ?
Stature: n.a.



Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine?
Burial orientation: East-West? (Head to the West)
Associated DAR: 2 rib shaft fragments (Juvenile).
Dentition:
c NP c c c c c c c C cC c
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CA c c c c c c / c c x c c

Dental pathology: AMTL (1/31), caries (3/29-occlusal and distal), abscess (1/31),
calculus (20/29-slight to moderate), mild periodontal disease and slight to moderate
dental wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Schmorl’s node on 1 mid-thoracic VB.
(Clavicle).

BURIAL 17
Sex: ?
Age: 18-25 years (Epiphyseal fusion & teeth)
Stature: n.a.

Bones present: Highly fragmented adult cranium and mandible.
Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine?
Associated DAR: Partial adult mandible.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
NP NP NP NP NP NP / / / / / / / c c /

Dentition:
EH H H H H cH cH cH cH cH cH cH cH CH H EcH
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
EH H H H H cH cH cH cH cH cH / NP cH cH H

Dental pathology: Caries (1/30-occlusal), severe pitted and linear dental enamel
hypoplasia (30/30), calculus (17/30-slight to moderate) and slight to moderate dental
wear.
Skeletal pathology: n.a.



BURIAL 18
Sex: ?
Age: Adolescent (Robusticity/size)
Stature: n.a.

Bones present: Highly fragmented cranial vault, L mandibular ramus and condyle, R
mandibular condyle and partial atlas and axis.
Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Dentition: n.a.
Skeletal pathology:
Miscellaneous conditions: Cribra orbitalia R orbit (Type IV).

BURIAL 19
Sex: Male? (Skull)
Age: Middle Adult
Stature: n.a.

Bones present: Fragmented cranium and mandible, hyoid, C2-3 and L clavicular shaft
fragment.
Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine
Dentition:
c x x R c c NP NP NP NP c R R x cCA cA
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c c x c c c c c / c c c c RC NP NP

(17/17-moderate), mild to moderate periodontal disease and moderate dental wear.
Increase porosity of palate - probably related to dental abscesses.
Skeletal pathology: n.a.

BURIAL 20
Sex: n.a.
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple
Burial position: Supine and extended. L arm flexed and elbow with lower arm resting
on pelvis.



Dentition: n.a.
Skeletal pathology:
(Clavicle).

BURIAL 21
Sex: ?
Age: > 25 years (Epiphyseal fusion)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Good
Burial type: Simple
Dentition: n.a.
Skeletal pathology:
Miscellaneous conditions: Cortical defect at insertion of L M. soleus (Tibia).

DAR Associated with Burials 22, 23 & 25
Bones present: L glenoid (Glenoid length: 3.7 cm), 3 L rib shaft fragments, L
clavicular shaft fragment, humeral head fragment (Adult), partial maxilla (see below),
9 cranial fragments including parietal, frontal and maxilla, 2 L rib shaft fragments, 1
R rib shaft fragment, humeral(?) diaphysis fragment, 4 lumbar and 1 sacral vertebral
body (Juvenile).
Partial Juvenile Maxilla (2-3 years old based on dental development):
e d c b a a
E / / / /

BURIAL 22 - DAR under Burial 25
Bones present: L clavicle lateral ¾, L rib shaft fragment, L humeral diaphysis distal
¼, proximal ulna fragment (Adult), 26 cranial vault fragments including frontal,
parietal, occipital and L temporal, incomplete L scapula, 8 L and 5 R rib shaft
fragments, 4 thoracic vertebral arches, 1 lumbar vertebral arch, 2 lumbar VB
fragments (Juvenile).
Comment: The juvenile remains are probably part of the same juvenile DAR
associated with Burial 25 (~3-4 years old).

BURIAL 23
Sex: Male (Pelvis, skull)
Stature: 177 ± 4.05 cm (L Humerus)




Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple?
Associated DAR: Parietal fragment, tibial condyle fragment, femoral(?) diaphysis
fragment (Adult), cranial vault fragment, R ilium and partial L ilium (Juvenile).
Dentition:
c c c c c c c / NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Dental pathology: Calculus (23/23-slight), mild to moderate periodontal disease and
slight to moderate dental wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: VB osteophytosis LV3-5. Schmorl’s nodes T10-12, LV1, LV3-4. Slight
lateral L compression of VB LV3.
Extra-spinal DJD: Porosity of R ACJ. Osteophytosis of R GHJ.
Miscellaneous conditions: Cortical defect at insertion of L&R M. pectoralis major
(Humerus).

BURIAL 25
Sex: Female (Pelvis, skull)
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Poor
Burial type: Simple
Associated DAR: R rib shaft fragment, partial R ulna diaphysis (Projected max.
length: 11-12 cm) and R radial diaphysis fragment (Juvenile). Probably part of the
same juvenile DAR as in Burial 22.
Dentition:
NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c c cA? c c c / / / / / c c xA c x

Dental pathology: AMTL (2/16), abscess (2/16), calculus (9/9-slight to moderate) and
slight to moderate dental wear.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Osteophytosis of dens and dens facet of axis.



BURIAL 26
Sex: Male (Skull)
Age: > 25 years
Stature: n.a.

Condition: Poor
Burial type: Wooden coffin (Coffin timbers and nails present)
Associated DAR: R Zygomatic, partial R maxilla including canine and 1st and 2nd
premolar, partial L glenoid and lateral scapular border, L clavicular shaft fragment, 5
L rib shaft fragments, C6-7, partial T1, ilial fragment, R humeral diaphysis distal ½
(Adult), 2 rib shaft fragments, L ulna diaphysis fragment (Juvenile).
Also present are an adult L patella and L 1st metatarsal, which are probably part of
Burial 26.
Dentition:
Con RC / c / / NP NP NP NP NP NP NP NP
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
/ c c / / / c c c

Dental pathology: Caries (1/16-occlusal?), calculus (6/16-slight) and slight dental
wear. Maxillary R M3 appears to be congenitally absent.
Skeletal pathology:
Spinal DJD: Schmorl’s nodes T4-7.
Miscellaneous conditions: Cortical defect at insertion of L&R costclavicular ligament
(Clavicle).

BURIAL 27
Sex: Male (Skull)
Age: Adult > 25 years
Stature: n.a.

Bones present: Fragmented cranium and mandible, C1-6, hyoid body and rib shaft
fragment.
Condition: Moderate
Burial type: Simple?
Burial orientation: n.a.
Dentition:
/ c c NP NP NP NP NP c c c c c c c c
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8



Dental pathology: Calculus (26/26-slight to moderate).



Figure 17. Burial 1 Figure 18. Burial 2




Figure 21. Burial 4A Figure 22. Burial 6




Figure 37. Burial 26



DISARTICULATED REMAINS

Unknown context
Adult bones present: Partial L&R parietal, R patella, partial L patella and partial R 3rd
metatarsal.

Juvenile bones present: Rib shaft fragment and tibial diaphysis fragment.

Sample 150 - C417
Adult bones present: Partial thoracic VB, partial lumbar VB (with Schmorl’s node),
lumbar VB fragment and partial proximal(?) hand phalanx

Juvenile bones present: 2 Femoral(?) diaphysis fragments.

Sample 151 - C411
Adult bones present: Tibial diaphysis fragment.

Sample 156 - C437
Adult bones present: 2x partial frontal, parietal fragment, L maxillary canine (c), R
acromion fragment, partial atlas (cleft neural arch), 6 R vertebral rib ends, 7 R rib
shaft fragments, 1 L vertebral rib end, T2, T4, partial lumbar VB, partial S1, 1st
coccyxgeal vertebra, partial R acetabulum and sciatic (M?), R radius distal ½, L
radius distal ½, L radial diaphysis, L femoral diaphysis, R femoral diaphysis, distal L
femur, L tibia distal ¾, R 2nd and 5th metacarpal, proximal hand phalanx, L 5th
metatarsal and partial L calcaneus.

Adolescent bones present: 3 cranial vault fragments including frontal, L clavicle
medial ½ (Cortical defect at insertion for costoclavicular ligament), R humeral
diaphysis distal 1/3 and tibial diaphysis fragment.

Juvenile bones present: 2 cranial vault fragments.

Sample 157 - C431
Adult bones present: Partial R mandibular ramus and alveolus including M1 and M2
(both c), R acromion and scapular spine, R ulnar diaphysis fragment, R humeral
diaphysis fragment, L(?) femoral diaphysis fragment and R 3rd metatarsal
(Osteoarthritis of tarso-metatarsal joint with eburnation, porosity and joint contour
change).

Juvenile bones present: 9 cranial vault fragments including occipital and parietal,
femoral diaphysis fragment and metaphyseal surface fragment.



Sample 163 - Bone over Burial 6
Adult bones present: 7 cranial vault fragments, tooth enamel fragment, 3 long bone
fragments, L 2nd metacarpal, proximal hand phalanx, R medial cuneiform, partial
cuboid and L 1st metatarsal.

Juvenile bones present: R Petrous temporal, R mandibular condyle and partial
mandibular ramus and humeral(?) diaphysis fragment.

Sample 196
Adult bones present: Cranial vault fragment, R glenoid and lateral scapular border
(Glenoid width: 2.9 cm), rib shaft fragment, 3 humeral diaphysis fragments and
partial R(?) humeral head.

Sample 197 - C459 (Disturbed bone)
Adult bones present: L temporal, cranial vault fragment, R humeral diaphysis
fragment, fibular diaphysis fragment and metacarpal diaphysis.

Juvenile bones present: Rib shaft fragment.

Sample 199 - C455
Adult bones present: R mandibular M1, rib shaft fragment, fibular diaphysis fragment
and proximal foot phalanx.

Sample 214 - C463
Adult bones present: Cranial vault fragment.



APPENDIX 6.1 BONES AND DENTITION OF THE HUMAN SKELETON



BONES OF THE ADULT SKELETON

Cranium

Mandible
Clavicle

Sternum Scapula

Humerus
Ribs

Vertebrae

Os Coxae Ulna

Sacrum Radius

Carpals

Metacarpals

Phalanges

Femur
Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals

Phalanges



BONES AND SUTURES OF THE SKULL

Coronal Suture

Parietal
Frontal
Squamosal Suture
Sphenoid
Lambdoid Suture
Temporal
Nasal
Occipital
Zygomatic
Maxilla

Mandible

Lateral View

Occipital

Sagittal Suture

Parietal
Parietal

Coronal Suture

Frontal

Superior View



PERMANENT DENTITION

Maxilla

2 1
3

4

5

6

7

8

1 = Medial Incisor
2 = Lateral Incisor
3 = Canine
4 = First Premolar
5 = Second Premolar
6 = First Molar
7 = Second Molar
8 = Third Molar
8

7

6

5
4
3
2 1

Mandible

(After van Beek 1983: Figs. 29 and 30)



DECIDUOUS DENTITION

Maxilla

a
b
c

d

e

a = Medial Incisor
b = Lateral Incisor
c = Canine
d = First Molar
e = Second Molar

e

d

c
b
a

Mandible

(After van Beek 1983: Figs. 7 and 8)



APPENDIX 6.2 GLOSSARY OF OSTEOLOGICAL TERMS



Terms of Direction
Anterior Towards the front of the body
Posterior Towards the back of the body
Superior Towards the head
Inferior Towards the feet
Medial Towards the midline of the body
Lateral Away from the midline of the body
Proximal Closer to the trunk (most frequently used for long bones)
Distal Further from the body

Anatomical Features
Articulation Area of joint between bones
Capitulum Rounded area of articulation on distal humerus
Condyle A rounded prominence, usually articular
Cortical bone Dense outer layer of bone, thickest in long bone shafts
Diaphysis Shaft of a long bone
Epicondyle Projection near a condyle
Epiphysis End of a long bone
Facet Small, flat articular surface
Metaphysis Growth area between epiphysis and diaphysis
Process A thin projection
Sinus A void
Trabecular bone Less dense bone with honeycomb structure (e.g. ends of long
bone)
Tuberosity Raised, roughened area, often site of ligamentous or tendinous
Attachment

Visceral The surface of the rib that is facing the lung

M. biceps brachii Name of muscle

Pathological Terms
Lesion Change to bone as result of disease or trauma



APPENDIX 6.3 ADULT METRIC DATA



Male Cranial Measurements (cm)

B2 B3 B8 B10 B23
Cranial Length
Cranial Breadth
Bizygomatic diameter
Basion-Bregma height
Cranial base length
Biauricular breadth 13.7 12.2
Minimum frontal breadth
Upper facial height
Upper facial breadth
Nasal height
Nasal breadth
L orbital breadth
R orbital breadth
L orbital height
R orbital height
Maxillo-alveolar breadth 6.5
Maxillo-alveolar height 5.5
Frontal chord
Parietal chord 11.3 12.5 11.5
Occipital chord 9.6 9.8 9.5
Chin height 3.6 3.6 3.6
Bigonial width 9.6 10.5
Bicondylar breadth 12.5
Minimum ramus breadth L 2.8 3.4 3.2 3
Minimum ramus breadth R 3

Female Cranial Measurements (cm)

B1 B11 B12 B13 B15 B25
Cranial Length 18.7 18.3
Cranial Breadth 14.9 14.1
Bizygomatic diameter 13.2
Basion-Bregma height 13.2
Cranial base length 9.7 9.9
Biauricular breadth 11.6 12.2
Minimum frontal breadth 10.2
Upper facial height 12
Upper facial breadth 10.5
Nasal height 5
Nasal breadth 2.1
L orbital breadth 4
R orbital breadth
L orbital height 3.3
R orbital height
Maxillo-alveolar breadth 6.3 6.1 6.5
Maxillo-alveolar height 5.5 5.3
Frontal chord 11.2
Parietal chord 12.5
Occipital chord 8.4 9.6 9.6 9
Chin height 2.5 3 2.7 3.2 2.6
Bigonial width 9.3 10.2 10.3 9.5 9.5 9.8
Bicondylar breadth 11.3 11.9 11.5 11.7 10.8
Minimum ramus breadth L 3 2.8 3 2.8 3.1
Minimum ramus breadth R 2.6



