International co operation in criminal matters amongst states in the Central African Economic and Monetary Community CEMAC is a reality. However, this co operation is increasingly being threatened by weaknesses that fraught the existing extradition legal framework. Criminal offenders often misuse the lack of extradition treaties with other states to decide which state to flee to after committing crimes. The very nature of crime has been evolving, and the failure to bring fugitives to justice represents an acute problem to the party which has been wronged. However, there is no general rule of international law that requires a state to surrender fugitive offenders. This school of thought led to the development of the principle of non extradition of nationals fully practices within CEMAC. It is the right of a state to refuse the extradition of its own nationals. This creates a major challenge to law enforcement officials, for it is an opportunity for transnational criminals to find safe havens. Such a practice in a sub region experiencing the emergence of new crimes like terrorism, endemic corruption, money laundering and the financing of terrorism, weakens law enforcement given that it makes effective prosecution impossible. Also, an increase in the mobility of suspects has resulted in a greater enthusiasm of states to use cooperation to enforce their domestic criminal law. It is on this premise that this paper intends to examine how states within the CEMAC Sub region use extradition as a tool to combat transnational organised crime. The problems they encounter and probable solutions. Akuhfa Harriette | Akama Samuel Penda "Extradition within the CEMAC Sub Region: Prospects and Perspectives" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29191.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/29191/extradition-within-the-cemac-sub-region-prospects-and-perspectives/akuhfa-harriette
A lo largo de sus 16 páginas, este documento desglosa los factores amenazantes percibidos en varias tipologías (actores estatales externos, organizaciones extremistas violentas y organizaciones criminales transnacionales) y detalla a continuación cuál es el papel de las fuerzas armadas del país frente a cada uno de estos problemas, en virtud de la Estrategia Nacional de Defensa (NDS, por sus siglas en Inglés).
In recent years, there have been several high-profile leaks of documents related to the offshore financial industry, such as the Pandora Papers released last year. Some of the data contained in the leaked documents have now been made public. In this brief, we discuss the advantages and pitfalls of using these data for economic analysis. We show that despite some caveats, there are patterns in these data that can shed light on a secretive industry. For instance, the number of offshore entities linked to a country increases significantly when that country experiences a change in political leadership. By contrast, financial sanctions on a given country result in a reduction in the number of established offshore entities. In the immediate aftermath of the financial crisis, many countries signed bilateral treaties with tax havens in order to promote transparency. Our analysis of the leaked data shows that the overwhelming majority of offshore entities are not governed by these treaties.
A lo largo de sus 16 páginas, este documento desglosa los factores amenazantes percibidos en varias tipologías (actores estatales externos, organizaciones extremistas violentas y organizaciones criminales transnacionales) y detalla a continuación cuál es el papel de las fuerzas armadas del país frente a cada uno de estos problemas, en virtud de la Estrategia Nacional de Defensa (NDS, por sus siglas en Inglés).
In recent years, there have been several high-profile leaks of documents related to the offshore financial industry, such as the Pandora Papers released last year. Some of the data contained in the leaked documents have now been made public. In this brief, we discuss the advantages and pitfalls of using these data for economic analysis. We show that despite some caveats, there are patterns in these data that can shed light on a secretive industry. For instance, the number of offshore entities linked to a country increases significantly when that country experiences a change in political leadership. By contrast, financial sanctions on a given country result in a reduction in the number of established offshore entities. In the immediate aftermath of the financial crisis, many countries signed bilateral treaties with tax havens in order to promote transparency. Our analysis of the leaked data shows that the overwhelming majority of offshore entities are not governed by these treaties.
World News Media Congress underway in Durban SABC News
Organisers of the World News Media Congress, which kicks off on Wednesday at the Durban ICC, have called on the participation of all media houses in South Africa.
Can the United Nations unite Ukraine. Hudson Institute. February 2018DonbassFullAccess
Research paper by Hudson Institute on the possible outcomes of the deployment of the UN peacekeeping forces in Ukraine. Edited by Richard Gowan.
The chances of a peacekeeping force successfully deploying to eastern Ukraine are currently low. But if broader political circumstances created an opening with Moscow for this option, there is sufficient evidence to suggest an international force could manage the basic security, policing and political dimensions of reintegrating the Donbas under Kyiv’s control. It would be a risky and stop-start process, but it may be the best way to end what
is Europe’s deadliest ongoing conflict, and remove one of the main obstacles to normal relations between the West and Moscow.
Hudson Institute is a research organization promoting American leadership and global engagement for a secure, free, and prosperous future.
Founded in 1961 by strategist Herman Kahn, Hudson Institute challenges conventional thinking and helps manage strategic transitions to the future through interdisciplinary studies in defense, international relations, economics, health care, technology, culture, and law.
DailyPaywall.com VS Pearson PLC - Conceptual Art with Piracy & Sharing EconomyPaolo Cirio
http://paolocirio.net/work/daily-paywall/
Tens of thousands of articles were appropriated from the websites of The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and The Economist through hacking their paywall systems. The artist redistributed the pay-per-view articles for free and offered to pay readers and writers of the news articles by crowdsourcing the project. Readers could earn $1 for responding correctly to quizzes about featured articles, and journalists were invited to claim compensation. Donors could offer any amount to crowdfund the system. The artist created this circular economic model to monetize pirated content for informing the public about major contradictions surrounding the contemporary economy. Daily Paywall was online for five days, with over 60,000 articles and 1000 print copies distributed as a free paper available in custom newsracks and bookshops throughout New York City. The artist sifted through thousands of news articles, editing fifteen issues, each featuring eight articles on various topics. Ultimately, the site was shut down when the largest education and publishing company in the world made claims on its copyrighted material, while the artwork was discussed and reviewed by international media outlets. The performance was pre-scripted and staged for engaging participants in a critical exploration of modern economic models and the distribution of information as material to make works of art.
Critically Evaluate the International Investment Laws of a CountryDavid Thompson
Critically evaluate the international investment laws of a country of your choice. How has this legal regime affected foreign direct investment to and from this country?
'Silence is a war crime'
Overlooking the political situation in Bahrain will not detract from the blatant human rights violations. A very brief summary of a few violations which go against articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Many links throughout, which will lead you onto sources regarding statistics and more information.
- Was presented to those who were unaware that Bahrain existed let alone of the situations present-
(Recommended to download if wishing to view, as hyperlinks are more easily accessible)
World News Media Congress underway in Durban SABC News
Organisers of the World News Media Congress, which kicks off on Wednesday at the Durban ICC, have called on the participation of all media houses in South Africa.
Can the United Nations unite Ukraine. Hudson Institute. February 2018DonbassFullAccess
Research paper by Hudson Institute on the possible outcomes of the deployment of the UN peacekeeping forces in Ukraine. Edited by Richard Gowan.
The chances of a peacekeeping force successfully deploying to eastern Ukraine are currently low. But if broader political circumstances created an opening with Moscow for this option, there is sufficient evidence to suggest an international force could manage the basic security, policing and political dimensions of reintegrating the Donbas under Kyiv’s control. It would be a risky and stop-start process, but it may be the best way to end what
is Europe’s deadliest ongoing conflict, and remove one of the main obstacles to normal relations between the West and Moscow.
Hudson Institute is a research organization promoting American leadership and global engagement for a secure, free, and prosperous future.
Founded in 1961 by strategist Herman Kahn, Hudson Institute challenges conventional thinking and helps manage strategic transitions to the future through interdisciplinary studies in defense, international relations, economics, health care, technology, culture, and law.
DailyPaywall.com VS Pearson PLC - Conceptual Art with Piracy & Sharing EconomyPaolo Cirio
http://paolocirio.net/work/daily-paywall/
Tens of thousands of articles were appropriated from the websites of The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and The Economist through hacking their paywall systems. The artist redistributed the pay-per-view articles for free and offered to pay readers and writers of the news articles by crowdsourcing the project. Readers could earn $1 for responding correctly to quizzes about featured articles, and journalists were invited to claim compensation. Donors could offer any amount to crowdfund the system. The artist created this circular economic model to monetize pirated content for informing the public about major contradictions surrounding the contemporary economy. Daily Paywall was online for five days, with over 60,000 articles and 1000 print copies distributed as a free paper available in custom newsracks and bookshops throughout New York City. The artist sifted through thousands of news articles, editing fifteen issues, each featuring eight articles on various topics. Ultimately, the site was shut down when the largest education and publishing company in the world made claims on its copyrighted material, while the artwork was discussed and reviewed by international media outlets. The performance was pre-scripted and staged for engaging participants in a critical exploration of modern economic models and the distribution of information as material to make works of art.
Critically Evaluate the International Investment Laws of a CountryDavid Thompson
Critically evaluate the international investment laws of a country of your choice. How has this legal regime affected foreign direct investment to and from this country?