Adult Cranial Measurements (cm)

B16
Cranial Length
Cranial Breadth
Bizygomatic diameter
Basion-Bregma height
Cranial base length
Biauricular breadth
Minimum frontal breadth
Upper facial height
Upper facial breadth
Nasal height
Nasal breadth
L orbital breadth
R orbital breadth
L orbital height
R orbital height
Maxillo-alveolar breadth
Maxillo-alveolar height
Frontal chord
Parietal chord
Occipital chord
Chin height
Bigonial width 9.1
Bicondylar breadth
Minimum ramus breadth L 3
Minimum ramus breadth R



Male Postcranial Measurement (cm)

B2 B3 B14 B23
L Clavicle length 14.6 16.1 16.9
L Clavicle mid-circumf 3.6 4.1 4.4
L Scapula height
L Scapula breadth 11.6
L Glenoid length 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.3
L Glenoid width 2.8 2.5 2.9
L Humerus length 33.1 34.6
L Humerus epicondylar width 6 6.3 6.9
L Humerus head diameter 4.5 4.7
L Humerus min circumf midshaft 7 6.8
L Radius length 25.5
L Ulna length 26.5
Sacrum ant length
Sacrum ant sup breadth
L Os coxae height
L Femur length
L Femur head diameter 4.7
L Femur A-P subtrochan diameter 2.9
L Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 3.2
L Tibia length
L Tibia M-L diamter
L Fibula length
R Clavicle length 15.1 15.1
R Clavicle mid-circumf 3.7 4.2 3.6
R Scapula height 17.3
R Scapula breadth 10.1
R Glenoid length 4 4 4.2
R Glenoid width 3 2.6 3.1
R Humerus length 33.9
R Humerus epicondylar width 6.2 6.6
R Humerus head diameter 4.7
R Humerus min circumf midshaft 7.2
R Radius length 24.1 23.8 25.6
R Ulna length 26.9 28.2
R Os coxae height
R Femur length
R Femur head diameter 4.7
R Femur A-P subtrochan diameter
R Femur M-L subtrochan diameter
R Tibia length
R Fibula length



Female Postcranial Measurements (cm)

B1 B7 B9 B11 B12 B13
L Clavicle length 16.1 14.9 13.5
L Clavicle mid-circumf 4 3.9 3.6
L Scapula height
L Scapula breadth 10
L Glenoid length 3.7 3.5 4
L Glenoid width 2.7 3.2
L Humerus length 30.4
L Humerus epicondylar width 6.7 6.3
L Humerus head diameter 4.4 4
L Humerus min circumf midshaft 6.4
L Radius length 23.7
L Ulna length 25.8
Sacrum ant length
Sacrum ant sup breadth 11.5
L Os coxae height 22.8
L Femur length
L Femur head diameter 4.2 4.2
L Femur A-P subtrochan diameter 2.7 2.6
L Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 3.2 3
L Tibia length
L Tibia M-L diamter
L Fibula length
R Clavicle length 15.7 14.6 12.8
R Clavicle mid-circumf 4.1 3.9 3.6
R Scapula height
R Scapula breadth
R Glenoid length 3.8 3.5 4.1
R Glenoid width 2.8 3.2
R Humerus length
R Humerus epicondylar width
R Humerus head diameter 4.4 4
R Humerus min circumf midshaft
R Radius length 22.3
R Ulna length 25.8
R Os coxae height 19.5
R Femur length
R Femur head diameter 3.8 4.2 4.2 4.2
R Femur A-P subtrochan diameter 2.4 2.6 2.5
R Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 2.9 3.2 3
R Tibia length
R Fibula length



Adult Postcranial Measurements (cm)

B21
L Clavicle length
L Clavicle mid-circumf
L Scapula height
L Scapula breadth
L Glenoid length
L Glenoid width
L Humerus length
L Humerus epicondylar width
L Humerus head diameter
L Humerus min circumf midshaft
L Radius length
L Ulna length
Sacrum ant length
Sacrum ant sup breadth
L Os coxae height
L Femur length 44.2
L Femur oblique length 44
L Femur epicondyl breadth 7.6
L Femur midshaft circumf 8.9
L Femur head diameter 4.3
L Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 3
L Tibia length 36.4
L Tibia prox epiphys breadth 7.1
L Tibia dist epiphys breadth 5.1
L Tibia A-P diameter 3.4
L Tibia M-L diamter 2.4
L Fibula length
R Clavicle length
R Clavicle mid-circumf
R Scapula height
R Scapula breadth
R Glenoid length
R Glenoid width
R Humerus length
R Humerus epicondylar width
R Humerus head diameter
R Humerus min circumf midshaft
R Radius length
R Ulna length
R Os coxae height
R Femur length 44.5
R Femur oblique length 44.3
R Femur epicondyl breadth 7.6
R Femur midshaft circumf 8.9
R Femur head diameter 4.3
R Femur A-P subtrochan diameter 2.7
R Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 3.3
R Tibia length 36.6
R Tibia prox epiphys breadth 7.1
R Tibia dist epiphys breadth 5.1
R Tibia A-P diameter 3.2
R Tibia M-L diameter 2.2
R Fibula length



APPENDIX 6.4 ADOLESCENT AND JUVENILE METRIC DATA



Adolescent Postcranial Measurements (cm)

B20
L Clavicle length
L Humerus diaphyseal length
L Humerus max midshaft diameter
L Radius diaphyseal length
L Ulna diaphyseal length
L Femur diaphyseal length
L Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 2.8
L Tibia diaphyseal length
L Tibia M-L diameter
L Fibula diaphyseal length
R Clavicle length
R Humerus diaphyseal length 33*
R Humerus max midshaft diameter
R Radius diaphyseal length 23.1
R Ulna diaphyseal length 25.5
R Femur diaphyseal length 40.5
R Femur A-P subtrochan diameter 2.6
R Femur M-L subtrochan diameter 2.8
R Tibia diaphyseal length
R Fibula diaphyseal length
*Proximal and distal epiphyses fused

Juvenile Postcranial Measurements (cm)

B4
L Clavicle length
L Humerus diaphyseal length 15.8
L Humerus max midshaft diameter 1
L Radius diaphyseal length
L Ulna diaphyseal length 13.1
L Femur diaphyseal length
L Femur A-P subtrochan diameter
L Femur M-L subtrochan diameter
L Tibia diaphyseal length
L Tibia M-L diameter
L Fibula diaphyseal length
R Clavicle length
R Humerus diaphyseal length 15.6
R Humerus max midshaft diameter 1
R Radius diaphyseal length
R Ulna diaphyseal length 13.1
R Femur diaphyseal length
R Femur A-P subtrochan diameter
R Femur M-L subtrochan diameter
R Tibia diaphyseal length
R Fibula diaphyseal length



12.7 Appendix 7: Faunal Remains

INTRODUCTION
Archaeological excavations at seven different locations during pipelaying work in
Castledermot produced small samples of animal bones. The remains were found in
association with a range of ceramics dating from the medieval to the post-medieval
periods and derived mostly from partially exposed pits and ditches within the narrow
pipe trenches. The negligible amount of bone in many of the pits together with the
overall shallow depth of these features indicates that their primary function was not
for refuse disposal. Some of the pits have been interpreted as being used to contain
domestic refuse but the scarcity of bones indicates that they were rarely used for
discarding meat waste. Sample sizes in general were small and were dispersed across
a wide area of the town. The quantities involved do not allow for a detailed
assessment of diet and economy in either of the two periods represented.
The animal remains were hand collected and consisted almost entirely of
mammal bone. A handful of fish and bird bones were recovered in some contexts but
not in sufficient quantities to comment on the fowling and fishing activities of the
occupants of the town. The physical condition of the bone was considered good which
is consistent with the primary deposition of organic debris. Fragmentation rates
throughout were high resulting in large numbers of bones that could only be classified
as large and medium mammal remains (Table 1). The well preserved nature of the
assemblage indicates that the high fragmentation rate should be linked to butchering
and food preparation techniques and it would seem that the preferred cooking method
in both the medieval and post-medieval periods was by boiling. None of the bones
exhibited signs of charring associated with roasting.
The bone specimens were initially examined according to the contexts in
which they were found and the data were then combined for each of the excavation
divisions (Areas 1-7). All fragments were identified to species, or as nearly as
possible, using the modern comparative collections of mammals in the Department of
Archaeology, University College Cork. Data were recorded onto the Archaeological
Services Unit's faunal sheets, which include categories for butchery, ageing and
sexing as well as species and element identification. Identifications were taken to
species where possible while those fragments for which specific identification could
not be made were classed in terms of size and morphological character. The material



recorded as 'large mammal' in Table 1 for instance is likely to belong to cattle but was
too small to eliminate the possibility of horse whose remains are relatively well
represented in the samples. Similarly, specimens that in all probability were sheep but
which may also have originated from goat, pig or large dog were recorded as 'medium
mammal'. The separation of ovicaprid material relied on comparison with reference
material and to the discussion in Boessneck (1969). There were no specific
identifications of goat and those postcranial bones which allow for discrimination
between the two species were all identified to sheep. Ageing data were determined
using procedures outlined by Silver (1971) for longbones and Grant (1975) for
mandibles. The relative proportion of the different species was assessed using the
fragments total and the minimum number of individuals represented.

ANALYSIS
Although animal bones were recovered from the seven main areas of investigation,
the quantities involved varied considerably between each area. The largest samples
were recovered from Areas 2, 3 and 4 and the material from here was dated to
medieval and post-medieval phases of activity. Faunal material from Area 1 at the
northern end of the town was dated entirely to the medieval period. Area 5, at the
southern end of the town, produced small quantities of bone from both medieval and
post-medieval contexts while Area 6 contained just 21 bones, all of post-medieval
date. Finally, a single bone was recovered from a layer of unknown date in Area 7.
In all, 883 fragments were examined resulting in the identification to species
of 571 bones. The numbers of both identified and unidentified fragments are shown in
Table 1 for each area of excavation. The animal bones were recorded by phase and
examined according to the contexts in which they were found. Material from
disturbed contexts and from features that could not be phased to a particular period of
activity was separated at the initial stage of investigation and the data from these
features was not included in the overall analysis. The results are described below by
the seven main areas of investigation.

Area 1
This excavation trench was located at the northern end of the town and the bone-
producing contexts were all medieval in date. A total of 111 bones were recovered and
77% of these came from four fills of a ditch (C24). Another ditch (C49) yielded just



nine bones and two pits (C21, C59) contained 12 bones. Ten fragments of bone were
recovered from a drainage gully (C45). The distal end of a human femur was
recovered from C29, one of the fills of the main bone-producing ditch (C24).
Identification of the bones indicated that the three main livestock species were
all represented. Cattle dominated the samples from all features and their remains
accounted for 59% of the identifiable sample. Most of the identified skeletal elements
represented prime meat-bearing bones from the upper regions of the body but there
were sufficient quantities of peripheral elements to indicate that the sample of cattle
bones represents the remains of complete carcasses, not prepared meat joints. Cattle
were therefore slaughtered within the town during the medieval period and the primary
waste from the initial stages of butchery was dumped into the ditches along with the
eventual waste from the table. Ageing evidence came mostly from the upper limb
bones and these mostly represented individuals over two years old at slaughter. Over
65% of the bones had fused epiphyses suggesting that most cattle were killed at an age
when they may also have been exploited for their secondary products. Cut and chop
marks occurred on several cattle bones including tibia, scapulae and skulls. A larger
implement has been used in some cases, especially on vertebrae which were chopped
medially during the division of the carcass into two halves.
Sheep were the next most commonly represented species in Area 1 and their
remains accounted for 16% of the identified assemblage. At least two individuals were
represented based on tibia fragments. Most of the bones were very fragmentary and it
was difficult to assess the ratio of sheep to goat. The only identified goat bones were
nine horn cores from the ditch (C24) and these are interpreted as representing waste
from hornworking activities. The horn cores indicated the selection of both male and
female elements for industrial use. The post-cranial sample of sheep bones was
dominated by meat-bearing upper limb bones including humerus, radius, pelvis and
ulna. As with cattle, the ageing data indicated that there was a high incidence of adult
animals consistent with the keeping of sheep for both meat, wool and woolfells. One
of the fills (C46) of the drainage gully contained five lamb bones representing an
individual less than six months of age at slaughter. Some of the bones bore fine knife
marks associated with skinning and the removal of meat from the shoulder bone.
Pig was the least frequently occurring of the three main livestock animals with
just three bones being identified to this species. All belonged to an individual less than
a year old and a distal tibia bore fine knife marks associated with meat removal. Horse



bones were relatively common and there was some evidence in the form of chop
marks to indicate that the carcass had been dismembered. A metacarpus of a small
pony was identified from the ditch (C24) and this feature also contained two teeth
from a larger equid. The distal end of a radius from a drainage gully (C45) was split
medially in an apparent attempt to extract marrow. This feature also yielded the
proximal portion of a metacarpus which was crudely fractured midshaft also perhaps
to gain access to the marrow.
The only other species present in Area 1 was domestic fowl, identified from
the distal end of a tibio-tarsus in the fill of the drainage gully (F45).