'Silence is a war crime'
Overlooking the political situation in Bahrain will not detract from the blatant human rights violations. A very brief summary of a few violations which go against articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Many links throughout, which will lead you onto sources regarding statistics and more information.
- Was presented to those who were unaware that Bahrain existed let alone of the situations present-
(Recommended to download if wishing to view, as hyperlinks are more easily accessible)
Bureaucratic Leadership and Corruption in the Cameroon Public Service The Cas...ijtsrd
Changes in the organizational environment of the Cameroon public sector are increasingly complex and competitive and as the nature, volume, and severity of crimes investigation increases from time to time among street level bureaucrats, efforts to curb this corruption have been tilted towards police leadership Jones 2014 6 . This study sought to investigate the link between bureaucratic leadership and corruption in the police service in Buea Municipality. Specifically, the study examined the link between the transformational, transactional and laissez faire leadership styles on corruption in the police service in Buea Municipality. Using a descriptive survey research design, the study adopted and modified Bass and Avolios 2000 Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire MLQ, Form 5X . The questionnaires were administered to 197 randomly sampled police officials alongside 5 drivers purposively selected in Buea with whom interviews were conducted. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPSS version 25 was used and the hypotheses tested using the Spearmans Rho Correlation Coefficient. This study found a very significant, negative and moderate relationship between transformational leadership style and corruption a significant, positive and moderate relationship between transactional leadership style and corruption and a very significant, positive and strong relationship was established between laissez faire leadership style and corruption. It was concluded that subordinate police officers greatly acknowledge the practice of the transactional leadership style in administration than the others. The laissez faire leadership style characterized by much leniency and much discretion greatly results in fraudulent acts and of criminality than the transformational and transactional leadership styles. It was recommended that police bosses should be strict and very observant institute positive competition and offer intellectual stimulation and appeal to their followers, provide relevant, moral, material and financial means as stated in the text. Loh Yai Ngwe Comfort "Bureaucratic Leadership and Corruption in the Cameroon Public Service: The Case of the Police Service in Buea Municipality, SW Region" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-6 , October 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd47569.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/47569/bureaucratic-leadership-and-corruption-in-the-cameroon-public-service-the-case-of-the-police-service-in-buea-municipality-sw-region/loh-yai-ngwe-comfort
A few weeks ago, organizations in more than 150 countries were victims of an unprecedented cyberattack which used the ransomware Wanna cry, disrupting thousands of businesses and public institutions around the world.
A case for an International Anti-Corruption CourtDr Lendy Spires
The Case for an International Anti-Corruption Court 2 COMBATING GRAND CORRUPTION: THE NEED FOR A NEW INTERNATIONAL APPROACH United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan rightly wrote in 2004 that: Corruption is an insidious plague that has a wide range of corrosive effects on societies. It undermines democracy and the rule of law, leads to violations of human rights, distorts markets, erodes the quality of life and allows organized crime, terrorism and other threats to human security to flourish.2 However, this rhetoric contrasts starkly with the reality of the ineffective international efforts to combat corruption. The experience of the United States provides a model for a new international approach to combating corruption. Public corruption exists in the United States. State and local officials, particularly, at times abuse their public offices for private gain. However, in contrast to many other nations, the United States is serious about combating corruption. In the United States, we do not rely on elected state prosecutors to do this because they are often part of the political establishment that must be challenged and, in any event, lack the necessary legal authority and resources. Rather, we rely primarily on federal investigators, prosecutors, and courts to pursue and punish corrupt state and local officials. In the United States, sometimes acting on information provided by private parties who want to remain anonymous, independent media often expose corruption. Federal investigators are authorized to conduct undercover operations and secretly record conversations, and are adept at unraveling complicated financial transactions.
The Offshore Financial Centres - Conceiling the beneficial ownerFrank Erkens
Faced with the threat that the public may lose its confidence in the financial world, the international community has decided to uncover the numerous disguises used by criminals. This two-part series focuses on a number of important disguises, and the initiatives taken to resolve the problem of the concealment of beneficial owners. In the first part, we will look at the Offshore Financial Centres. This two-part series centres around the US legislative proposal HR3886. The aim of this legislative proposal is to facilitate the identification of the beneficial owner. Of course, the question remains whether this aim will be achieved or whether, as it appears now, the problem will simply relocate.
‘Six Sigma Technique’ A Journey Through its Implementationijtsrd
The manufacturing industries all over the world are facing tough challenges for growth, development and sustainability in today’s competitive environment. They have to achieve apex position by adapting with the global competitive environment by delivering goods and services at low cost, prime quality and better price to increase wealth and consumer satisfaction. Cost Management ensures profit, growth and sustainability of the business with implementation of Continuous Improvement Technique like Six Sigma. This leads to optimize Business performance. The method drives for customer satisfaction, low variation, reduction in waste and cycle time resulting into a competitive advantage over other industries which did not implement it. The main objective of this paper ‘Six Sigma Technique A Journey Through Its Implementation’ is to conceptualize the effectiveness of Six Sigma Technique through the journey of its implementation. Aditi Sunilkumar Ghosalkar "‘Six Sigma Technique’: A Journey Through its Implementation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64546.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64546/‘six-sigma-technique’-a-journey-through-its-implementation/aditi-sunilkumar-ghosalkar
Edge Computing in Space Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space...ijtsrd
Edge computing, a paradigm that involves processing data closer to its source, has gained significant attention for its potential to revolutionize data processing and communication in space missions. With the increasing complexity and data volume generated by modern space missions, traditional centralized computing approaches face challenges related to latency, bandwidth, and security. Edge computing in space, involving on board processing and analysis of data, offers promising solutions to these challenges. This paper explores the concept of edge computing in space, its benefits, applications, and future prospects in enhancing space missions. Manish Verma "Edge Computing in Space: Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space Missions" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64541.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/64541/edge-computing-in-space-enhancing-data-processing-and-communication-for-space-missions/manish-verma
Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India Challenges and Prospectsijtsrd
Communal politics in India has evolved through centuries, weaving a complex tapestry shaped by historical legacies, colonial influences, and contemporary socio political transformations. This research comprehensively examines the dynamics of communal politics in 21st century India, emphasizing its historical roots, socio political dynamics, economic implications, challenges, and prospects for mitigation. The historical perspective unravels the intricate interplay of religious identities and power dynamics from ancient civilizations to the impact of colonial rule, providing insights into the evolution of communalism. The socio political dynamics section delves into the contemporary manifestations, exploring the roles of identity politics, socio economic disparities, and globalization. The economic implications section highlights how communal politics intersects with economic issues, perpetuating disparities and influencing resource allocation. Challenges posed by communal politics are scrutinized, revealing multifaceted issues ranging from social fragmentation to threats against democratic values. The prospects for mitigation present a multifaceted approach, incorporating policy interventions, community engagement, and educational initiatives. The paper conducts a comparative analysis with international examples, identifying common patterns such as identity politics and economic disparities. It also examines unique challenges, emphasizing Indias diverse religious landscape, historical legacy, and secular framework. Lessons for effective strategies are drawn from international experiences, offering insights into inclusive policies, interfaith dialogue, media regulation, and global cooperation. By scrutinizing historical epochs, contemporary dynamics, economic implications, and international comparisons, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of communal politics in India. The proposed strategies for mitigation underscore the importance of a holistic approach to foster social harmony, inclusivity, and democratic values. Rose Hossain "Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India: Challenges and Prospects" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64528.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/history/64528/dynamics-of-communal-politics-in-21st-century-india-challenges-and-prospects/rose-hossain
Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in...ijtsrd
Background and Objective Telehealth has become a well known tool for the delivery of health care in Saudi Arabia, and the perspective and knowledge of healthcare providers are influential in the implementation, adoption and advancement of the method. This systematic review was conducted to examine the current literature base regarding telehealth and the related healthcare professional perspective and knowledge in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods This systematic review was conducted by searching 7 databases including, MEDLINE, CINHAL, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Central. Studies on healthcare practitioners telehealth knowledge and perspectives published in English in Saudi Arabia from 2000 to 2023 were included. Boland directed this comprehensive review. The researchers examined each connected study using the AXIS tool, which evaluates cross sectional systematic reviews. Narrative synthesis was used to summarise and convey the data. Results Out of 1840 search results, 10 studies were included. Positive outlook and limited knowledge among providers were seen across trials. Healthcare professionals like telehealth for its ability to improve quality, access, and delivery, save time and money, and be successful. Age, gender, occupation, and work experience also affect health workers knowledge. In Saudi Arabia, healthcare professionals face inadequate expert assistance, patient privacy, internet connection concerns, lack of training courses, lack of telehealth understanding, and high costs while performing telemedicine. Conclusions Healthcare practitioners telehealth perceptions and knowledge were examined in this systematic study. Its collection of concerned experts different personal attitudes and expertise would help enhance telehealths implementation in Saudi Arabia, develop its healthcare delivery alternative, and eliminate frequent problems. Badriah Mousa I Mulayhi | Dr. Jomin George | Judy Jenkins "Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64535.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/64535/assess-perspective-and-knowledge-of-healthcare-providers-towards-elehealth-in-saudi-arabia-a-systematic-review/badriah-mousa-i-mulayhi