Area 2
This section of the pipe trench was located between Area 1 and the centre of the town.
Animal bones were found in various contexts dating to the medieval and the post-
medieval periods but by far the greatest quantity of bone was found in 13 pits dated to
the medieval period. These produced a total of 119 bones with 61% of the remains
coming from just two pits (C78 & C319). Less than ten specimens were recovered
from each of the other pits and it would seem unlikely that these were dug specifically
for the disposal of meat waste. A ditch (C352) contained 12 bones and five bones were
recovered from a surface layer (C362).
Cattle and sheep dominated the identifiable medieval sample with pig and
horse also being identified. The total sample of cattle remains consisted of 33
fragments and the most numerous elements were loose teeth, upper limb bones and
scapulae. Other parts of the skeleton were sufficiently represented to indicate, as was
demonstrated in Area 1, local slaughter and consumption of the animals. Many of the
bones showed signs of having been butchered and all skulls had been smashed open,
presumably to extract the brains. There were 28 sheep bones and the sample included
elements from all parts of the skeleton. There were more vertebrae than any other
element and many of these were chopped laterally along the midline of the body.
Evidence of butchering was not extensive and the only long bones to show traces of
utilisation were tibiae and pelves.
The two other identified species, horse and pig, were present in significantly
smaller numbers than cattle or sheep. There were 11 identifiable pig bones
representing at least two individuals. Epiphyseal fusion data indicated that both were
less than two years old at slaughter. Butchery evidence included superficial knife



marks on the longbones and a mandible was chopped along the horizontal ramus
probably to gain access to marrow. Horse bones occurred in small numbers in two
medieval pits. One (C78) contained three teeth from an adult individual. The proximal
portion of a radius in C73 was chopped horizontally with a heavy butchering
implement, again pointing to the occasional consumption of horseflesh in
Castledermot during the medieval period. Also recovered from the medieval pits was a
lower leg bone of a domestic fowl.
The post-medieval sample consisted of just 28 bones all of which were
recovered from the fill of a pit (C300). Cattle, sheep and pig were represented in small
numbers and the distal midshaft portion of a humerus was identified as dog.

Area 3
This area was located in the market square in the centre of the town and the
archaeological features mostly consisted of extensive medieval and post-medieval
layers. A total of 210 animal bones were recovered and the bulk of these were from
two post-medieval layers (C264, C265).
A total of 68 animal bones were phased to the medieval period and the bulk of
these were found in layers (C333, C350 & C379). Smaller amounts of bone were
present in the fills of a ditch (C281) and a linear trench (C270). Cattle contributed the
largest sample of bones and there were equal amounts of pig and sheep remains. The
proximal portion of a horse ulna was found in the fill of one of the ditches (C281). An
ulna of an adult dog was identified in a trench (C272) and the distal end of a scapula
from another dog came from the ditch, C281.
Faunal material dating to the post-medieval period came from two layers
(C264, C265). The samples were dominated by cattle remains (76) representing at
least four individuals. Most parts of the body were present indicating local slaughter of
the animals. There were considerable quantities of vertebrae in C265 and seven were
chopped axially along the midline of the body. Several of the longs bones were
chopped and split and there were many instances of clean axial division for the
extraction of marrow. The mandibular tooth wear pattern and epiphyseal fusion data
indicated that 58% of the cattle were over three years of age at death, indicating that
meat provisioning and the secondary products of cattle were considered of equal
economic value. There were 18 sheep bones representing at least two adult
individuals. At least one pig was present based on the recovery of the midshaft portion



of a fibula from a layer (C264). The layer (C265) provided evidence for hunting wild
game through the recovery of a sawn tip of an antler tine from a red deer, Cervus
elpaphus. The presence of waste antler does not necessarily imply the hunting of these
animals for their flesh as antler may have been collected in a shed form in late Spring
for artifact manufacture. Five cat bones from an adult individual were recovered from
C265 and this layer also produced two bones each of domestic fowl and domestic
goose. The other post-medieval layer (C264) yielded the fragmented remains of a
ceratohyal (head bone) of a cod, Gadus morhua. This layer provided the only evidence
for marine fish resources in the entire Castledermot assemblage.

Area 4
This area extended from the market square towards the southern end of the town.
Archaeological evidence here mostly took the form of post-medieval pits and a
number of layers and ditches relating to the same period also produced bone.
Lesser quantities of bone were found in features of medieval date and these
were found exclusively in pits and ditches. Horse, cattle, sheep and pig made up the
identified sample and of these cattle and sheep were the most dominant. At least two
cattle were represented based on the presence of the proximal ends of metacarpals.
Most of the fragments were from individuals that were slaughtered over four years of
age and the provisioning of secondary products seemed significant. Cut marks to the
cranial surface of thoracic vertebrae were interpreted as transverse chops associated
with decapitation. Sheep were the second most numerous amongst the finds
contributing a total of 15 bones to the identifiable sample. Most parts of the skeleton
were present although peripheral elements such as teeth, skull fragments and lower
limb bones predominated. Some of the upper limbs bones bore chop marks associated
with carcass division and meat consumption. Other domestic species present in the pit
samples were pig and horse. Pig remains were relatively scarce but at least one
individual was represented in the sample of four bones. The horse bones were all from
a single pit (C106) and included two butchered specimens, the cranial portion of a
pelvis and a spirally fractured radius. A human femur was also identified in a sample
of bones from a ditch (C229).
Post-medieval activity contributed the greatest quantity of material to the bone
assemblage. Most of the remains (198 specimens) were found in pits and two of these
(C120 & C136) yielded sufficient amounts of bone to indicate that they were used



specifically for the disposal of meat waste. Other samples of bone were recovered
from two layers (C247 & C248) and various fills of a ditch (C253). Many of the bones
were unidentifiable and a large proportion of the sample could only be classified into
the two main size groupings described in the introduction (Table 1). Cattle, sheep, pig
and horse were all identified with cattle and sheep predictably being the most
common. A minimum of four cattle were estimated and all of these belonged to adult
individuals. Many cattle metapodia were split down the midline for the extraction of
marrow and skulls were split open presumably to gain access to the brains. The
sample of sheep bones represented at least two individuals and the remains consisted
mostly of meat-bearing upper limb bones. There were twelve pig bones, all from a
single individual that was less than a year old at slaughter. Five horse bones from an
adult individual were recovered from a ditch (C253) and a fragment of a horse pelvis
from a pit (C90) was chopped repetitively along the illium, presumably during the
removal of meat. A tibio-tarsus of a domestic fowl survived in a pit (C126) and two
additional fowl bones were recovered from a layer (C262). One of the pits (C87)
produced the only lagomorph bone in the entire assemblage, a single femur of a
rabbit.

Area 5
Excavations in the presumed location of the gateway to the medieval town uncovered
various medieval and post-medieval features including pits, ditches and layers. A
number of features of unknown date were also exposed including a possible grave
(C194) containing 35 animal bones. Human skull fragments and a humerus were
identified in the animal bone sample from this feature.
The excavated medieval features produced a total of just 16 bones; eight from
a layer (C203) and the remainder from the fill of a ditch (C222). Cattle, sheep and
horse were all identified and the remainder of the sample consisted of three large
mammal fragments and five medium mammal remains mostly representing ribs and
vertebrae. The horse bones, fragments of a metatarsus and a humerus, came from the
ditch (C222).
The bulk of the stratified animal bone originated from various ditch fills and
layers of post-medieval date. A total of 66 bones was recovered and 47 of these were
identified to species. The bones were either specific to domestic mammals or to small
fragments derived from them. Horse bones were relatively common and the recovered



bones represented the unbutchered remains of a single adult individual. Six of the nine
bones were recovered from a ditch (C164) and these included fragments of a pelvis,
scapula, tibia, humerus, atlas and molar. The bones, though broken, did not bear any
traces of butchery and the poor condition of the individual fragments would seem to
indicate that the carcass was buried elsewhere and a portion of the skeleton
redeposited into the ditch during its backfilling The sample of cattle bones consisted
of 31 fragments mostly from the upper regions of both the fore and hind limbs.
Butchery marks were common and consisted mostly of chop marks associated with
dismemberment. The two other species identified were sheep and pig, the latter from
just a single neo-natal bone in a layer (C221). A human clavicle was also recovered
from this layer.

Area 6
Excavation in this area focused mostly on the removal of 22 inhumations associated
with the medieval friary. Animal bones were found in a layer (C481) relating to post-
medieval activity at the site. A total of 21 bones were recovered and the only
identifiable species were cattle and sheep with cattle being numerically dominant
(Table 1). The remainder of the sample consisted of rib and long bone fragments,
eight belonging to a large-sized animal and two to a medium-sized individual. Some
of the cattle bones were noticeably eroded and weathered indicating that they were
left scattered about the occupation surface for a while before being sealed.

Area 7
The fill of a ditch (C495) of unknown date in this area south of the cemetery produced
a fragment of a cow mandible.

CONCLUSIONS
The faunal samples from Castledermot are characteristic of domestic refuse consisting
of bone fragments from the slaughter, dismemberment and consumption of animals
within the town. The material was recovered mostly from various ditch fills and pits,
although the individual samples recovered from the pits were generally too small to
suggest that they had been dug to contain food waste. By far the largest quantities of



bones were recovered from the ditches and it would seem that there was a deliberate
policy by the townspeople to use these deep features for refuse disposal. The sample
sizes from all the excavated areas were small but if an estimate of the type of
economy can be made from the quantity of material available, then it would seem that
meat acquisition relied almost exclusively on the exploitation of domestic animals, in
particular cattle and sheep. The age profile of the livestock indicted that cattle and
sheep were slaughtered well into maturity and the data reflect a farming system that
was aimed at the production of both meat and the secondary products of animals. All
parts of the carcass were represented indicating that live animals were driven into the
town from the surrounding countryside and slaughtered within the vicinity of the
houses.
Goat, horse, pig, cat and dog completed the domestic mammal content of the
samples. Arguably the most noteworthy features of the assemblage were the presence
of relatively large quantities of butchered horse bone and the low representation of
pigs. The data suggest that horseflesh was occasionally eaten by the medieval
occupants of the town and a variety of chop marks were recorded on the main meat-
producing bones. Domestic fowl and geese were also kept but the quantities involved
are negligible and it is not possible to comment on the exploitation of avifauna. The
contribution of wild game to the diet was apparently not significant and the only
evidence for red deer was through the recovery of an antler tine from a post-medieval
pit in Area 3. The only other evidence for the exploitation of wild animals was
through the recovery of a single rabbit bone in a post-medieval pit in Area 4.
Evidence for the exploitation of coastal resources was minimal though the lack of
fishing evidence may not be unusual given the inland location of the town.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boessneck, J. 1969 'Osteological differences between sheep and goat' In D.R.
Brothwell and E. Higgs (eds), Science in Archaeology, a survey of progress and
research. Bristol.
Grant, A. 1975 'The Animal Bones' and 'Appendix B: The use of tooth wear as a
guide to the age of domestic animals' In: B. Cunliffe (ed), Excavations at Portchester
Castle, Vol. 1: Roman. 378-408, 437-50. London.
McCarthy, M. 1988 Animals in the economy of medieval and post-medieval Cork.
Unpublished MA thesis. NUI.
Silver, I.A. 1971 'The Ageing of domestic animals' In: In D.R. Brothwell and E. Higgs
(eds), Science in Archaeology, a survey of progress and research. Bristol.



12.8 Appendix 8: Archaeobotanical Remains

Plant Remains Report for Castledermot, 04E0750

By: Abigail Brewer



Introduction
Twenty-six samples from the site at Castledermot produced plant macro-remains. The
archaeobotanical material provides evidence for activities carried out on site, the
environment of the site, diet, crop processing and farming methods.

Methodology
Twenty-six soil samples from 04E0750 were sieved for plant remains. The samples were
hand sieved using a simple wash-over technique and sieves with apertures of 1mm,
500μm and 250μm. The samples were then scanned using a binocular microscope at x10
to x40 magnification and identified using a combination of modern reference material
and seed identification manuals.

Wherever possible the seeds were identified to species, however intermediate terms were
also used, such as Ranunculus sp. (Buttercups) or Cyperaceae indet. (Sedges). Fragments
of cereal grain were not counted but their frequency was recorded as occasional,
moderate, frequent or abundant and this is indicated in the species list with one
(occasional) to four (abundant) asterisks. In some samples not all species were counted.
Frequently occurring species were recorded in the same way as fragments of cereal grain.

Contexts
The samples from 04E0750 contained both waterlogged and charred plant material.
Charred remains were found in all samples but only six samples contained waterlogged
remains.

Medieval pits
Ten of the samples came from medieval pits. The majority of the remains from the pits
were charred and consisted of a mixture of cereal grains, arable weeds, chaff and straw
fragments. There is a high proportion of weed seeds and chaff to cereal grains in these
samples indicating that these samples represent crop processing waste rather than a
cleaned crop product. The waterlogged remains in the pits indicate that nettles (Urtica
dioica), sedges (Carex sp. Cyperaceae indet.), blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.), orache



(Atriplex patula/prostrata), cinquefoil (Potentilla sp.) and poppy (Papaver sp.) were
present in the area when the pits were filled.

Ditches
Four of the samples were taken from the fills of two medieval ditches, cut C24 and C281.
They contained a mix of charred cereal grains, cornfield weeds and chaff similar to that
from the medieval pit fill samples. Waterlogged remains in C283, fill of C281, indicate
corn marigold (Chrysanthemum segetum), fat hen (Chenopodium album), docks (Rumex
sp.) and poppies, including opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), grew in the area.

Samples from two post-medieval ditches, C164 and C509, contained charred cereal
grains, weeds seeds and chaff plant remains similar to the medieval ditch fill samples.
The post-medieval samples also contained large amounts of waterlogged seeds
representing urban weeds and plants of damp habitats, including orache, knotgrass
(Polygonum aviculare), docks, nettles (Urtica dioica, U. urens), cornsalad (Valarianella
dentate), henbane (Hyocymus niger), common poppies (Papaver rhoes), stinking
mayweed (Anthemis cotula), hemlock (Conium maculatum) and fool’s parsley (Aethusa
cynapium).

Layers
Five samples from medieval layers were found to contain a mix of charred cereal grains,
arable weeds and chaff. The sample from C433, a medieval to post-medieval transitional
layer over the cemetery, also contained charred cereal grains, arable weeds and chaff.

Graves
Samples from three grave fills contained fewer remains than samples from other contexts.
The charred grains, weed seeds and chaff in these samples were presumably accidentally
included when the graves were backfilled. The elder (Sambucus nigra) seed in C511 is
probably a result of elder growing nearby as elder is common in graveyards.



Discussion
Cereals
Cereal remains were found in samples from all contexts except C236 S82. The majority
of cereal remains consisted of grains, however rachis fragments, culm nodes and
fragments of straw were frequent. Awn fragments and lemmas were found less
frequently. Wheat (Triticum sp.) was the most common cereal at the site as it was
recorded as present in 23 samples and dominant in 15 samples. Oats (Avena sp.) were
present in 25 samples and dominant in five, barley (Hordeum sp.) was present in 22
samples and dominant in two and rye (Secale cereale) was present in only two samples
and dominant in none. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) rachis fragments occurred quite
frequently in the samples and the wheat grains generally conformed to bread wheat grain
morphology. Two oat lemmas in a medieval pit C396 indicate the presence of common
cultivated oat (Avena sativa).

Wheat was found to be the most common cereal occurring in thirteenth to fourteenth
century contexts at 26 and 33, Patrick’s Street, Kilkenny (Brewer 2001, 89). In medieval
Waterford and Cork, however, oats were the most common cereal (Tierney and Hannon
1997, 890; McClatchie 2003, 398). The cultivation of wheat seems to have become more
common in Ireland subsequent to the arrival of the Anglo-Normans (Monk 1985/6, 34).
McClatchie (2003) has discussed the cultural significance of wheat and oats in medieval
Ireland. Wheat requires better soils and a greater amount of labour than oat. It would
have been considered to be a high status grain in medieval Ireland and may have been
particularly associated with the Anglo-Normans (McClatchie 2003, 398). Wheat is the
dominant cereal at some Irish medieval sites such as 26 and 33 Patrick’s Street, Kilkenny
(Brewer 2001), Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny (Monk 1987, 98) and Adare Castle, Co.
Limerick (Brewer unpublished) but these sites tend to be in the east or south-east of the
country, or in areas of strong Anglo-Norman influence. The dominance of wheat at
Castledermot is probably due to its location in an area of strong Anglo-Norman influence.



Cultivated legumes
Both broad beans (Vicia faba) and peas (Pisum sativum) were recorded from 04E0750.
Fragments of large legumes, which could not be identified to species due to
fragmentation or loss of the helium, were also common in the samples and in many cases
these were probably also broad beans or peas. Cultivated legumes appear to be less
common in the post-medieval samples than medieval samples. Cultivated legumes have
also been recovered from Kilferagh, Co. Kilkenny (Monk 1987, 98), 26 and 33, Patrick’s
Street, Kilkenny (Brewer 2001, 90). Legumes are an essential part of the three-field
rotation system of agriculture as peas and beans fix nitrogen in the soil and make it more
fertile. The cultivation of peas and broad beans appear to become more common in the
medieval period, probably due to the introduction of the three-field rotation system by
new monastic orders and the Anglo-Normans.

Arable weeds

The charred seeds of arable weeds occurred commonly in the samples. The most
frequently occurring arable weed species in the samples were vetches (Vicia spp.), docks
(Rumex sp.), stinking mayweed (Anthemis cotula), cleavers (Galium aparine), sedges
(Carex spp. and Cyperaceae indet.), wild grasses (Gramineae indet.), Brassica sp, fat hen
(Chenopodium album) and orache (Atriplex patula/prostrata). Knotgrass (Polygonum
aviculare), wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum), corn marigold (Chrysanthemum
segetum), corn gromwell (Lithospermum arvense) and nipplewort (Lapsana communis)
were also common. Redshank (Polygonum persicaria), poppy (Papaver sp.), buttercup
(Ranunculus sp.), black bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus), campion (Silene sp.),
chickweed (Stellaria media), corncockle (Agrostemma githago), corn salad (Valarianella
dentata), fairy flax (Linum catharticum), creeping/marsh thistle (Senecio
arvense/palustre), sow-thistle (Sonchus sp.) and agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria)
occurred occasionally. Charred sedge nutlets were frequently found in the samples. These
may represent weeds growing in damp areas or arable fields but they could be the
remains of plants used for flooring, bedding or roofing material.



Corncockle, stinking mayweed, corn gromwell, and vetches are among the most common
arable weeds in medieval archaeobotanical assemblages (Greig 1998, 190). Some of
these species, such as corncockle and stinking mayweed, increase in the medieval period
due to a change from ard cultivation to deeper ploughing (Jones 1988, 90). Sedges also
seem to occur more frequently with arable weeds and cereals in medieval samples than
those from earlier periods. This may be due to an expansion of agriculture with damper
areas being brought under cultivation.

Fruits, nuts and gathered plants
Occasional evidence of edible fruits and nuts was found in the samples. Hazelnut shell
was recovered from three contexts; a medieval ditch and two medieval pits, and
blackberry seeds from three contexts; two post-medieval ditch fills and a medieval pit.
Hazelnut shells and blackberry seeds are both common in medieval archaeobotanical
assemblages. Hazelnuts would have been collected from the town hinterland.
Blackberries would also have been collected for food but briars would also have grown in
the town.

Elderberry seeds were found in two contexts; C227, a late seventeenth century ditch fill
and C511, a medieval grave fill. Although elderberries have been used in the past for
wine, jam and condiments as well as medicinal uses (Mabey 1998,100), it is a species
that grows on fertile disturbed ground and graveyards and this is likely to be the reason
for its occurrence at the site. In folklore elder was considered to be a malevolent plant but
could also be used to protect against evil and, planted near houses, could keep witches
away (Mac Coitir 2003, 110). A sloe stone was also found in C227, the fill of a post-
medieval ditch. Sloes have been found at post-medieval sites in Cork. A seventeenth
century garderobe fill at Gratten Street contained sloe and other fruit remains; blackberry,
apple and elder (McClatchie 2003, 396). A fig (Ficus carica) seed was recovered from a
medieval layer C327. There is documentary evidence of figs being imported to Ireland
(McClatchie 2003, 396) and fig seeds have been found in a thirteenth century drain at
Tuckey Street, Cork (ibid.), thirteenth century drains in Dublin (Mitchell 1987, 25) and a
later medieval oven in Waterford (Tierney and Hannon 1997, 879).



Sedges were present in 17 of the 26 samples examined. Many of these were charred and
associated with charred cereal grains, arable weeds and chaff, which would imply the
sedges grew as cornfield weeds. Sedges were also present in samples with waterlogged
remains. Sedges may have grown in the damp environment of the ditches where they
would have provided a resource for the town inhabitants. They may also have been
collected from outside the town for use as flooring, roofing or bedding material.

Urban Weeds
The plant species that occur frequently in the samples and which are waterlogged are
probably the remains of urban weeds that grew around the town. Some of these species
still grow in urban areas or waste ground today, for example docks, nettles, knotgrass,
hemlock, fool’s parsley, orache, fat hen and poppies. Other species, such as henbane,
stinking mayweed, cornsalad and cornflower, which appears to have been common in the
medieval town, are now rare and do not usually grow in urban areas. Stinking mayweed,
cornsalad and cornflower would also have grown as arable weeds and were probably
introduced to the urban environment with cereals.

Many of the urban weeds are potentially useful plants which could have been utilised by
the inhabitants of Castledermot. Blackberry seeds recovered from the site could represent
briars growing in the town but they would also have been eaten. Henbane and opium
poppy could have been used medicinally for their powerful analgesic and narcotic
properties.

Stonewort was present in two samples. This species is an alga that grows in still, nutrient
poor waters. It was recorded in the sample from C.227, the fill of ditch C.509, which
dates to the late 17th century. This species indicates that the ditch contained standing
water at this time. Ditch C509 and ditch C164 also contained other species that grow in
damp habitats such as hemlock and sedges. Stonewort was also recovered from the C.400
a medieval layer at the market.



Crop processing
The charred cereal grains, arable weeds and chaff found at the site appear to be crop
processing waste. After harvesting the cereals would have been winnowed, threshed,
sieved and hand sorted to remove weed seeds, glumes, lemmas, rachis, awns, straw and
other waste from the crop (Hillman 1981, 130). After removal these by-products of crop
processing could have been burnt as waste. There seems to be a high proportion of weed
seeds and chaff to grain at Castledermot. Several samples contained more weed seeds
than cereals and chaff and straw or stem fragments were present in most of the samples,
despite the fact that these parts are less likely to survive the charring process than heavier
grains and seeds. The substantial numbers of arable weeds, chaff, culm nodes and straw
suggests that crop processing was carried out in the town. Many of the weed seeds are
species with large seeds, such as cleavers (Galium aparine), tufted vetch (Vicia cracca),
brome grass (Bromus sp.) and corn gromwell (Lithospermum arvense), which would have
been removed in the final stages of crop processing (Hillman 1981, 132). Cereal crops
may have been brought to the town partially cleaned and the remaining work could have
been carried out in the town. Crop processing seems to have been carried out within the
city wall of medieval Cork also as significant amounts of arable weeds and chaff were
recovered from several sites there (McClatchie 2003, 400).

Conclusion
The plant remains recovered from Castledermot provide evidence for the cultivation of
bread wheat, common cultivated oats, barley, rye, peas and broad beans. The dominance
of wheat in the cereal remains differs from medieval Waterford and Cork and may be due
to the location of Castledermot in the east of the country in an area of strong Anglo-
Norman influence. The plant macro-remains also show that the environment of the town
provided a habitat for species of damp, disturbed and waste ground and some of these
species may have been utilised for food, medicinal and other purposes. There is evidence
of gathered natural resources from the town hinterland too; sloes, hazelnut, blackberries
and sedges may have been brought to the town for food, bedding and flooring. Food
plants were also imported from outside the country as indicated by the presence of fig at



the site. The plant assemblage also show that crop processing was carried out in
Castledermot in both the medieval and post-medieval periods.

Bibliography
Brewer, A. 2001 The Plant Remains from 26 and 33 Patrick’s Street, Kilkenny and
Ballysimon, Co. Limerick. Unpublished MA thesis, University College Cork.
Greig, J. 1988 ‘Traditional cornfield weeds-where are they now?’, Plants Today 183,
183-91

Hillman, G. 1981 ‘Reconstructing Crop Husbandry Practices from Charred Remains of
Crops’, in R. Mercer (ed.), Farming in British Prehistory, 123-62. Edinburgh University
Press, Edinburgh.

Jones, M. 1988 ‘The arable field a botanical battleground’, in; M. Jones (ed.)
Archaeology and the flora of the British Isles, 86-92 Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Mabey, R. 1998 Flora Britannica Book of Wild Herbs. Chatto & Windus, London.

MacCoitir, N. 2003 Irish Trees Myths Legends and Folklore. Collins, Cork.

McClatchie, M. 2003 ‘The Plant Remains’, in; R.M. Cleary and M. F. Hurley (eds) Cork
City Excavation 1984-2000, 391-413 Cork City Council, Cork.

Mitchell, G.F. 1987 Archaeology and Environment in Early Dublin. Royal Irish
Academy, Dublin.

Monk, M.A. 1985/6 ‘Evidence from macroscopic plant remains for crop husbandry in
prehistoric and early historic Ireland: a review’, The Journal of Irish Archaeology 3, 31-6



Monk, M.A. 1987 ‘Charred seed and plant remains’, in; R.M. Cleary, M.F. Hurley and
E.A. Twohig (eds) Archaeological Excavations on the Cork-Dublin Gas Pipeline (1981-
82), 98-9. University College Cork, Cork.

Tierney, J. and Hannon, M. 1997 ‘Plant Remains’, in; M. Hurley and O.M.B. Scully, Late
Viking and Medieval Waterford Excavations 1986-1992, 854-93. Waterford Corporation,
Waterford.


04E0750

Castledermot 04E0750
Cut 24 24 106 164 509 235 237 250 281
Context 27 28 104 162 195 227 234 236 251 282
Sample 6 8 31 51 63 68 83 82 86 106
Family Species Common name
Corylus avellana (nutshell
Corylaceae fragments) 2 3 Hazel

Moraceae Ficus carica Fig

Urticaceae Urtica dioica 30 **** 1 1 Nettle
U. urens 5 10 Small nettle

Polygonaceae Rumex sp. 2 1 1 10 58 4 Docks
R. acetosella 1 1 1 1 Sheep's sorrel
Polygonum persicaria 3 Redshank
P.aviculare 6 1 15 Knotweed
Fallopia convolvulus 1 2 Black bindweed

Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album 4 1 2 Fat hen
Common/Spear

Atriplex patula/prostrata 16 15 1 leaved orache
Chenopodiaceae indet. 1 1

Caryophyllaceae Stellaria media 5 1 Chickweed
Stellaria cf graminea 1 Lesser stitchwort
Silene sp. 8 Campions/Catchflys
Agrostemma githago Corncockle

Ranunculaceae Ranunculus sp. 3 2 Buttercups

Papaveraceae Papaver rhoes/somniferum 1 Corn/Opium poppy
P. rhoes *** Corn poppy
P. somniferum Opium poppy

314

04E0750

Cut 24 24 106 164 509 235 237 250 281
Context 27 28 104 162 195 227 234 236 250 282
Sample 6 8 31 51 63 68 83 82 86 106
Corn/Long headed
Papaveraceae P. rhoes/dubium poppy
P. cf somniferum
P. argemone Prickly poppy
Papaver sp. Poppies

Raphanus raphanistrum
Cruciferae (fragments of fruit) 2 Wild radish
Brassica sp. 5 1 Cabbage family

Rosaceae Prunus spinosa 1 Blackthorn/Sloe
Rubus fruticosus agg. 4 7 8 Blackberry
Agrimonia eupatoria Agrimony
Potentilla sp. 7 1 Cinquefoils

Leguminoseae Vicia cracca Tufted vetch

V. faba 4 1 Broad bean
Vicia sp. (small <4mm
diam) 28 3 1 3 1 1 6 Vetches

Large legumes (>4mm
diameter) 3 1 7 1
Pisum sativum 6 Pea
cf Pisum sativum 1 2
Leguminoseae indet.