The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion ...ijtsrd
The impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has gained considerable attention in recent years. The adoption of digital technologies and the internet has resulted in declining influence and power for traditional gatekeepers such as publishing houses and news organizations. Simultaneously, digital media has facilitated the emergence of new voices and players in the media industry. Digital medias impact on power decentralization and gatekeeper erosion is visible in several ways. One significant aspect is the democratization of information, which enables anyone with an internet connection to publish and share content globally, leading to citizen journalism and bypassing traditional gatekeepers. Another aspect is the disruption of conventional media industry business models, as traditional organizations struggle to adjust to the decrease in advertising revenue and the rise of digital platforms. Alternative business models, such as subscription models and crowdfunding, have become more prevalent, leading to the emergence of new players. Overall, the impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has brought about significant changes in the media landscape and the way information is shared. Further research is required to fully comprehend the implications of these changes and their impact on society. Dr. Kusum Lata "The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion of Traditional Gatekeepers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64544.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64544/the-impact-of-digital-media-on-the-decentralization-of-power-and-the-erosion-of-traditional-gatekeepers/dr-kusum-lata
Online Voices, Offline Impact Ambedkars Ideals and Socio Political Inclusion ...ijtsrd
This research investigates the nexus between online discussions on Dr. B.R. Ambedkars ideals and their impact on social inclusion among college students in Gurugram, Haryana. Surveying 240 students from 12 government colleges, findings indicate that 65 actively engage in online discussions, with 80 demonstrating moderate to high awareness of Ambedkars ideals. Statistically significant correlations reveal that higher online engagement correlates with increased awareness p 0.05 and perceived social inclusion. Variations across colleges and a notable effect of college type on perceived social inclusion highlight the influence of contextual factors. Furthermore, the intersectional analysis underscores nuanced differences based on gender, caste, and socio economic status. Dr. Kusum Lata "Online Voices, Offline Impact: Ambedkar's Ideals and Socio-Political Inclusion - A Study of Gurugram District" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64543.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64543/online-voices-offline-impact-ambedkars-ideals-and-sociopolitical-inclusion--a-study-of-gurugram-district/dr-kusum-lata
Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship A Studyijtsrd
Noting calls for contextualizing Agro entrepreneurs problems and challenges of the agro entrepreneurs and for greater attention to the Role of entrepreneurs in agro entrepreneurship research, we conduct a systematic literature review of extent research in agriculture entrepreneurship to overcome the study objectives of complications of agro entrepreneurs through various factors, Development of agriculture products is a key factor for the overall economic growth of agro entrepreneurs Agro Entrepreneurs produces firsthand large scale employment, utilizes the labor and natural resources, This research outlines the problems of Weather and Soil Erosions, Market price fluctuation, stimulates labor cost problems, reduces concentration of Price volatility, Dependency on Intermediaries, induces Limited Bargaining Power, and Storage and Transportation Costs. This paper mainly devoted to highlight Problems and challenges faced for the sustainable of Agro Entrepreneurs in India. Vinay Prasad B "Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship - A Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64540.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64540/problems-and-challenges-of-agro-entreprenurship--a-study/vinay-prasad-b
Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies o...ijtsrd
Disclosure is a process through which a business enterprise communicates with external parties. A corporate disclosure is communication of financial and non financial information of the activities of a business enterprise to the interested entities. Corporate disclosure is done through publishing annual reports. So corporate disclosure through annual reports plays a vital role in the life of all the companies and provides valuable information to investors. The basic objectives of corporate disclosure is to give a true and fair view of companies to the parties related either directly or indirectly like owner, government, creditors, shareholders etc. in the companies act, provisions have been made about mandatory and voluntary disclosure. The IT sector in India is rapidly growing, the trend to invest in the IT sector is rising and employment opportunities in IT sectors are also increasing. Therefore the IT sector is expected to have fair, full and adequate disclosure of all information. Unfair and incomplete disclosure may adversely affect the entire economy. A research study on disclosure practices of IT companies could play an important role in this regard. Hence, the present research study has been done to study and review comparative analysis of total corporate disclosure of selected IT companies of India and to put forward overall findings and suggestions with a view to increase disclosure score of these companies. The researcher hopes that the present research study will be helpful to all selected Companies for improving level of corporate disclosure through annual reports as well as the government, creditors, investors, all business organizations and upcoming researcher for comparative analyses of level of corporate disclosure with special reference to selected IT companies. Dr. Vaibhavi D. Thaker "Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies of India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64539.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64539/comparative-analysis-of-total-corporate-disclosure-of-selected-it-companies-of-india/dr-vaibhavi-d-thaker
The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Right...ijtsrd
This study investigated the impact of educational background and professional training on human rights awareness among secondary school teachers in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India. The key findings reveal that higher levels of education, particularly a master’s degree, and fields of study related to education, humanities, or social sciences are associated with greater human rights awareness among teachers. Additionally, both pre service teacher training and in service professional development programs focused on human rights education significantly enhance teacher’s knowledge, skills, and competencies in promoting human rights principles in their classrooms. Baig Ameer Bee Mirza Abdul Aziz | Dr. Syed Azaz Ali Amjad Ali "The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Rights Awareness among Secondary School Teachers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64529.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64529/the-impact-of-educational-background-and-professional-training-on-human-rights-awareness-among-secondary-school-teachers/baig-ameer-bee-mirza-abdul-aziz
A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at t...ijtsrd
“One Language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way” Frank Smith English as a foreign language or as a second language has been ruling in India since the period of Lord Macaulay. But the question is how much we teach or learn English properly in our culture. Is there any scope to use English as a language rather than a subject How much we learn or teach English without any interference of mother language specially in the classroom teaching learning scenario in West Bengal By considering all these issues the researcher has attempted in this article to focus on the effective teaching learning process comparing to other traditional strategies in the field of English curriculum at the secondary level to investigate whether they fulfill the present teaching learning requirements or not by examining the validity of the present curriculum of English. The purpose of this study is to focus on the effectiveness of the systematic, scientific, sequential and logical transaction of the course between the teachers and the learners in the perspective of the 5Es programme that is engage, explore, explain, extend and evaluate. Sanchali Mondal | Santinath Sarkar "A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at the Secondary Level of West Bengal" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd62412.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/62412/a-study-on-the-effective-teaching-learning-process-in-english-curriculum-at-the-secondary-level-of-west-bengal/sanchali-mondal
The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching ...ijtsrd
This paper reports on a study which was conducted to investigate the role of mentoring and its influence on the effectiveness of the teaching of Physics in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. The study adopted the convergent parallel mixed methods design, focusing on respondents in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected, analysed separately, and the results were compared to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other. The quantitative analysis found that majority of the respondents 72 of Physics teachers affirmed that they had more experienced colleagues as mentors to help build their confidence, improve their teaching, and help them improve their effectiveness and efficiency in guiding learners’ achievements. Only 28 of the respondents disagreed with these statements. With majority respondents 72 agreeing with the statements, it implies that in most secondary schools, experienced Physics teachers act as mentors to build teachers’ confidence in teaching and improving students’ learning. The interview qualitative data analysis summarized how secondary school Principals use meetings with mentors and mentees to promote mentorship in the school milieu. This has helped strengthen teachers’ classroom practices in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. With the results confirming each other, the study recommends that mentoring should focus on helping teachers employ social interactions and instructional practices feedback and clarity in teaching that have direct measurable impact on students’ learning achievements. Andrew Ngeim Sumba | Frederick Ebot Ashu | Peter Agborbechem Tambi "The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Physics in Secondary Schools in the South West Region of Cameroon" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64524.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/management-development/64524/the-role-of-mentoring-and-its-influence-on-the-effectiveness-of-the-teaching-of-physics-in-secondary-schools-in-the-south-west-region-of-cameroon/andrew-ngeim-sumba
Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino Microcontroller Bas...ijtsrd
This study primarily focuses on the design of a high side buck converter using an Arduino microcontroller. The converter is specifically intended for use in DC DC applications, particularly in standalone solar PV systems where the PV output voltage exceeds the load or battery voltage. To evaluate the performance of the converter, simulation experiments are conducted using Proteus Software. These simulations provide insights into the input and output voltages, currents, powers, and efficiency under different state of charge SoC conditions of a 12V,70Ah rechargeable lead acid battery. Additionally, the hardware design of the converter is implemented, and practical data is collected through operation, monitoring, and recording. By comparing the simulation results with the practical results, the efficiency and performance of the designed converter are assessed. The findings indicate that while the buck converter is suitable for practical use in standalone PV systems, its efficiency is compromised due to a lower output current. Chan Myae Aung | Dr. Ei Mon "Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino-Microcontroller Based DC-DC High-Side Buck Converter for Standalone PV System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64518.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/64518/design-simulation-and-hardware-construction-of-an-arduinomicrocontroller-based-dcdc-highside-buck-converter-for-standalone-pv-system/chan-myae-aung
Sustainable Energy by Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadikuijtsrd
Energy becomes sustainable if it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Some of the definitions of sustainable energy include the considerations of environmental aspects such as greenhouse gas emissions, social, and economic aspects such as energy poverty. Generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel are renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric power, solar, and geothermal energy sources. Worthy of note is that some renewable energy projects, like the clearing of forests to produce biofuels, can cause severe environmental damage. The sustainability of nuclear power which is a low carbon source is highly debated because of concerns about radioactive waste, nuclear proliferation, and accidents. The switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but could lead to delay in switching to more sustainable options. “Carbon capture and storage” can be built into power plants to remove the carbon dioxide CO2 emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Leading non renewable energy sources around the world is fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Nuclear energy is usually considered another non renewable energy source, although nuclear energy itself is a renewable energy source, but the material used in nuclear power plants is not. The paper addresses the issue of sustainable energy, its attendant benefits to the future generation, and humanity in general. Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadiku "Sustainable Energy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64534.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/64534/sustainable-energy/paul-a-adekunte
Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations Executive Regulations and Stand...ijtsrd
This paper aims to outline the executive regulations, survey standards, and specifications required for the implementation of the Sudan Survey Act, and for regulating and organizing all surveying work activities in Sudan. The act has been discussed for more than 5 years. The Land Survey Act was initiated by the Sudan Survey Authority and all official legislations were headed by the Sudan Ministry of Justice till it was issued in 2022. The paper presents conceptual guidelines to be used for the Survey Act implementation and to regulate the survey work practice, standardizing the field surveys, processing, quality control, procedures, and the processes related to survey work carried out by the stakeholders and relevant authorities in Sudan. The conceptual guidelines are meant to improve the quality and harmonization of geospatial data and to aid decision making processes as well as geospatial information systems. The established comprehensive executive regulations will govern and regulate the implementation of the Sudan Survey Geomatics Act in all surveying and mapping practices undertaken by the Sudan Survey Authority SSA and state local survey departments for public or private sector organizations. The targeted standards and specifications include the reference frame, projection, coordinate systems, and the guidelines and specifications that must be followed in the field of survey work, processes, and mapping products. In the last few decades, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of geomatics activities and measurements on the Earths surface in space and time, together with observing and mapping the changes. In such cases, data must be captured promptly, standardized, and obtained with more accuracy and specified in much detail. The paper will also highlight the current situation in Sudan, the degree to which survey standards are used, the problems encountered, and the errors that arise from not using the standards and survey specifications. Kamal A. A. Sami "Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations - Executive Regulations and Standards" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63484/concepts-for-sudan-survey-act-implementations--executive-regulations-and-standards/kamal-a-a-sami
Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model Khartoum Sta...ijtsrd
The discussions between ellipsoid and geoid have invoked many researchers during the recent decades, especially during the GNSS technology era, which had witnessed a great deal of development but still geoid undulation requires more investigations. To figure out a solution for Sudans local geoid, this research has tried to intake the possibility of determining the geoid model by following two approaches, gravimetric and geometrical geoid model determination, by making use of GNSS leveling benchmarks at Khartoum state. The Benchmarks are well distributed in the study area, in which, the horizontal coordinates and the height above the ellipsoid have been observed by GNSS while orthometric heights were carried out using precise leveling. The Global Geopotential Model GGM represented in EGM2008 has been exploited to figure out the geoid undulation at the benchmarks in the study area. This is followed by a fitting process, that has been done to suit the geoid undulation data which has been computed using GNSS leveling data and geoid undulation inspired by the EGM2008. Two geoid surfaces were created after the fitting process to ensure that they are identical and both of them could be counted for getting the same geoid undulation with an acceptable accuracy. In this respect, statistical operation played an important role in ensuring the consistency and integrity of the model by applying cross validation techniques splitting the data into training and testing datasets for building the geoid model and testing its eligibility. The geometrical solution for geoid undulation computation has been utilized by applying straightforward equations that facilitate the calculation of the geoid undulation directly through applying statistical techniques for the GNSS leveling data of the study area to get the common equation parameters values that could be utilized to calculate geoid undulation of any position in the study area within the claimed accuracy. Both systems were checked and proved eligible to be used within the study area with acceptable accuracy which may contribute to solving the geoid undulation problem in the Khartoum area, and be further generalized to determine the geoid model over the entire country, and this could be considered in the future, for regional and continental geoid model. Ahmed M. A. Mohammed. | Kamal A. A. Sami "Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model (Khartoum State Case Study)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63483.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63483/towards-the-implementation-of-the-sudan-interpolated-geoid-model-khartoum-state-case-study/ahmed-m-a-mohammed
Activating Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment Mapijtsrd
Sudan is witnessing an acceleration in the processes of development and transformation in the performance of government institutions to raise the productivity and investment efficiency of the government sector. The development plans and investment opportunities have focused on achieving national goals in various sectors. This paper aims to illuminate the path to the future and provide geospatial data and information to develop the investment climate and environment for all sized businesses, and to bridge the development gap between the Sudan states. The Sudan Survey Authority SSA is the main advisor to the Sudan Government in conducting surveying, mappings, designing, and developing systems related to geospatial data and information. In recent years, SSA made a strategic partnership with the Ministry of Investment to activate Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment and in particular, for the preparation and implementation of the Sudan investment map, based on the directives and objectives of the Ministry of Investment MI in Sudan. This paper comes within the framework of activating the efforts of the Ministry of Investment to develop technical investment services by applying techniques adopted by the Ministry and its strategic partners for advancing investment processes in the country. Kamal A. A. Sami "Activating Geospatial Information for Sudan's Sustainable Investment Map" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63482.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/information-technology/63482/activating-geospatial-information-for-sudans-sustainable-investment-map/kamal-a-a-sami
Educational Unity Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Societyijtsrd
In a rapidly changing global landscape, the importance of education as a unifying force cannot be overstated. This paper explores the crucial role of educational unity in fostering a stronger and more inclusive society through the embrace of diversity. By examining the benefits of diverse learning environments, the paper aims to highlight the positive impact on societal strength. The discussion encompasses various dimensions, from curriculum design to classroom dynamics, and emphasizes the need for educational institutions to become catalysts for unity in diversity. It highlights the need for a paradigm shift in educational policies, curricula, and pedagogical approaches to ensure that they are reflective of the diverse fabric of society. This paper also addresses the challenges associated with implementing inclusive educational practices and offers practical strategies for overcoming barriers. It advocates for collaborative efforts between educational institutions, policymakers, and communities to create a supportive ecosystem that promotes diversity and unity. Mr. Amit Adhikari | Madhumita Teli | Gopal Adhikari "Educational Unity: Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Society" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64525.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64525/educational-unity-embracing-diversity-for-a-stronger-society/mr-amit-adhikari
Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management Prospects and...ijtsrd