Linaeae Linum catharticum Fairy flax

Umbelliferae Conium maculatum 1 4 Hemlock
Aethusa cynapium 1 2 Fool's parsley

315

04E0750

Cut 24 24 106 164 509 235 237 250 281
Context 27 28 104 162 195 227 234 236 250 282
Sample 6 8 31 51 63 68 83 82 86 106
Umbelliferae Umbelliferae indet. 4

Rubiaceae Galium aparine 2 1 1 Cleavers

Boraginaceae Lithospermum arvense 1 Corn gromwell

Labiatae Stachys arvensis Field woundwort
Stachys sp. 1 Woundworts
Ajuga reptans Bugle
Labiateae indet. 1

Solanaceae Hyocymus niger 1 17 Henbane

Caprifoliaceae Sambucus nigra 1 Elder

Valarianaceae Valarianella dentata 6 ** Cornsalad

Compositae Anthemis cotula 15 25 ** 3 Stinking mayweed
Chrysanthemus segetum 4 1 2 1 Corn marigold

Senecio sp. 1 Ragweed
Lapsana communis 6 1 Nipplewort
Creeping/Marsh
Cirsium arvense/palustre 3 thistle
Sonchus sp. Sow-thistle
Compositae indet.

Juncaceae Luzula sp. Wood-rush

Gramineae Triticum sp. (grains) 238 4 6 17 7 6 56 4 23 Wheat

316

04E0750

Cut 24 24 106 164 509 235 237 250 281
Context 27 28 104 162 195 227 234 236 250 282
Sample 6 8 31 51 63 68 83 82 86 106
Triticum aestivum (rachis
Gramineae fragments) 2 1 2 1 1 Bread-wheat
Triticum sp. (rachis
fragments) 4 Wheat
Hordeum sp. (grains) 82 3 1 1 10 2 42 5 3 Barley
Hordeum sp. (rachis
fragments) 4 7 1
Avena sp. (grains) 74 1 6 4 13 5 49 2 5 Oats

Avena sp. (awn fragments) 2
Avena sativa (lemmas) Cultivated oat
Secale cereale (grains) Rye
Secale cereale (rachis
fragments) Rye
Culm node 2 8 2 1 1
Cerealia * * * ** *

Bromus sp. Brome grass
Gramineae indet. (large
>4mm long) Grasses

Gramineae indet. (small
<4mm long) 7 2 1 1 3 1 Grasses

Cyperaceae Carex sp. 46 9 2 Sedges
Cyperaceae indet. 5 Sedges

Characeae Chara sp. (oogonia) 1 Stonewort

Straw/stem fragments) 1 1 3 1
Root fragments 2 1 1

317

04E0750

Cut 281 304 316 320 331 398 398
Context 283 302 317 319 330 333 375 376 377 394/5 396
Sample 108 112 119 120 124 127 128 129 142 139
Corylus avellana (nutshell
Corylaceae fragments) 1 Hazel

Moraceae Ficus carica 1 Fig

Urticaceae Urtica dioica Nettle
U. urens 1 Small nettle

Polygonaceae Rumex sp. 3 9 3 6 30 8 Docks
R. acetosella 1 1 1 Sheep's sorrel
Polygonum persicaria 1 Redshank
P.aviculare Knotweed
Fallopia convolvulus Black bindweed

Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album 1 Fat hen
Common/Spear

Atriplex patula/prostrata 2 1 1 4 leaved orache
Chenopodiaceae indet. 1 1 1 1

Caryophyllaceae Stellaria media Chickweed
Stellaria cf graminea Lesser stitchwort
Silene sp. Campions/Catchflys
Agrostemma githago 1 Corncockle

Ranunculaceae Ranunculus sp. 2 Buttercups

Papaveraceae Papaver rhoes/somniferum Corn/Opium poppy
P. rhoes Corn poppy
P. somniferum 1 Opium poppy

318

04E0750

Cut 281 304 316 320 331 398 398
Context 283 302 317 319 330 333 375 376 377 394/5? 396
Sample 108 112 119 120 124 127 128 129 142 139
Corn/Long headed
Papaveraceae P. rhoes/dubium 1 1 poppy
P. cf somniferum 1
P. argemone 1 Prickly poppy
Papaver sp. 1 Poppies

Cruciferae (fragments of fruit) 1 Wild radish
Brassica sp. 1 1 1 1 Cabbage family

Rosaceae Prunus spinosa Blackthorn/Sloe
Rubus fruticosus agg. Blackberry
Agrimonia eupatoria 1 Agrimony
Potentilla sp. 2 Cinquefoils

Leguminoseae Vicia cracca 13 Tufted vetch

V. faba 5 Broad bean
diam) 5 2 4 6 13 7 2 1 16 Vetches

Large legumes (>4mm
diameter) 3 1 1 3 4
Pisum sativum 11 9 2 2 Pea
cf Pisum sativum 1 7
Leguminoseae indet. 2

Linaeae Linum catharticum 1 Fairy flax

Umbelliferae Conium maculatum Hemlock
Aethusa cynapium Fool's parsley

319

04E0750

Cut 281 304 316 320 331 398 398
Context 283 302 317 319 330 333 375 376 377 394/5? 396
Sample 108 112 119 120 124 127 128 129 142 139
Umbelliferae Umbelliferae indet.

Rubiaceae Galium aparine 1 1 1 1 1 Cleavers

Boraginaceae Lithospermum arvense 2 1 2 Corn gromwell

Labiatae Stachys arvensis 1 Field woundwort
Stachys sp. Woundworts
Ajuga reptans 1 Bugle
Labiateae indet. 1

Solanaceae Hyocymus niger Henbane

Caprifoliaceae Sambucus nigra Elder

Valarianaceae Valarianella dentata 1 Cornsalad

Compositae Anthemis cotula 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 Stinking mayweed
Chrysanthemus segetum 7 1 Corn marigold

Senecio sp. Ragweed
Lapsana communis 1 Nipplewort
Creeping/Marsh
Cirsium arvense/palustre thistle
Sonchus sp. 1 Sow-thistle
Compositae indet. 1 1

Juncaceae Luzula sp. Wood-rush

Gramineae Triticum sp. (grains) 28 28 40 43 20 24 42 31 8 13 Wheat

320

04E0750

Cut 281 304 316 320 331 398 398
Context 283 302 317 319 330 333 375 376 377 394/5? 396
Sample 108 112 119 120 124 127 128 129 142 139
Triticum aestivum (rachis
Gramineae fragments) 2 2 1 1 1 2 6 Bread-wheat
fragments) Wheat
Hordeum sp. (grains) 3 2 10 5 2 21 2 2 15 Barley
Hordeum sp. (rachis
fragments) 2 1 2
Avena sp. (grains) 8 5 15 23 8 33 39 4 8 1 43 Oats

Avena sp. (awn fragments)
Avena sativa (lemmas) 2 Cultivated oat
Secale cereale (grains) 1 Rye
fragments) Rye
Culm node 1 1 2 2 2 1 7
Cerealia * * * * * * *

Bromus sp. 1 Brome grass
>4mm long) 1 1 1 2 2 7 Grasses

<4mm long) 3 1 2 2 2 Grasses

Cyperaceae Carex sp. 5 1 4 Sedges
Cyperaceae indet. 10 2 1 3 7 11 4 4 38 Sedges

Characeae Chara sp. (oogonia) Stonewort

Straw/stem fragments) 1 1 1 2 42
Root fragments 1 4

321

04E0750

Cut 417 425
Context 400 415 426 433 511
Sample 148 153 210
Family Species Common name Habitat
Corylus avellana (nutshell Key to simplified habitat
Corylaceae fragments) Hazel e information:
a: Cultivated
Moraceae Ficus carica Fig g b: Arable weed
c: Waste & disturbed ground
Urticaceae Urtica dioica 1 Nettle bc d: Damp ground/wet habitats
U. urens Small nettle bc e: Woods & scrub
f: Pasture/meadows/grassland
Polygonaceae Rumex sp. 1 Docks bc g: imported to Ireland
R. acetosella Sheep's sorrel bf
Polygonum persicaria Redshank bc
P.aviculare Knotweed bc
Fallopia convolvulus Black bindweed bc

Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album Fat hen c
Common/Spear

Atriplex patula/prostrata 1 leaved orache bc
Chenopodiaceae indet.

Caryophyllaceae Stellaria media Chickweed bc
Stellaria cf graminea Lesser stitchwort df
Silene sp. Campions/Catchflys
Agrostemma githago Corncockle b

Ranunculaceae Ranunculus sp. Buttercups bcd

Papaveraceae Papaver rhoes/somniferum Corn/Opium poppy
P. rhoes Corn poppy bc
P. somniferum Opium poppy c

322

04E0750

Cut 417 425
Context 400 415 426 433 511
Sample 148 153 210
Corn/Long headed Key to simplified habitat
Papaveraceae P. rhoes/dubium poppy information:
P. cf somniferum a: Cultivated
P. argemone Prickly poppy bc b: Arable weed
Papaver sp. Poppies c: Waste & disturbed ground
d: Damp ground/wet habitats
Cruciferae (fragments of fruit) 2 Wild radish bc e: Woods & scrub
Brassica sp. 2 Cabbage family bc f: Pasture/meadows/grassland
g: imported to Ireland
Rosaceae Prunus spinosa Blackthorn/Sloe e
Rubus fruticosus agg. Blackberry ce
Agrimonia eupatoria Agrimony ce
Potentilla sp. Cinquefoils

Leguminoseae Vicia cracca 1 1 Tufted vetch bc

V. faba Broad bean a
diam) 1 Vetches

Large legumes (>4mm
diameter) 1 1
Pisum sativum Pea a
cf Pisum sativum 8
Leguminoseae indet.

Linaeae Linum catharticum Fairy flax df

Umbelliferae Conium maculatum Hemlock cd
Aethusa cynapium Fool's parsley bc

323

04E0750

Cut 417 425
Context 400 415 426 433 511
Sample 148 153 210
Umbelliferae Umbelliferae indet. Key to simplified habitat
information:
Rubiaceae Galium aparine Cleavers bc a: Cultivated
b: Arable weed
Boraginaceae Lithospermum arvense 5 Corn gromwell b c: Waste & disturbed ground
d: Damp ground/wet habitats
Labiatae Stachys arvensis Field woundwort b e: Woods & scrub
Stachys sp. Woundworts f: Pasture/meadows/grassland
Ajuga reptans Bugle e g: imported to Ireland
Labiateae indet.

Solanaceae Hyocymus niger Henbane c

Caprifoliaceae Sambucus nigra 1 Elder ce

Valarianaceae Valarianella dentata Cornsalad b

Compositae Anthemis cotula 1 Stinking mayweed bc
Chrysanthemus segetum Corn marigold bc

Senecio sp. Ragweed cdf
Lapsana communis Nipplewort bc
Creeping/Marsh
Cirsium arvense/palustre thistle cdf
Sonchus sp. Sow-thistle bc
Compositae indet.

Juncaceae Luzula sp. 1 Wood-rush d

Gramineae Triticum sp. (grains) 28 3 2 350 Wheat a

324

04E0750

Cut 417 425
Context 400 415 426 433 511
Sample 148 153 210
Triticum aestivum (rachis Key to simplified habitat
Gramineae fragments) 1 Bread-wheat a information:
fragments) 2 Wheat a a: Cultivated
Hordeum sp. (grains) 6 2 18 Barley a b: Arable weed
Hordeum sp. (rachis
fragments) a c: Waste & disturbed ground
Avena sp. (grains) 21 7 4 2 Oats a d: Damp ground/wet habitats

Avena sp. (awn fragments) 1 a e: Woods & scrub
Avena sativa (lemmas) Cultivated oat a f: Pasture/meadows/grassland
Secale cereale (grains) Rye a g: imported to Ireland
fragments) 1 Rye a
Culm node 2 4
Cerealia **

Bromus sp. Brome grass bcf
>4mm long) 1 Grasses

<4mm long) Grasses

Cyperaceae Carex sp. 6 Sedges d
Cyperaceae indet. 1 1 Sedges d

Characeae Chara sp. (oogonia) 1 Stonewort d

Straw/stem fragments) 8 2
Root fragments 8

325


12.9 Appendix 9: Leather Report

The Leather, Castledermot - 04E0750

By Caitríona Gleeson MA



Introduction

Twenty-two fragments of leather and two almost complete welted shoes were excavated from
two post-medieval layers, C. 223 and C. 227, respectively the basal and overlying fill of a
ditch. Both contexts were highly organic in composition and comprised dark soft silt. All of
the leather objects most likely relate to footwear. The shoe styles in the Castledermot leather
are consistent with those from other post-medieval urban centres in Ireland as is the high
proportion of scrap and off-cut material. Most of the finds are off-cut pieces of leather
consisting mainly of fragments that had been removed from pre-existing objects (probably
shoes). Scrap leather was recovered from both of the contexts that yielded leather finds which
implies that cobbling activity was taking place in the vicinity of the site. The study of scrap
leather from medieval and post-medieval Cork has revealed that shoes often appear to have
been repaired in and around the home (Gleeson 2000). It is likely that this domestic practice
was largely related to the repair of footwear and that professional cobbling/repair
encompassed a range of objects from footwear to artefacts such as belts, scabbards and horse
equipment. All of the individual sole fragments were incomplete suggesting that they were
dumped when they were beyond repair, and the comparative lack of complete uppers
perhaps indicates that they were cut up for reuse by cobblers. The fragmentary condition of
many of the fragments demonstrates the high level of organic preservation within the layers.

The Artefacts

With the exception of five scrap fragments all remaining leather objects could be confidently
identified as relating to footwear.