The diversity of indigenous knowledge systems in India is vast and can vary significantly between different communities and regions. Preserving and respecting these knowledge systems is crucial for maintaining cultural heritage, promoting sustainable practices, and fostering cross cultural understanding. In this paper, an overview of the prospects and challenges associated with incorporating Indian indigenous knowledge into management is explored. It is found that IIKS helps in management in many areas like sustainable development, tourism, food security, natural resource management, cultural preservation and innovation, etc. However, IIKS integration with management faces some challenges in the form of a lack of documentation, cultural sensitivity, language barriers legal framework, etc. Savita Lathwal "Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management: Prospects and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63500.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/63500/integration-of-indian-indigenous-knowledge-system-in-management-prospects-and-challenges/savita-lathwal
DeepMask Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in...ijtsrd
The COVID 19 pandemic has highlighted the crucial need of preventive measures, with widespread use of face masks being a key method for slowing the viruss spread. This research investigates face mask identification using deep learning as a technological solution to be reducing the risk of coronavirus transmission. The proposed method uses state of the art convolutional neural networks CNNs and transfer learning to automatically recognize persons who are not wearing masks in a variety of circumstances. We discuss how this strategy improves public health and safety by providing an efficient manner of enforcing mask wearing standards. The report also discusses the obstacles, ethical concerns, and prospective applications of face mask detection systems in the ongoing fight against the pandemic. Dilip Kumar Sharma | Aaditya Yadav "DeepMask: Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in the COVID-19 Era" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64522.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/64522/deepmask-transforming-face-mask-identification-for-better-pandemic-control-in-the-covid19-era/dilip-kumar-sharma
Streamlining Data Collection eCRF Design and Machine Learningijtsrd
Efficient and accurate data collection is paramount in clinical trials, and the design of Electronic Case Report Forms eCRFs plays a pivotal role in streamlining this process. This paper explores the integration of machine learning techniques in the design and implementation of eCRFs to enhance data collection efficiency. We delve into the synergies between eCRF design principles and machine learning algorithms, aiming to optimize data quality, reduce errors, and expedite the overall data collection process. The application of machine learning in eCRF design brings forth innovative approaches to data validation, anomaly detection, and real time adaptability. This paper discusses the benefits, challenges, and future prospects of leveraging machine learning in eCRF design for streamlined and advanced data collection in clinical trials. Dhanalakshmi D | Vijaya Lakshmi Kannareddy "Streamlining Data Collection: eCRF Design and Machine Learning" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63515.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biotechnology/63515/streamlining-data-collection-ecrf-design-and-machine-learning/dhanalakshmi-d
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD29191 | Volume – 3 | Issue – 6 | September - October 2019 Page 567
the scope of extradition was widened to include military
offenders. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw a
shift in the practice of extradition. During this time
extradition agreements also included the exchange of
"common criminals" charged with offences of violation of
domestic laws of their countries.7 Meaning that, the focus of
extradition changed completely from political offences to
common serious crimes8. Thus Contemporary extradition
laws, consider the political offence to be an exception to
extradition and as such does not allow the extradition of
fugitives entitled to be punished for political offences.9 This
explains why, these offences that use to be the focus of
extradition are now generally excluded from extradition
regimes. Political crimes are rarely extraditable, because
countries do not want to be accused of aiding a coup, or
opposing a foreign regime. In 1934, an Italian court refused
to extradite the assassins of Yugoslavia’s King Alexander, on
the grounds that the crime was political.10
Of late the practice of extradition has developed
tremendously amongst member states oftheCentral African
Economic and Monetary Community. Advancements in
global travel and the rise of transnational crimes spanning
borders, has increased the need for extradition within the
sub region; thus making a further enhancement of
extradition practices a priority.11 The adoption within
CEMAC of a regulation designed to prevent and punish
money-laundering and the financing of terrorism;
transnational crimes common within the sub region, is an
encouraging development. This law makes provision for
extradition which is intended to help countries of the sub
region combat these crimes. However,thissubregional legal
framework has some loopholes which have prevented it
from living up to expectations. They include the very fact
that most countries of the sub region do not extradite their
nationals and the lack of a proper enforcement mechanism;
This has made our extradition process very challenging.
THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR EXTRADITION WITHIN
CEMAC
The main problem that arises in a case where, the suspect is
located in a foreign state is; the posibilitytohavethatperson
extradited to face trial in the jurisdiction where the offence
was commited; Re Burley12. Given that most often, there is
no duty upon states to extradite, in the absence of a specific
7 See The case of Sissoko Diawoye Arret N° 1101/COR du 23
Septembre 1994 .
8See the case of Canada v. Schmidt (1987) 1S.C.R
.500.61.O.R.where extradition was sought for child stealing.
See also the Extradition case of Thomas Nseke Mbowa,
National Achives, Buea.file No.25/1928,27-12-1928 where
Mr Nseke was extradited for larceny, United Nations Office
on Drug and Crime (UNODC), Vienna, Manual on Mutual
Legal Assistance and Extradition, New York September
2012.P. 41.
9 Bassiouni, supra note 2.
10Tanushri M. LoopholesinExtraditionThe WorldJournal
On Juristic Polity (MARCH, 2017) ISSN: 2394- 5044
11Kimberley Prost, "Breaking down the barriers:
International cooperationin combatingtransnational crime"
p, 3. Available from www. Oas. org / juridico /mla/ en/can/
en_can_prost. en. html.
12 1.U.C.L.J. 34. ( 1865)
binding agreement to that effect,13 many states in particular
those of a common law tradition will not extradite in the
absence of a treaty.14 Civil law countries are not generally
limited in principle to treaty based extradition. All the same,
they also enter into such arrangements particularly, with
states whose domestic law mandates such a relationship.
Extradition treaties and legislationnotonlysupplythebroad
principles and the detailed rules of extradition but also
dictate the very existence of the obligation to surrender
fugitives. It is clear that some states do not extradite
criminals in the absence of a treaty or a municipal lawwhich
empowers them to do so15. In some other countries,
extradition may take place in the absence of a treaty. In this
context it is an act of grace and not an obligation. This is
usually, in accordance with the provisions of municipal
statutes operating in the absence of a treaty. In many
countries extradition by statute isdependentuponanad hoc
guarantee of reciprocity which is tantamount to a treaty. In
addition to bilateral extradition arrangements, whether by
way of treaty or through the reciprocal application of laws,
there is a growing number of multilateral extradition
arrangements among groups of states having some
geographical or political links16.Thisexplainswhywithinthe
CEMAC sub region extradition agreements have remained
the predominant basis for extradition. These agreements
take different forms; they include multilateral conventions,
sub regional agreements and bilateral treaties. This
approach risks losing its grounds because the number of
extradition agreements amongst CEMAC member states as
well as with third states are insufficient to address the
growing need for extradition. It is this reality, that has led to
a shift towards an alternative bases for extradition. That is
extradition based on local legislation and comity or
reciprocity. The following is a brief overview of the network
of instruments that govern modern extradition within the
sub region17.
13 Shearer, I.A., Extradition in International Law,Manchester
University Press, 1971, at p. 24. United Nations Office on
Drug and Crime (UNODC), Vienna, Manual on Mutual Legal
Assistance and Extradition, NewYork September2012.P.41.
Kimberley Prost, "Breaking down the barriers.P.3
14 Some of the earliest cases of extradition were recorded in
Britain and America. Britain's first extradition treaty dates
back to 1591 when Brian O'Rourke, who was an Irish
nobleman, fled to Scotland. Queen Elizabeth, had demanded
for O'Rourke's deliveryfrom ScotlandtoEngland.TheTreaty
of Berwick, ratified in 1586 was a tool for QueenElizabethto
secure O'Rourke's custody. The first Anglo-American
extradition agreement was in the form of a clause within the
Jay Treaty signed in 1794. The Treaty was signed between
Britain and America to end war and restore peace. Although
it was a short lived agreement, it contained someofthemost
important principles which continue to govern the
Extradition laws in American Treaties till date. It ensured
that the practice of extradition was dictated by law and not
by any foreign policies. The Jay Treaty emancipated
Extradition laws in America from political offences
15 Bassiouni, Cherif. 2008. "International Criminal law".
Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden;
16 Shearer, Ivan Anthony. 1971. "Extradition in international
law". University of Manchester at the University Press P 18;
17Tanushri M. LoopholesinExtraditionThe WorldJournal
On Juristic Polity (MARCH, 2017) ISSN: 2394- 5044
3. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD29191 | Volume – 3 | Issue – 6 | September - October 2019 Page 568
A. Multilateral conventions
In the face of crimes with international ramifications, a new
approach to extradition has been developed in the form of
multilateral conventions, directed at particular crimes.
Generally, in order to determine if there is a legal basis for
seeking extradition, the appropriate approach will be
looking at the applicable instruments18. The earliest of such
instruments was, the Geneva Conventions,19which imposed
the aut dedere aut judicare principle20 on signatory states.
The 1971 Hague Convention for the Suppression of the
Unlawful Seizure of Aircrafts also contained detailed articles
on extradition. The coming into force of the 1988 United
Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs
and psychotropic Substances21 contained an article
22dedicated to extradition which also imposedtheprosecute
or extradite obligation. After a series of enactments the
United Nations Convention AgainstTransnational Organised
Crime23 was put in place in the year 2000. It was meant to
promote co-operation and combat transnational crimemore
effectively. All CEMAC member states are signatories to this
convention; under which an extradition request is granted,
subject to the dual criminality requirement, with respect to
offences referred to in the convention24. The person who is
the subject of a request for extradition mustbelocatedinthe
territory of a requested state which is Party to the
convention as well. The extradition obligation applies
initially to offences covered by the Convention. These are
generally serious crimes punishable by a maximum
deprivation of liberty of at least four years or by a more
severe penalty. It also refers to those offencescoveredunder
its Protocols25, provided that they are transnational in
nature and involve an organized crimegroup26.Apeculiarity
of this convention stems from the very fact that the scope of
application of its article 16 is very broad; this provision
applies to cases of domestic trafficking wheretheoffenderis
simply apprehended in the territory of another State party.