Footwear

Five of the six diagnostic leather artefacts excavated from Castledermot relate to footwear and
all pieces were made in the welted technique whereby a strip of leather (the welt) with two
parallel rows of grain/flesh stitches was attached to the lasting margin of the upper leaving a
protruding edge to which the sole was attached. Unlike earlier medieval Turnshoes, no
turning of the shoe was involved in the manufacture of welted shoe. According to Thornton
(1975, 8) it is possible to determine the difference between a turnshoe sole seam or a welted
sole seam by measuring the stitch-length from centre of hole to centre of hole along the
lasting seam. In medieval turnshoes, this usually measures between c. 5mm - 7 mm whereas
in a welted sole the stitch length is between 6 mm and 10 mm.

The welted method of shoe manufacture is thought to have originated around 1500 AD
(Thornton 1990, 592). In later examples (late 16th – 17th century) this type of shoe
construction was characterised by a composite shoe comprising a built up sole composed of
an insole, middle sole, sole and stacked/wooden heel and a upper formed from a vamp,
quarters, latchets and often a separate toe piece or puff (Gleeson and O’ Rourke 2004, 541).
Heels became the norm in footwear from the 16th century onward and either comprised a
series of leather pieces (called lifts or jumps) stacked together using wooden pegs or nails (the
use of nails is considered to be late 17th century in date (O’Rourke 1997, 177)) or wooden
blocks which were protected by a leather cover. Both types of heel were noted in the
Castledermot assemblage.

Glossary of terms used when describing footwear



Latchet: Pieces of leather that extend from,
Butted seam: Seam made by butting or are butt-seamed onto the quarters of a
together the edges of two pieces of leather shoe. These latchets overlay at the vamp-
and closing them with an edge flesh seam tongue, where the end of one usually ends
(see below). in a pair of slits (like buttonholes) and the
end of the other latchet is threaded with
Delamination: The process by which the thongs or toggles which pass through the
leather separates into flesh and grain opposite slits to fasten the shoe.
layers, usually occurs post-deposition due
to the incomplete penetration of the Quarters: The sides and heels of a shoe
tanning liquors. upper.

Edge/flesh seam: The stitching holes are Tread: The part of the sole on which the
pierced from the edge of the section of forepart of the foot rests.
leather to the flesh side.
Tunnel Stitch: A type of stitch that does
Flesh side: Inner face of leather. not penetrate the full section of the leather;
the stitch holes are pierced (usually from
Forepart: Front section of sole or shoe. the flesh side) and emerge from the same
side after running through the thickness of
Grain side: Outer surface of leather which the leather.
bore the wool, fur or hair.
Vamp: Front section of shoe upper.
Heel-seat: Rear end of sole.
Vamp-wing: Side of the vamp that extends
Lasting margin: The bottom edge of the to the quarters.
shoe upper which was turned under a last
and secured to the sole. Waist: Narrowest part of sole, usually at
the centre.

Soles

The remains of three soles and three sole fragments were identified in the Castledermot
leather assemblage. All pieces are from welted shoes and have a date range extending from
the mid 16th to late 17th century. The soles included one outer sole (04E0750: 223:L1) with
corrosion stains at the seat possibly indicative of a stacked and nailed heel which suggests a
17th century date for the piece. Two insoles were recovered, one of which (04E0750: 223:L2)
showed a zig-zag imprint of stitching from the lasting process on the flesh side of the sole.
No. 04E0750: 223:L5 was a small trapezoidal piece of cattle hide which comprised a toe piece
from a welted shoe which would have been sewn over the innermost sole and attached to the
upper. This added extra definition and reinforcement to the toe. None of the sole fragments
showed evidence of cobbling in the form of repair.



Uppers and Shoes

All of the uppers and the complete shoes uncovered from the excavations at Castledermot
were of welted construction. Both the upper fragments and the complete shoes display
similar method of fastening. Latchets with perforations at their ends either extended from the
quarters of the shoe or were attached (butt-seamed) to the quarters. A thong was then
threaded through the perforations and often through corresponding holes in the vamp
tongue to fasten the shoe at the front over the instep. A similar style of upper (ascribed a
sixteenth or seventeenth century date) was noted in shoe assemblages from excavations at
Carrickfergus Castle (Gleeson, unpublished report), Galway City (Gleeson and O’ Rourke
2004, 541) and at Dublin Castle, Patrick Street, Nicholas Street and Winetavern Street, Dublin
(O Rourke 1997, 177).

The remains of two almost complete shoes were excavated from C. 227; Nos 0750: 510: L16 &
L17. Both were quite well worn and had holes in the outer soles and split and torn vamps.
Neither shoe showed evidence of cobbling in the form of repair or displayed evidence that
fragments had been removed for the purpose of re-using the leather. The lack of repair on the
shoe may indicate a moderate degree of personal wealth in the owners and perhaps the
occupants of the area adjacent to the site. A fragment of sheep-hide, broadly square in shape
with crude grain/ flesh stitching along all edges was recovered with 04E0750: 223: L17. The
crudeness of the stitching suggests that this piece may have been fastened to the interior of
the shoe by the wearer to render it more comfortable and to ensure a better fit.

Scrap

Five fragments of scrap leather (04E0750:223:L15) were identified in the Castledermot leather
assemblage. Some of the scrap leather is badly delaminated and abraided and may comprise
pieces that were removed from shoes or re-used scraps of leather. No evidence of stitching
was apparent of any of the fragments categorised as ‘scrap leather’ as part of this analysis.

Catalogue of Leather finds

04E0750: 223: L1
Sole, cattlehide. Sole from welted heeled shoe, grain/flesh stitching along edge. Torn across
toe. Folded at base of waist to abut a heel. Corrosion stains at the seat possible indicative of
stacked and nailed heel.
L. 152 mm, Tread 67 mm, Waist 42 mm, Th. 4 mm.

04E0750: 223: L2
Possible insole from welted shoe, cattle hide. Torn across toe. Edge/flesh stitching along edge.
Zig-zag imprint of stitching from lasting process apparent on flesh side of sole.
L. 182 mm, Tread 67 mm, Waist 34mm, Seat 43 mm, Th. 3 mm.

04E0750: 223: L3
Upper- vamp fragment, goat hide. Vamp from welted shoe. Torn across toe. Grain/flesh
lasting seam along edge. Vamp tongue extends from instep and end in a ‘M’ shape. No
evidence for fastening at tongue i.e. perforations etc. Butt seam along vamp-wing to which
quarter would have been attached. Torn at remaining edges.
L. 164mm, W. 149 mm, Th. 1.6 mm



04E0750: 223: L4
Possible heel covering, sheep hide. Possible covering for wooden heel of welted shoe.
Grain/flesh lasting seam along one edge with traces of butt seam at two shorter edges/ends.
Torn at remaining edges.
L. 168 mm, Max. W. 36 mm, Th. 1.6 mm

04E0750: 223: L5
Sole fragment, cattle hide. Toe piece from sole of welted shoe which would have been sewn
over the inner sole and attached to the upper. Trapezoidal in shape which corresponds to
style of all uppers and soles in the assemblage. Edge/flesh seam along all sides.
L. 98 mm, W. at top 20mm, W. at base 35mm, Th. 3.6 mm.

04E0750: 223: L6
Upper fragment – Heel Quarter, goat hide. Heel quarter from welted shoe. Grain/flesh
lasting seam along base, fragment bears curve where it fitted around the ankle of the wearer.
Butt-seams along two upright edges, latchet extends from the side that would have attached
to the vamp-wing. Perforation at end of latchet through which a thong would have been
threaded and used to fasten the shoe.
L. 118 mm, Height at Quarter 66 mm, Th. 1.8 m.

04E0750: 223: L7
Upper fragment – Heel Quarter, cattle hide. Heel quarter insert from welted shoe.
Grain/flesh lasting seam along base, butt seamed along two upright edges, one of which
displays two separate seams, one originally attached to the vamp-wing and a latchet would
have been sewn onto the other.
L. 108 mm, Height at Quarter 70 mm, Th. 3 mm.

04E0750: 223: L8
Upper fragment, calf hide. Torn vamp-tongue and throat fragment from possible child’s
welted shoe. Portion of lasting seam (grain/flesh) and vamp-wing (butt seam) survives.
Tongue extends in a broadly semi-circular shape from instep of shoe.
L. 82 mm, W. 94 mm, Th. 1.4 mm.

04E0750: 223: L9
Possible sole/insole fragment, cattle hide. Sole fragment from welted shoe. Roughly cut
fragment of cattle-hide, broadly triangular in shape, crude gain/flesh stitching apparent
along all edges. Possible insole insert for widest part of sole across tread.
L. 92 mm, W. 94 mm, Th. 3 mm.

04E0750: 223: L10
Possible upper fragment, sheep hide. Possible heel-quarter fragment from welted shoe
upper. Grain/flesh lasting seam at base of piece, torn on remaining edges with trace of butt
seam remaining where latchet may have been attached.
L. 102 mm, W. 43 mm, Th. 2.6 mm.

04E0750: 223: L11
Upper fragment, goat hide. Fragment from vamp of welted shoe. No seams remain and piece
is torn along all edges. One perforation apparent in possible vamp throat through which a
thong would have been threaded to facilitate fastening the shoe.
L. 91mm, W. 62 mm, Th. 2 mm.



04E0750: 223: L12a-c
Sole fragments, cattle hide. Three delaminated and abraided sole fragments from welted
shoes. All have grain/flesh seam extant along at least one edge.
(a) From seat of sole, L. 61 mm, W. 34 mm, Th. 1mm.
(b) Indeterminate, L. 73 mm, W. 40 mm, Th. 0.5-2 mm.
(c) Indeterminate, L. 44 mm, W. 24 mm, Th. 1 mm.

04E0750: 223: L13
Welt fragment, cattle hide. Strip of leather, one edge folded over on itself with grain/flesh
seam along fold-line and another at the edge of the fold. Crude grain/flesh stitching at other
long side, possibly from lasting process.
L. 118 mm, W. 24 mm, Th. 1.2 mm.

04E0750: 223: L14
Welt fragment, cattle hide. Strip of leather, one edge folded over on itself with grain/flesh
seam along fold-line and another at the edge of the fold. Crude grain/flesh stitching at other
long side, possibly from lasting process.
L. 83 mm, W. 17 mm, Th. 1.7 mm

04E0750: 223: L15
Scrap, 2 cattle hide, 1 goat hide, 1sheep hide, 1 sheep/goat hide. Five irregularly shaped
fragments of scrap/off cut leather. No apparent stitching, all pieces both cut and torn along
edges.

04E0750: 227: L16
Welted Shoe, right foot. Vamp- cattle hide, Heel quarters - calf hide, Toe piece – sheep hide,
Insole - sheep hide, Sole – cattle hide.
Fragments include sole, insole, wooden heel, two heel quarters, welt, toe piece and possible
heel covering. Wear hole in lower sole which is folded back at the base of the waist to abut
the heel. Vamp is split across toe, tongue extends from vamp-throat. Butt seams along vamp
wings which correspond to heel quarters. Latchets extend from quarters with one perforation
at the end of each. No corresponding hole at tongue.
Upper: L 260 mm, W. of in situ upper 105mm, Th. 2.7 mm, Height at quarter 61 mm.
Sole: L 257 mm, Tread 66 mm, Waist 32 mm, Seat 44 mm, Th. of complete sole 5.5 mm.

04E0750: 227: L17
Welted Shoe, right foot. Vamp – goat hide, 1 heel quarter – goat hide, 1 heel quarter – sheep
hide, Inner sole – goat, 2 outer soles – cattle hide.
Fragments include tri-partite composite sole with stacked leather heel, upper (vamp), two
heel quarters and one worked fragment. Heel comprises 5 stacked pieces of leather, one metal
peg through heel from top, seven small iron nails at the base of the heel. Vamp badly
abraided and torn along left vamp with trace of butt seam remaining, completely torn at right
vamp-wing. Four holes at instep/ vamp-throat through which a thong would have been
threaded and run through corresponding latchet holes. A latchet extends from the right
quarter and the left quarter displays butt seam where latchet would have been attached. Butt
seams at the back/heel end of the quarters.
A fragment of sheep-hide was recovered with the shoe. This is broadly square in shape with
crude grain/flesh stitching along all edges. This piece may have been fastened to the interior
of the shoe by the wearer to make it more comfortable.
Upper: L. 248 mm, W. 116 mm, Height at quarter 73 mm, Th. 2 mm.
Sole: L 221 mm, Tread 64 mm, Waist 41 mm, Seat 51 mm, Th. 7. Heel height 30 mm.



04E0750: 227: L18
Possible shoe upper fragment, goat hide. Cut along three edges, torn across remaining edge,
possible trace of butt seam remains across one edge, irregular crude grain/flesh stitching at
one corner of the fragment. May be from vamp wing or quarter of welted shoe.
L. 87 mm, W. 46 mm, Th. 2.6 mm.

Species of animal identified in the Leather

Of the leather, cattle-hide was used in the manufacture of 47% of leather items, calfskin in 9%,
sheepskin in 18%, goatskin in 23% of instances and sheep/goatskin accounted for 3% of finds.
During the course of species analysis all leather fragments were granted equal weighting and
it is worth noting that a number of the fragments positively identified as cattle or calf-hide
may have been from the same original objects. Nonetheless, it is not unusual for a post
medieval footwear assemblage to feature cattle-hide to such a significant extant. This was the
strongest animal hide available and would have offered maximum protection for the foot.
The welt served as a sturdy binding and sealing device; it had to made of a resilient raw
material and cow hide was again used. Cattle and calf-hides accounted for 84% of medieval
footwear from Nicholas, Winetavern and Patrick Streets, Dublin (O’Rourke 1997, 164). The
proliferation of cattle and calf-hides in the leather assemblage may indicate a thriving dairy
economy in the area surrounding contemporary Castledermot.

Regarding shoe uppers, goatskin was the preferred hide and the majority of positively
identified upper fragments were manufactured from this material. Most shoe uppers from
this period were constructed from calf, sheep and goatskins and their selection reflected the
fact that these light, flexible leathers would have made comfortable shoes.