The Article27 also addresses the issue of pre-existingtreaties
and how they interact with the Convention. It permits states
of the sub region to use this international convention
domestically. These provisions have a bearingonhowactual
requests for extradition are conducted under the
18 Source: Kimberley Post, "Practical solutions to legal
obstacles in Mutual Legal Assistance",inDenyingSafeHaven,
p. 32.
19 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition
of the Wounded and Sick in the Armed ForcesintheField, 12
August 1949, 6 U S T 3114.Geneva Convention for the
Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and
Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 12 August
1949, 6 U S T 3217. Geneva Convention Relative to the
Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 August 1949, 6 U S T
3316. Geneva Convention Relation to the Protection of
Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949, 6 U S T351
20The principle places an obligation on states to either
prosecute or extradite alleged offenders.
21 Also referred to as the 1988 Drug Convention
22 Article 6
23 The Parlemo Convention
24article 3, paragraph 1 (a) or (b) of the Parlemo Convention
25United Nations Treaty Series ,Vol. 2225, 2237, 2241 and
2326, No. 39574
26 Article 16, paragraph 1, of the Parlemo Convention
27 Article 16
Convention28. Offences articulated in the Convention are
deemed to be extraditable offences in any pre-existing or
future extradition treaty betweenStatesparties29.Withinthe
CEMAC sub region if a requested State that requires a treaty
to effect extradition receives a request from a requesting
State with which it has no extradition treaty, the requested
State may consider the Convention as the legal basis for
extradition30. A Statethatrequiresanextraditiontreatymust
indicate if it will consider the Convention as the legal basis
for extradition. Where it is not the case the requested state
must seek to conclude extradition treaties with otherStates;
parties to the Convention31.Statespartiesthatdonotrequire
a treaty for extradition are expected to considertheoffences
listed in the Convention as being extraditable offences
between them32.The advent of these multilateral
conventions has meant an expansion of the basis for
extradition as between states, at least withrespecttocertain
offences.
Still at the international level TheUnitedNations Convention
against Corruption of 10 October 2003 herein after referred
to as “The Convention” is designed to play an important
supporting role to the afore mentioned complex extradition
legal framework, by complementing or reinforcing it.33 First
of all, the main obligation under article 44, paragraph 4 of
the convention is that each of the offences to which this
article applies is deemed to be included as an extraditable
offence in any extradition treaty existing between States.
States in the CEMAC sub region in principle use the
Convention as the basis for extradition.Mostcountriesin the
sub region have fulfilled this obligation,atleastinasmuchas
the offences have been included in the domestic law of the
requested country and the penalties provided for are within
the specifications stated in the existing treaties.34 Equally,in
the more unusual case of list-based bilateral treaties, even if
the relevant corruption offencedoesnotappearinthetreaty,
a country may nonethelessconsidera requestfor extradition
made by the bilateral treaty partner, in the exercise of its
discretion under a treaty. although the Convention may not
be the legal basis for extradition, it can still be used to
expand the scope of a bilateral treatyintermsof extraditable
offences.35 Thus raisingawareness,amongststatesofthesub
region, of the obligation on them to ensure that corruption
offences are included as extraditable offences in all treaties
that they conclude.
Furthermore, where there is no extradition treaty between
CEMAC countries, the Convention itself may serve as the
legal basis for the extradition of persons guilty of
corruption36. This is the case withinthesubregionespecially
with respect to those countries, that make extradition
28Article 16, paragraphs 3-6, of the Parlemo Convention
29 Article 16, paragraph 3,
30 Article 16, paragraph 4.
31 Article 16, paragraph 5,
32 Article 16, paragraph 6,
33 Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United
Nations Convention Against Corruption Para 541, and
Technical Guide to the United Nations Convention Against
Corruption, Chap. IV Art.44,subsection II(3)
34 extradition treaties in general provide for a range of
penalties and do not contain a list of specific offences.
35 Article 44, paragraph 4 of the Convention
36 article 44, paragraph 5, of the Convention
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conditional on the existence of a treaty. This reduces the
need for any additional extradition treaties.
A state party can receive extradition requests even in the
absence of a bilateral extradition treaty, provided that the
requesting country is declared an extradition country
according to its domestic regulations. Following the signing
of the Convention, if a State puts in place regulationmeant to
implement the extradition-related provisions of the
convention and specifies, that any country that is a party to
the Convention at any given time is considered to be an
extradition country; this provision will ensure that the State
in question will be able, to meet its international obligations
under the Convention without the need, to amend its
regulations each time a new State becomes party to the
Convention.
States in the CEMAC sub region in principle, use the
Convention as the basis for extradition, although from a
more critical point of view, it can be argued that bilateral
treaties often regulate extradition matters, amongst these
countries in a more comprehensive and detailed manner
than the Convention does. This however is because most
practitioners are unaware of the possibility of using the
Convention as a concrete legal tool for international
cooperation.
B. Sub Regional agreements
As difficulties in negotiating multilateral treaties increased,
the second half of the twentieth century saw an upsurge in
the demand for other forms of instruments upon which to
groundextraditionarrangements.Consequentlysubregional
agreements have become a better alternative for most
CEMAC countries. Generally the common bond for these
instruments is the geographical location of the participating
states. That notwithstanding, there are also others that
depend upon a common legal tradition. Based on this
premise, most countries in the sub region have negotiated
agreements along these lines. For instance, all CEMAC
countries are parties to the General Convention on Judicial
Cooperation signed under the auspices of theformerAfrican
and Malagasy Common Organization (the "Tananarive
Convention) of 1961 which covers all the French-speaking
countries of West and Central Africa. There is also the
Extradition Agreement among the Member States of the
Central African Economic and Monetary Union
(CAEMU/CEMAC) of 2004. The Extradition Accord of the
Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa
(CEMAC); and the London Scheme for extradition withinthe
Commonwealth. A common provisionintheseagreementsis
that every Member State may refuse the extradition of its
nationals37 However, any Member State refusing the
extradition of one of its nationals must upon demand from
the requesting state; submit the matter to the competent
authorities for prosecution.38 Thus, enshrining the principle
aut dedere aut judicare. Added to this is the fact that, any
contrary provisions of bilateral agreements governing
37Article 5(1) of the 2004 Extradition Agreement among the
Member States of the Central African Economic and
Monetary Union (CAEMU/CEMAC)
38 Article 5(4) of the 2004 Extradition Agreement amongthe
Member States of the Central African Economic and
Monetary Union (CAEMU/CEMAC)
extradition between Member States shall be deemed to be
without effect39.
C. Bilateral extradition treaties
Research has revealed thatmoststatesbasetheir extradition
agreements on bilateral treaties. Therearea good number of
bilateral extradition instruments resulting from the
commitment of France40 and United kingdom41 with their
former colonies. For many years, even as those colonies
attained independence, they continued to rely on the old
Imperial treaties for extradition.42This explains why Apart
from these arrangements with their formercolonialmasters
CEMAC states are very much into extradition arrangements
amongst them as well as with other countrieswhichboarder
the sub region. Cameroon established bilateral judicial
cooperation agreements, with Gabon, Guinea, Madagascar,
and Mali on the 6 of May 1964; Benin, Burkina Faso, the
Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire and France
followed suit on the 21 of February 1974; while in March of
1977 it was the turn of The Democratic Republic of Congo,
Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal. FollowingtheConvention on
Mutual legal Assistance and Extradition of 1963, Gabon
concluded bilateral agreements on extradition with France
and Morocco43. This is proof that bilateral treaties still
dominate extradition practice within the sub region. This
notwithstanding there is an increasingtendencyforstatesto
consider alternatives to treaty based extradition because of
the practical and political problems that sub regional actors
face in their attempts at negotiating these instruments to
govern extradition44.
D. Alternatives to treaty based extradition
Traditional international law gives each state liberty to
exercise absolute and exclusive legislative, administrative,
and jurisdictional power irrespective of the will of other
states. This territorial supremacy in the absence of any
supranational authority makes a state the most powerful
organism in international law invested with a supreme and
overriding authority over all things and persons falling
within its territorial limitations. It is generally held that
principles of international law recognize no right to
extradition apart from treaty based. The legal right to
demand for extraditionandthecorrelativedutytosurrender
the fugitive to the demanding country exists only when
created by treaty. The law of nations does not prohibit a
39 Article 24 of the 2004 Extradition Agreement among the
Member States of the Central African Economic and
Monetary Union (CAEMU/CEMAC)
40In 1961, twelve of France's fourteenformerEquatorial and
West African colonies formed the Union Africaine et
Malagache. On September 12 of that year these statessigned
a convention on judicial cooperation at Tananarive
41 In the 1800's, the United Kingdom negotiated several
extradition treaties which were applicable to many of its
territories
42 M Cherif Bassioun, International Extradition,United States
Law and Practice at p.15
43 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna; A
Review of the Legal Regime against Terrorism in West and
Central Africa: Working Document Terrorism Prevention
Branch October 2008 .Pp.2-11
44 Kimberley Prost, "Breaking down the barriers:
International cooperationin combatingtransnational crime"
p.4.