The type of leather used in the production of a particular object can often assist in its
classification as an artefact type. This is especially useful in the case of miscellaneous worked
fragments and the attempts made to link them to a diagnostic object type. If a leather object
looks and feels like a specific artefact, then the identification of the type of leather used in its
manufacture may resolve the question of its original function. The fact that much of the scrap
material was quite worn and came from cattle, sheep and goat hides may indicate that they
represented undiagnostic shoe upper fragments.

Conclusion

Although limited in number, the leather artefacts recovered from Castledermot are broadly
consistent with those previously excavated from post-medieval sites in Ireland and Britain
and more than likely constitute domestic refuse. This concurs with the nature of the contexts
from which they were recovered which probably comprised post-medieval refuse layers. The
majority of the finds represent footwear and all were manufactured using the welted
technique. The fact that evidence of nailed shoes with multiple soles were amongst the leather
assemblage from both contexts excavated at Castledermot suggests a mid to late 17th century
date for the finds.



References

Gleeson, C. 2000 A study of the leather form the 1998/1999 Cork Main Drainage Scheme
Excavations. Unpublished MA Thesis, University College Cork.

Gleeson, C. (unpublished report) Leather from Carrickfergus Castle.

Gleeson, C. and O’ Rourke, D. 2004 ‘Leather’ in Fitzpatrick, E., O’Brien, M. and Walsh, P.
(eds) Archaeological Investigations in Galway City, 1987-1998 Wordwell, Wicklow.

O’ Rourke, D. 1997 ‘Leather Artefacts’ in C. Walsh (ed) Archaeological Excavations at Patrick,
Nicholas and Winetavern streets, Dublin. Bandon Press, Dingle, 163-178.

Thornton, J. 1975 ‘The examination of early shoes to 1600’ in Doughty, P.S. (ed)Transactions of
the Museum Assistants Group 12. Museum Assistant Group at Ulster Museum, Belfast, 2-13.

Thornton, J. 1990 ‘Shoes, Boots an Shoe repairs’ in Biddle, M. (ed) Object and Economy of
Medieval Winchester. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 591-621.



12.10 Appendix 10: Glass Report

Window Glass from Excavations at Castledermot,
Co. Kildare. Licence no.04E0750.

by Jo Moran



Medieval window glass has not survived in Irish window frames. The glass we do have has
mainly come from archaeological excavations. Large collections of painted and stained glass
have been recovered from excavations at Kells Priory, Co. Kilkenny (Moran forthcoming) , St.
Saviour’s Priory, Limerick and St. Canice’s Cathedral, Co. Kilkenny (Graves and Prim, 1857,
70-75). Many other excavations have produced small collections of window glass.

The window glass from excavations at Castledermot include four fragments of 13th- early 14th
century ‘grisaille’ potash glass, two with a painted pattern and two without any decoration. Ten
fragments of possibly late medieval window glass and one post-medieval fragment without any
paint or decoration were also recovered. The potash glass has a brown/black enamel-like
weathering as a result of prolonged burial in the ground, but the painted pattern is still
discernible. The pitting on the back of the glass is due to weathering while still in its window
frame. Potash glass was very prone to corrosion due to its high alkali content from using beech-
ash in its manufacture.

The painted glass fragments come from a ‘grisaille’ window popular in the early gothic period.
Grisaille glass consisted of white glass (generally with a green tint) onto which intricate ‘stiff-
leaf’ foliate or floral patterns were painted in a red/brown paint. Cross-hatching was used on
backgrounds in the early 13th century but this was dropped in the second half of the century. The
painted patterns became more naturalistic in the late 13th /early 14th century.. The Castledermot
grisaille appears to be late 13thC or early 14th century. The cross-hatching is absent and the
floral pattern on fragment 04E0750:194:4 is naturalistic in style. The pattern is similar to the vine
leaf pattern on fragments recovered from the east end of Kells priory church dated to the late
13th century (Moran, forthcoming).

Fig.1. Fragments of late 13th-early 14th century glass.

The eleven fragments of later medieval/post-medieval glass (with the iridescent surface) are
white glass without any painted decoration. Fragment (04E0750:108:2) has one raised edge
which suggests the glass was manufactured by the ‘muff ‘ method (also known as cylinder). The
rounded or raised edges are those cut in opening out the cylinder and subsequently melted when
the cylinder was placed in an oven for flattening out. Three fragments have one grozed or
nibbled edge (04E0750;240:2, 04E0750:417:1, 04E0750:417:20) after the medieval fashion.
These fragments are likely to be no later than the 16thC when the diamond came into use for
cutting glass (Brown and O’ Connor,1991, 56) Fragment (04E0750:167:1) has a diamond cut
edge and is therefore likely to post-date the start of the 16th century.



Bibliography.

Brown, S and O’ Connor, D. 1991. Medieval Craftsmen: Glass-Painters. London.
Graves, J and Prim, J G A. 1857. History, Architecture, and Antiquities of the Cathedral
Church of St. Canice, Kilkenny. Dublin.
Moran, J. forthcoming. ‘Painted and stained window glass from Kells Priory, Co. Kilkenny’
in Miriam Clyne (ed), Excavations at Kells Priory, Co. Kilkenny.
NMS forthcoming.



Catalogue

04E0750:108:1: fragment: ‘white’ glass with an iridescent surface. Th.2mm.
04E0750:108: 2: fragment: ‘white’ glass with an iridescent surface, one muff edge,
Th.2mm.

04E0750:119:11: fragment: ‘white’ glass, with an iridescent surface. Th.1.2mm

04E0750:121:80: fragment: translucent ‘white’ glass with a pale green tint. Th.1.5mm.

04E0750:121:81: fragment: ‘white’ glass with an iridescent surface. Th.1mm.
04E0750:121:82: fragment: with an iridescent surface. Th. 2mm.

04E0750:167:1: fragment: with an iridescent surface, one diamond cut edge. Th.1mm.

04E0750:195:1: border fragment: painted with a curvilinear pattern. Glass has an
enamel-like weathering, brownish-black in colour and pitting on the outside,
opaque. 3 grozed edges. Th. 3mm. 13th/14th century.

04E0750:195:2: fragment: with an enamel-like weathering, brownish-black in colour,
opaque. 1 grozed edge. Th.3mm
04E0750:195:3: fragment: with an enamel-like weathering, brownish-black in colour, pitting
on the outside, opaque. 1 grozed edge. Th.3mm
04E0750:195:4: fragment: painted with part of a floral pattern (very faint). The glass has an
enamel-like weathering varying from white to brownish-black. Th.2.5mm.
13th/14th century.
04E0750:240:2: fragment: ’white’ glass with an iridescent surface. 1 grozed edge. Th.2mm.

04E0750:417:1: fragment: ‘white’ glass (pale green tint) with an iridescent surface, 1
grozed edge. Th. 2mm.
04E0750:417:2: fragment: ‘white’ glass (pale green tint) with an iridescent surface, 1
grozed edge. Th. 2mm.

04E0750:463:3: fragment with an iridescent surface. Th. 2mm.



12.11 Appendix 11: Metal Report

Assessment of Industrial Residues

By Neil Fairburn



Summary

The excavations at Castle Dermot, Co. Carlow have produced a small, but unusual
collection of industrial residues.

In total c.30kg of industrial residues were recovered from the archaeological
excavation. The industrial residues consisted of material associated with iron
smithing, the working of the iron. The material consisted primarily of iron smithing
PCB’s (Plano Convex Bottoms from Smithing Hearths) and amorphous slag, which
was probably associated with the smithing activity. Two small pieces of copper matte,
the product of copper smelting were also recovered, as were a few small off cuts of
bar iron, probably the result of cold chiselling an iron bar.

Introduction
Excavations at Castle Dermot recovered a small quantity material that was associated
with metalworking and this was submitted for assessment and analysis. All items were
examined visually by a x30 hand lense and where appropriate by a binocular
microscope to x70. To appreciate where the industrial residues fit into the process of
iron production, it is necessary to start the report with an explanation of the iron
working process

Iron Working Background
When an archaeologist excavates a site that has the remains of iron production, the
assemblage of finds will mainly consist of burnt ore, charcoal, slag and fired clay. The
charcoal, slag and clay form integral and inseparable parts of the metallurgical
process. This inevitably means that to understand the site; first it is necessary to
identify and interpret the slag and burnt clay remains; and second one has to
understand the basic technology of iron production that has produced the assemblage.

The manufacture of an iron artefact from iron ore can be separated into three distinct
processes. The smelting of the ore in a furnace, which will produce a bloom of iron as
well as fayaltic slag residues; the primary smithing consolidation of the iron bloom
into a billet; and finally secondary smithing - the shaping of the billet into an object.
Each of these processes will produce a range of residues.



Work by Brian Scott (1991) has indicated the range of material that might be found on
early ironworking sites in Ireland, and recent work by Peter Crew and Thilo Rehren
on material from the excavations at Ráith Na Ríg, Tara, Co. Meath has highlighted the
types of industrial residues that are diagnostic of both iron smithing and non-ferrous
metalworking (Crew and Rehren 2002). However, aside from this recently published
work, very little analytical work has been carried out on early Irish ironworking sites.
Edwards (1996) notes that in past excavations in Ireland the slag was often not
recorded systematically or rarely analysed to provide additional information about the
activity that produced it.

Experimental and analytical work on iron production and iron working residues in
Britain, particularly work by Peter Crew, Snowdonia National Park, at Bryn y Castell,
Crawcwellt and Llwyn Du, Wales, (Crew 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1998, Crew and
Crew 1995) and Gerry McDonnell, Bradford University (1988), along with work in
Europe by Radomír Pleiner (Pleiner 2000), has clearly shown the nature of the
archaeological evidence for iron production and for secondary smithing, and
archaeologists can now identify the range of metalworking activity on sites in Ireland
and Britain more confidently.

The Ironworking Process
The base material for making iron is ore. Any iron ore needs to have a sufficient
concentration of iron minerals for conversion to metallic iron, but the reducibility and
availability of ore will influence the willingness to use lower-grade ores. Therefore it
is reasonable to accept that mineral composition, both of the iron mineral, the location
and availability of ores had the most influence over the production of iron.

The commonest iron ores in a geological sense are hematites, limonates and
carbonates. The largest concentration of these iron ores in Ireland is in County
Wicklow (Scott 1991, 153-154). However, one of the major sources of iron ore and
the most likely to have been used for iron smelting in Ireland, was bog ore. A
relatively easy ore to extract once it had been located. In theory there are plenty of
sources of bog ore around Ireland, but this aspect has not been studied but is often



cited. An analysis of the iron working slags recovered from the rath at Mullaghbane,
Co Tyrone (Harper 1972) and the ringfort at Cush, Co Limerick (O’Riordain 1940)
showed that bog ore was used on these sites for the manufacture of iron.

Before it was smelted, it was necessary for the mineral ore to be broken into smaller
fragments and roasted to drive off excess water and also to change the ore to an iron
oxide. On most sites, the roasting of the ore would have taken place in a simple
bonfire on to which was heaped the iron ore and a bonfire erected around it. This may
have taken place close to the furnace, but equally may have taken place near to the ore
source.

Ore and fuel, usually charcoal, are fired in a furnace in a reducing atmosphere to
remove unwanted material (the slag) and produce raw iron. The furnaces were either a
shaft furnace or a bowl furnace. The air-supply for the burning fuel is provided by
forcing the air through blowing holes in the sides of the furnace with use of bellows,
or by natural draught as has been proposed for the medieval furnaces at Stanley
Grange, Derbyshire (Challis 2002).

Shaft furnaces could have been up to 1.5m tall and some 0.30m in diameter and were
built with clay. Considerable quantities of clay would have been used in the
construction of furnaces and it could have been an important aspect in the location of
a site. It is the large quantity of the vitrified remains of the furnace superstructure that
helps to identify the remains of a shaft furnace.

At the base of the majority of the shaft furnaces was a small arch that enabled the slag
to be removed. The efficiency of the shaft furnace improved in Britain with the arrival
of the Romans, who went on to industrialise iron producing areas like the Weald
(Cleere and Crossley 1986), using efficient large furnaces similar to the one found at
Laxton (Jackson and Tylecote 1988 and Crew 1998a). For example, the known
Roman sites in the Weald produced tens of thousands cubic metres of slag and tonnes
of iron (Cleere and Crossley 1986).



The Post Roman period in Britain has produced no evidence to suggest great centres
of smelting comparable with the Roman occupation (Cleere and Crossley 1986, 87).
The evidence that can be gathered suggests that the Roman metallurgical techniques
for smelting iron were not passed onto the native population of Britain (Tylecote
1986, 179). Instead the evidence suggests that the native population returned to a pre-
Roman Iron Age tradition of producing iron probably with smaller shaft furnaces.
The two possible explanations Tylecote (1986) give for this are that the old techniques
were reintroduced by the migration of peoples from north east Europe and more
likely- the economic conditions did not warrant the same large scale production as the
Roman period did. The main notable development, however, in the medieval period
in terms of iron production, comes later with the introduction of waterpower in the
fourteenth century (Cleere and Crossley 1986,106).

The shaft furnace was loaded from the top with alternate layers of iron ore and
charcoal. Molten slag was drawn off through an arched opening at the bottom and ran
away in channels in which it solidified. The arched opening allowed air to be drawn
into the shaft but bellows could also be used. Shaft furnaces achieved a higher
temperature, so increasing the carbon content of the iron and also could produce
larger amounts of iron.

During smelting the iron minerals are reduced and broken up by reaction with the
burning charcoal. The unwanted minerals and elements, of which silicon is the most
important, react with part of the iron oxides from the ore and with the clay and fuel
ash form a liquid slag that falls to the bottom of the furnace. The clay used in
construction of the furnace and possible air-pipes is subjected to the high furnace
temperatures as well. If sufficiently heated it may melt, resulting in vitrified clay, or is
even dissolved into the slag.

The final product of smelting, besides the residues of ash and slag, is called a bloom.
This is a rough, often spongy mass, containing metallic iron flakes and nodules that
lhave sintered together, mixed with bits of slag, partially reduced ore, charcoal and
parts of the furnace clay. The bloom gives the early production technology its name of
“the bloomery process”.



The bloom has then to be refined. This is done by hammering the bloom into a smaller
piece, consolidating the iron particles and this is part of the primary smithing process.

Primary smithing requires that the iron bloom is heated again until red-hot and soft,
and subsequently hammered to squeeze out remaining slag and consolidate the
fragment into a workable shape. This piece of iron, called a billet, can then be worked
on again and made into an artefact. The slag that is squeezed out during the primary
smithing of the bloom will end up in the bottom of the hearth, and it differs from
smelting slag in that it is more or less magnetic and less fluid. These slags forming
just above the bottom of the hearth are very characteristic and are often described as
smithing hearth cakes or more frequently as Plano Convex Bottoms (PCB’s). These
slags are sub-circular convex-convex shaped and usually magnetic. The smithing
process hardly changed from the Prehistoric period through to the medieval period,
leaving similar residues.

The smithing of the bloom can be done anywhere. Quite often this primary smithing
was carried out on the smelting site. The bloom is heated in a hearth or forge. The
hearth doesn’t need a purpose built structure but would require a shelter from the
elements for the smith and also so as to provide low light for the smith to be able to
judge the temperature of iron. Early ironworking hearths were situated at ground
level, while some Roman, and later, medieval, hearths were positioned at waist height.
The anvils, positioned close to the hearth, to strike the red hot bloom quite often
utilised a large flat topped stone or a large wooden block.

The hammering of the metal bloom produces further waste products; slag spheres,
solid balls or vesicular balls of slag that can fly for a considerable distance; hammer
scale, small flat and thin pieces of magnetic metal. Hammer scale is usually a prime
indicator of smithing and can be used to locate where the process was taking place.
However hammer scale can also be produced during the consolidation of the bloom,

If a large amount of smithing has taken place, the residues from this process can
become trampled in to the floor around smithing area and form a cemented smithing



pan. The pan is a conglomerate of highly magnetic material, dust, hammer scale, slag
spheres and some other non related material.

Secondary smithing is the process that turns a refined billet into an artefact or
implement and is carried out in the same way as the primary smithing and leaves the
same sort of residues described above. This is the sort of small scale smithing work is
the sort of work that would be expected to be undertaken within the small nucleated
farmsteads and enclosures. It has been suggested that many people were using basic
iron technology to make and repair simple artefacts (secondary smithing), but the
actual production of iron and manufacture of complex iron artefacts were still being
produced by specialised smiths (Mytum 1992). Documentary evidence from the Irish
Annals suggests that the blacksmith was held in high esteem and that the forge was a
central part of the community (Scott 1987, Edwards 1996, 86).

Results
The majority of the material of that was recovered was either amorphous slag or
Smithing PCB’s. Amongst the material were a small quantity of low density slags,
four off cut pieces of bar iron, three corroded iron objects and two pieces of copper
matte.

Amorphous slag
As with most assemblages there is a quantity of material that is difficult to classify
and is termed ‘amorphous’. Amorphous slags do not have any distinguishing
characteristics and are amorphous in shape and are often small. They could be from
either the smelting or the smithing process. In this case as large majority of the
material that was recovered were PCB’s and therefore the amorphous slag can be
considered to be part of the smithing process.

Smithing Hearth PCB
Smithing PCB’s or Plano Convex Bottoms (PCB’s) are diagnostic of the smithing
process. The smithing process produces as well as hammer scale and small slag
spheres, residues that consolidate in the bottom of the hearth as PCB’s as fayaltic slag
lumps. These fayalitic slags are similar in composition to furnace slags but are
distinguishable by their shape, a curved base and a level contorted surface. Their



production is still poorly understood but the process that produces them is well
documented.

A large number of The Castle Dermot PCB’s were covered in a calcined material,
suggesting that a limestone flux or gypsum flux had either been used in the smithing
process or when the iron was smelted. It is more likely that the flux had been used in
the smelting process as it would be considered unusual, but not unheard of, for these
type of fluxes to be in smithing. Gypsum is the more likely source of the flux as
number of pieces had sulphur powder residues on their surfaces.

Low Density Fluxed Lining Slags
The low density (fluxed lining) slag is usually described as fuel ash, but in fact it is
the result of high temperatures which have caused the clay to become molten and drop
away from the rest of the lining, forming the low density slag. They are not diagnostic
of any particular process for they can result from any high temperature activity. This
type of slag is characterised by its low density and vitreous and vesicular material that
is very friable and easily fragmented. The fragmentary nature of the slag would
account for the low quantity that was recovered.

Low density fuel ash slag can be produced in any high temperature activity in which
silicates (clay) and alkalis (burnt plant ashes) come into contact. It is therefore not
always indicative of a metalworking process.

Bar Iron
Four small off cut pieces of corroded bar iron were recovered from the excavations. It
is suggested that they were possibly cold chiselled from a length of bar iron, as the
end cuts are flattened. They appear to have been discarded and not reforged,
suggesting that the smith had plenty of iron to work with.

Copper Matte
Two pieces of copper matte and dribble of fluid slag were recovered from the
excavation. The copper matte comes from smelting of copper sulphide ores. The
process leaves a cake of copper sulphide minus the gangue (silica impurities) and



some iron sulphide in the base of a small furnace. The matte is then roasted to form a
copper oxide (losing the sulphur) and then re-smelted in the furnace leaving a copper
cake with a thin layer of slag adhering to its surface.
The matter that was recovered from the excavation appears to be from the surface of a
cake, as it contains both slag and mixture of copper.

Discussion
The only certain indications for an iron smelting site are primarily the presence of
ores and tap slags and also the presence of pieces of the furnace superstructure.
Without either of the two reliable indicators, a site should be considered to be an iron
smithing site. Slag is not datable in itself, but it is an important indicator of the site
activities.

At Castle Dermot only a relatively small amount of slag was recovered from the
features on the site and all of the material was associated with the secondary process
of iron smithing and not the production of iron. It is interesting to note that while a
large number of PCB’s were recovered along with lumps of amorphous slag, no lining
material from the smithing hearths or any hammer scale was recovered. This may
suggest that all of the material was dumped away from the actual smithing site. Slag
is, after all, a waste product.

The small quantity of material found at Castle Dermot would not be indicative of
large scale smithing associated with trading, as there are insufficient quantities of
slag, but would probably be considered normal for a small Medieval smithing iron
repair workshop. However it is possible that further deposits of slag and iron working
features lie in the area beyond the excavation.

The iron smithing material is consistent with the manufacture of iron in the medieval,
but remains unusual as the process that produced the iron used a limestone or gypsum
flux. The use of this type of flux has not been recorded or reported on any Irish site as
yet. It would be interesting to locate the source of the iron production. It is also
worthy of note, that the use of this type of flux would not be possible in the so called
bowl furnaces which are believed to be the sole method of iron production in Ireland.



The flux can only have been used in a shaft furnace as this type of furnace will only
produce the necessary reducing conditions for the flux to be effective.

Matte - copper smelting slag
The copper matte is an interesting and exciting find and once again indicates that the
smelting of copper ore has been undertaken away from the source of the ore. This is
discussed further below. The matte unsurprisingly indicates that both ferrous and non
ferrous metalworking activities were taking place in close proximity to one another in
the Medieval period.

Copper Smelting in Ireland and Britain
Very little physical evidence for copper smelting before the industrial revolution has
been found in Ireland and Britain, even though clearly identifiable debris would have
been produced. This is in spite of an increasing amount of evidence of Prehistoric and
later copper mining activity on a number of sites. There has been much debate about
this lack of evidence of copper production. Until recently, no primary copper smelting
site has been found on any Bronze Age settlement site in Ireland or Britain or even
from any later periods. However, recent excavations in 1998 along the N25 at
Kilmacthomas, County Waterford located an Early Medieval copper smelting site
(Tierney 2000 and Fairburn 2002) and excavations in 1996 on a housing development
in Scrahane, County Kerry also uncovered some as yet undated but assumed to be
early Christian, smelting of copper ( Kiely 1996 and Fairburn forthcoming). A more
recent excavation in 2002 at Ballydowny, near to Ross Island by Eachtra Archaeology
recovered a small quantity of slag from a secure context with a radiocarbon date of
2030 to 1870 Cal BC and examination of this slag showed that it was the copper
smelting slag (Kiely 2003 and Fairburn 2003).

Evidence for refining of the metal and subsequent casting and finishing of objects has
been found on number of sites in Ireland and Britain for most periods. For example in
Ireland, in the Bronze Age at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick where crucibles and moulds
were discovered (O’Riordain 1954) and in the Iron Age at Tara, where crucibles and
moulds were also found (Roche 2002). Later sites like Clogher and Lagore (Hencken
1950) also have similar casting evidence, but not smelting evidence.



One would expect that the smelting took place in the near vicinity of the source of the
ore to reduce transport problems, but as yet, careful excavation and surveys around
the copper mining sites in Ireland or Great Britain has failed to find any slags from an
early context. This has led to a view by Paul Craddock and others that the ore may
have been smelted away from the site.

It has also been suggested however, (O’Brien 1996) that alternatively, it is extremely
likely that the copper smelting probably took place around the source of the ore, as
transporting the ore would have been an unnecessary use of manpower, no copper
mining site in Ireland and Britain has produced the necessary smelting evidence for
any period. The excavations at Treacy’s Hill, Kilmacthomas, raised the rather
intriguing possibility that the smelting was not undertaken at the mine sites possibly
because the other resources required for smelting, charcoal, clay and water were not
nearby or readily available. Excavations at Citi Car Park, Cork and Liffey Street
Dublin have also provided further evidence and support to an argument that some
smelting of copper was undertaken well away from the source of the copper ore in the
later Medieval Period (Fairburn 2005a and 2005b). It is even more exciting now that
we have further evidence for this period at Castle Dermot for the smelting of copper
away from the mining sites.

In Ireland there are early references which date back to the 7th and 8th centuries AD
that refer to extracting metal resources, but it has not been possible as yet to identify
any of these workings or until the excavations at Kilmacthomas and Scrahane, find
evidence of the smelting processes. It would be reasonable to expect some later
Medieval evidence of mining and smelting from around the large ore sources in the
Cork and Kerry regions, but until the recent excavations in Cork and Dublin, nothing
had been found. The only evidence from these later periods had been for the melting
and casting of objects. Castle Dermot, along with Liffey Street Dublin and South
Main Street, Cork now shows that the smelting of copper was undertaken away from
the ore sources



At Treacys hill, Kilmacthomas, the evidence recovered from part of the site consists
of one large rock of ore (probably a sulphide ore, chalcopyrite), a large quantity of
highly fired clay fragments, that may have been either heath lining or large crucibles
for smelting copper ore, a small number of unfired unidentifiable mould fragments
and a quantity of non magnetic copper smelting slag (7kg) (Tierney 2000).

It wasn’t until the industrial revolution that copper was mined on a large scale in
Ireland and Britain. At Ross Island like the Great Orme and Parys Mountain, North
Wales and other sites, the 18th and 19th century miners found older workings, which
are now known to be Bronze Age, and attributed them to be Old Mens Workings or in
Ireland they were also known as well as Danes Mines. An erroneous reference to
possible mining by the Hiberno Norse.

Copper Sources in Ireland
Copper occurs naturally in Ireland and Britain, predominately as the minerals
tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite (the sulphide ores), malachite and azurite (the oxidised
ores). In Ireland it is mainly the sulphide copper ores that have been found.
Analysis of Prehistoric and later copper working sources in Ireland has tended to
concentrate on the larger sulphide ore sources in South West Ireland in Counties Cork
and Kerry (O’Brien 1987, 1990, 1994, 1995), ignoring other sources like Bunmahon,
Co. Waterford and Avoca Mines, Co. Wicklow. This has been partly due to the
assumption that the South West mines were the prime source for the ore of the Copper
Age industries in Prehistoric Ireland and Britain. Recent Analysis has questioned this,
and the Cork and Kerry region is now seen as one of several areas in Ireland and
Britain that was supplying copper ore in Prehistory.

Conclusion
The excavations at Castle Dermot have produced a small amount of industrial
residues from the iron working smithing process. The largest amount material
recovered from the excavation were smithing PCB’s. The calcine deposits which
adhered to the surfaces of the PCB’s indicate, unusually for Irish ironworking, that a
limestone or gypsum flux was used during the production of the iron prior to
smithing. The source of the iron production is unknown.



The presence of a small quantity of copper matte from the smelting of copper supports
a theory that a large amount of the copper smelting was undertaken away from the
source of the copper ore. Castle Dermot now can be added to the two other known
Medieval sites where this has occurred, Liffey Street, Dublin and South Street, Cork.

It is clear that this site will eventually make a contribution to our understanding of the
cultural sequence of the metalworking in the region and in the country in the
Medieval period. The well stratified nature of the deposits and, indeed, the presence
of directly datable residues with the ironworking slag will allow this assemblage to be
used by researchers in the future in a much more meaningful way than has previously
been possible.

Recommendations

Further follow up work at Castle Dermot would be useful in attempting to pinpoint
the extent of the metalworking site, if there is one, and to look for the characteristic
dump of waste slag. This ideally should be done with a combination of non-invasive
geophysics augmented with trial trenching. Work by Peter Crew et al has shown the
benefits of using geophysics to pinpoint metalworking sites and also to obtain
archaeomagnetic dates from them (Crew 2002 and Crew, Smekalova and Bevan
2002).

Acknowledgements
Thanks to Peter Crew and Michael Chorlton for discussions on Irish iron working and metalworking in
general.

Thanks to all the staff at Eachtra Archaeological Projects Ltd for their help in dealing with my
numerous questions, particularly Jacinta Kiely. A special thanks is also due to the directors of Eachtra
Ltd for their continued support for the assessment and analysis of metalworking residues. Slag really is
interesting and it can tell you so much about a site.



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