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state from surrendering a person accused of a crime to
another state under the pretext of sovereignty since the
reception and expulsion of aliens is a fundamental act of
sovereignty45. Evidence of extradition in the absence of a
treaty existed as early as 1880, in a resolution taken by the
Institute of International Law. As such, certain legal scholars
recognize an obligation to extradite fugitive criminals
regardless whether there is a treaty or not. This is thanks to
the principle of comity, reciprocity or underlocallegislation.
I. Extradition based on the Principle of Comity
Today, most civil law states recognize final surrender
without a treaty as a valid form of extradition. Common law
countries such as the United States and Great Britain show
greater reluctance in granting extradition in theabsenceofa
treaty. According to their view, no absolute duty to extradite
exists absent a specific treaty obligation46. Extraditioninthe
absence of treaties in the nineteenth century was long
approved by the practice of most civil law countries. In the
absence of an agreementcreatingtheobligationtosurrender
the fugitive criminal, no such obligation exists under
international law. Under international law, the right of a
requesting state to demand the surrender of a claimed
person accused of a crime, and the correlative duty to
surrender such a person, exists only when created by an
extradition treaty.
Accordingly in the absence of such a treaty, there is no
obligation to surrender criminalstoanothercountry. Where,
however, in the absence of an extradition treaty imposing
such a right and duty, the surrender of a claimed person is
requested, it is on the bases of the principle of comity,
founded on the principle that it is not in the interest of the
international communitythatseriouscrimesofinternational
significance should go unpunished. Under such
circumstances the Government of the requested state may
exercise its discretion and investigate the charge on which
the surrender is demanded 47.
For example the United States belongs to a group of states
which do not surrender fugitive criminals in the absence of
an extradition treaty. Its practice is to decline to request
extradition from the requested state with which there is no
treaty providing for surrender, although there are isolated
cases in which the Government of United States has
requested of foreign Governments the surrender of fugitive
criminals as an act of comity: in these cases, however, the
request has always been accompanied by the statementthat
under the law of this country reciprocitycannotbegranted48
.The practice of the civil law countries has demonstrated a
greater willingness to grant extradition in the absence of
45 Bedi, Satyadeva. 2002. "Extradition: a treatise on the laws
relevant to the fugitive offenders within and with the
Commonwealth countries ". William S.Hein & Co, Inc; page,
19;
46 Woods Jr, Robert Herbert. 1993. "Extradition: Evaluating
the development, uses and overall effectiveness of the
system ". Regent University Law Review,Volume2;Page 46;
47Shearer, Ivan Anthony. 1971. "Extradition in international
law". University of Manchester at the University Press;
48Przetcznik, Franciszek. 1983. "Protection of officials of
foreign states according to
international law ". Martinus Nijhoff Publishers;
treaties, but in few instances the view has been adoptedthat
extradition in such circumstances was based on nothing
more than comity and an act of grace.
A request for the arrest and surrender of a fugitive criminal
could not be made in the absence of an extradition treaty.
But taking into consideration the gravity and seriousness of
the crime and its detrimental effect upon a society, a state, in
conformity with the public law of nations or in accordance
with the general principles of international law, in the
absence of an extradition treaty invoking the principles of
comity or morality between the states concerned, can make
an extradition request for the surrender of the fugitive
offender who has crossed its borders, escaping from trial or
punishment. This is because all states are interested in the
preservation of peace, order and tranquility within their
borders and they promote justice in cooperation with other
states49. Accordingly, the only obligation existing in the
absence of a treaty is imperfect, andassuchcreatinga moral,
but not legal duty to extradite. The only method to create an
absolute duty to extradite is through the signing of a treaty.
The dominance of this latter view has provided the
necessary impetus for the increase in the formation of
modern-day mutual extradition treaties. Extradition in the
absence of a treaty always hinges on the principles of
"courtesy, good will, and mutual convenience."50 Since the
prevailing view fails to recognize an absolute duty or
obligation in the absence of formal treaty relations, comity
and common courtesy must serve as the sole basis for
surrender where no treaty exists.
There are therefore several reasonsforchoosingto extradite
in the absence of a treaty. First, some states simply prefer as
a matter of principle or convenience to enter into treaties
only with those countries that require such agreements
before extradition can take place. Second, it seems
unnecessary to enter into treaties with countries where
extradition is a rarity. Third, states do not want to become a
resting place for criminals and will often enact legislation
permitting extradition in the absence of a treaty as a
combatant to unsuspected entry51.
II. Extradition based on the National legislation of
Member States
The negotiation of multilateral sub-regional and bilateral
treaties is a time consuming and resourceintensiveexercise.
As well, it is simply unrealistic for any state to have a
complete set of extradition instruments applicable to every
nation in the world. This explains why of late, CEMAC
countries are adopting an alternative approach to
extradition; which movesawayfromthetreaty-basedmodel.
Most countries in the sub region have adopted a blended
system under which despite the existence of a treaty, as a
pre-requisite for extradition, it could also be granted on the
basis of specific local legislation, without a treaty. This is
very much practiced in Chad where local legislation also
49 Bedi, Satyadeva. 2002. "Extradition: a treatise on the laws
relevant to the fugitive offenders within and with the
Commonwealth countries ". William S.Hein & Co, Inc;
50 Woods Jr, Robert Herbert. 1993. "Extradition: Evaluating
the development, uses and overall effectiveness of the
system ". Regent University Law Review, Volume 2;
51 Wise, Edward. 1969. "Some Problems of Extradition ".
Wayne Law Review;
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governs extradition52. Local legislation clearly states that,
notwithstandingcontraryprovisionsstemmingfromtreaties
the conditions, procedure and effects of extradition are
determined by conditions laid downbyexistingtexts.Where
this is not the case the general provisions governing
extradition will do.53 On the basis of this extradition regime,
the government thanks to an extradition request may
surrender any non-citizen found within its national territory
to a foreign government, where criminal proceedings have
been initiated against that individual by the requesting State,
or a conviction has been pronounced against him by the
State's courts. However, extraditionshallonlybegrantedif the
offence giving rise to the request was committed on the
territory of the requested State, either by one of its nationals
or a foreigner, or; Outside of its territory by one of its
nationals, or; outside of its territory by a non-national of that
State provided the offence is one for which the laws of Chad
authorize the exercise of jurisdiction by Chad, even where the
offence was committed abroad by a non-national.
III. The principle of reciprocity
This is an established principle in the cooperation of States
with respect to matters of international law and diplomacy. It
is basically a promise that the requesting State will provide
the requested State the same type of assistance in the future,
should the requested State be asked to do so. This principle is
usually incorporated into treaties, memorandums of
understanding and domestic law. Itisparticularlyprevalentin
States with a civil law tradition, where it is viewed as a
binding covenant. In common law countries, it is not an
obligatory principle. Cameroon does not make extradition
conditional on the existence of a treaty, thus applying the
principle of reciprocity as a general ruleandallowingthe use
of the Convention as a legal basis 54.Some countries use their
domestic legislation as a basis for extradition and apply the
principle of reciprocity as a precondition to considering
extradition to another State. The principle can also beauseful
tool in a situation in which there is no treaty, as it can be
viewed as a stand-alone promise that one State will do the
same for another State in future should the needarise.Aswith
any promise, the most important thing is to ensure that it can
be kept. One of the central advantages of this approach to
extradition is that it provides for a broader base for
extradition, placing countries in a better positiontorespond
to particular situations that may arise, especially where
52 Act No. 25/82 of 7 July 198230 (enacted on 19 October
1983) and Title VI of the Chadian Criminal Procedure
Code
53 Article 445
54 Conditions of extradition are regulated in sections 642-645
CPC. Grounds for refusal are given in section 649 CPC. Even
though the procedure under theseprovisionsiscumbersome, a
simplified procedure can be applied if the person to be
extradited gives his consent according to section 659 (1) CPC.
The public prosecutor's office has jurisdiction to order the
detention of a person sought by foreign authorities. Cameroon
applies the principle of international law to extradite or
prosecute (aut dedere aut judicare). No Cameroonian citizen
may be extradited. However, jurisdiction to prosecute citizens
in lieu of extradition is based on the active personality
principle. Moreover, section 2 PC provides for the primacy of
international treaties. Therefore, given that Cameroon does
not have mandatory prosecution, this obligation would stem
directly from the Convention.
extradition is a necessity. While approaches vary, the
concept is essentially the same in the entire sub region.
Overall, the CEMAC sub region has a satisfactory framework
for international cooperation in criminal matters. Thus
having established the basis for extradition we now
determine the fundamental requirements for extradition.
FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EXTRADITION IN
THE CEMAC SUB REGION.
Generally, the concept of extraction is regulated by some
fundamental principles. The first has to do with the offence
which constitutes the subject of extradition. Most often to
determine if an offence is extraditable various approaches
are called into play amongst which are the enumerative and
the penalty approaches. The second principle is that of dual
criminality.
A. Extraditable Offences
It is not always easy to determine what an extraditable
offence is. This is because it is not for every offence that a
fugitive may be surrendered by the requested state to the
requesting state55. This explains why this area of extradition
has seen considerable progress through the extension ofthe
application of extradition treaties, the expansion of the
definition of extraditable offences as well as the extensionof
procedures for determining extraditableoffences56.Thefirst
precondition that must be looked at by both the requested
and requesting State is whether the offence alleged in the
extradition request is an offence for which thelawallowsfor
extradition. The issue of what is an extraditable offence can
be determined in two ways under a treaty: either by the
enumerative or penalty methods57.
1. The Enumerative Approach
A common way of avoiding any polemics as to what will
constitute an extraditable offence istolisttheseoffensesand
append them to an extradition instrument58. This method
found in ancient treaties poses a number of problems, as it
requires a degree of accuracy that is difficult for the
requesting State to attain. Most extradition treaties that
were developed inthenineteencentury,definedextraditable
crimes by reference to a list of offences. The conduct
involved had to be a crime in both states. This approach had
a major weakness in that it was hardly comprehensive since
in most cases the lists did not take into account newforms of
emerging international crimes. New crimes develop on a
daily basis but since treaties are stagnant they do not cover
them. Jargon also changes with the times making it difficult
to bring new crimes within the treaty list. Because of these
difficulties there has been a consistent shift from the
enumerative approach towards defining an extraditable
offense on the basis of the applicable penalty.
55S.D.GALEGA, "Extradition as a Mechanism to Combat
Transactional Criminality: A Cameroonian
Perspective."(2005), Juridis Periodiques N0 61, P. 95
56 Kimberley Prost, "Breaking down the barriers:
International cooperationin combatingtransnational crime"
p.8.
57 Article 16, paragraph 1,Parlemo Convention.
58 See the Tanzanian Extradition Act 1965 and the list of
Extradition crimes in the schedule ; see also the Ghanian
Extradition Act 1960 ( as amended ) first schedule .
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2. The Penalty Approach
This approach, based on the interpretation of extradition
instruments, sets aside the list approach and substitutes it
with a conduct and penalty test. It is widely accepted by the
international community. The conduct involved must
constitute an offence punishable in both states, by some
prescribed period of incarceration. The position within
CEMAC states is clear; an extraditable offenseisanoffencein
both the requesting and the requested states; and one
punishable by deprivation of liberty for a period of at least
one year or a more severe penalty, unless otherwise
provided for by a special arrangement, and whose
prosecution must not have been rendered impossible by
prescription, amnesty or any other ground59. In the penalty
method, the extraditable offence is determined by the
seriousness of the penalty that may be imposed. In this case,
the definition is general because the potential length of
punishment will be the determining factor.
Most national laws and extradition treaties within the sub
region, especially the more recent ones, appear to identify
extraditable offences on the basis of a minimum penalty
requirement as opposed to a list of offences60. In Gabon for
instance, extraditable offences for the purposesofa criminal
prosecution are those punishable by deprivation of liberty
for a period of at least one year or a more severe penalty61,
unless otherwise provided for by a special arrangement. In
some rare cases, national laws or bilateral treaties set a
threshold of at least two years of imprisonment in order for
an offence to be extraditable. This is the case of Cameroon
where a minimum sentence of not less than two years of
imprisonment must be imposed for extradition to be
allowed62. The enumerative approach is losing grounds
within the sub region since the approach is likely to cause
problems of implementation. Forexample,thelistedoffences
may not be the same under local legislation as found under
the extradition treaty. It is not unusual to find lists that
contain offences which are different from those listed under
the extradition treaty. Where this is the case theappropriate
solution is usually that the list of extraditable offences be
amended to include, acts that have been criminalized in
accordance with treaty provisions. Also, with regard to
extradition for the purposes of enforcement of a foreign
sentence, the surrender of the offender is permittedifhe has
been sentenced to imprisonment of between two and eight
months or a more severe punishment. The shift away from
rigid list-based treaties and the increasing reliance on a
minimum penalty requirement in the negotiation of new
international treaties adds a degree of flexibility to the
extradition process. The possibility of providing for
minimum penalty requirements is also explicitly
acknowledged in article 44, paragraph 8, of the United
Nations Convention against Corruption (herein after
referred to as the Convention), which is proof that
extradition is subject to the limitations of domestic law.
Nevertheless, as a result of such thresholds, extradition for
59 Article 43 of the 1961 Antanarivo Convention on Mutual
Legal Assistance
60 General Assembly Resolution 45/116, annex and
Resolution 52/88,annex.
61 Arts. 2 and 3 of the CEMAC Extradition Agreement,Art.46
of the France-Gabon Agreement and Art. 41 of the
Antananarivo Convention;
62 section 642 (1) (a) of Cameroon’s Criminal Procedure Code.
the purposes of prosecution may not be possible in cases
where offences established in accordance with the
Convention are punishable by a lesser penalty. The way to
address this situation would be either to revisit the
minimum threshold under the applicable national laws and
treaties and consider harmonizing it with international
standards, or to increase the applicable penalties to ensure
that all forms of conduct criminalized in accordancewiththe
Convention become extraditable63.
Countries within the sub region are expected to make
accessory offences extraditable if the main offence satisfies
the minimum penaltyrequirement. Thishoweverisnot what
obtains given that slight variations to this rule do exist in
some countries, the persons sought have to express their
consent in order to be extradited for accessory offences that
are not extraditable offences themselves (i.e. offences
punishable by a period of less than 12 months); in others,
accessory offences are considered to be extraditable only if
the maximum penalty incurred for all such offences reaches
the threshold of two years' imprisonment. For instance
Cameroon strictly applies the threshold requirement and as
such does not allow extradition for related offences.
B. Dual Criminality
Dual criminality appears to be a standard condition for
granting the extradition of a person present in the territory
of a requested state. CEMAC member states explicitlyset out
the dual criminality principle, along the lines of article 44,
paragraph 1, of the United Nations Convention against
Corruption64. That notwithstanding states may not consider
the absence of dual criminality to be a ground for rejecting
an extradition request, since it is more or less an optional
ground65. Based on the principle of reciprocity a state can
decide to grant extradition even if an act does not amount to
an offence in its criminal legislation.
This concept of double criminality is one of the fundamental
requirements found in the extradition agreements that
govern most CEMAC member states66. It entails the
employment of a relaxed test whereby extradition is only
possible if the act in question is a crime in both the
requesting and requested states.Althoughseeminglysimple,
establishing dual criminality in practice can prove to be one
of the most challenging issues in an extradition case67. The
problem flows from the technical differences in how states
define, name and prove criminal offences.Forexample, what
may be called theft in one state may be larceny in another. In
63 Technical Guide to the United Nations Convention Against
corruption Chap,III, art.30, Subsection, II 1
64Article 3(1) of the Extradition Accord of the Economic and
Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC);
65As provided by article 44, paragraph 2, of the United
Nations Convention against Corruption.
66Gabon applies the principle of dual criminality based on
Articles 4 of The Extradition Agreement between the States
members of CEMAC of 28 January 2004, (the CEMAC
Extradition Agreement), art. 46 of the Agreement on Mutual
Legal Assistance, Sentence Enforcement and Extradition
between France and Gabon of 23 July 1963 (the France-
Gabon Agreement) and art. 42 of the General Conventionon
Judicial Cooperation of1961 (theAntananarivoConvention)
67 Kimberley Prost, "Breaking down the barriers:
International cooperationin combatingtransnational crime"
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the same light the conduct of the alleged offender may
include all the elements of fraud, as defined in both states,
but their definition of the offences might differ. It is logical
that a state should not hand over a person for trial for a
conduct which is not criminal in the requested state. At sub
regional level those to be extradited are persons being
sought for felonies or misdemeanours punishable by the
laws of the requesting state with a penalty of at least two
years imprisonment.68 Thus in the case of Sissoko
Diawoye69 on the 22 of December1992,MeridienBIAObank
in Libreville Gabon , received an order for the transfer of
funds amounting to over four million CFA francs in favour of
one Cisse Ibrahim, a client of MeridienBIAObank Cameroon,
in Douala. The transfer order was supposed to have been
made by one Cisse Soumayilla who actually held an account
with the bank in Gabon; thedefendant,SissokoDiawoye, was
also known by the sobriquet of Cisse Ibrahim.The owner of
the Libreville account (i.e. Cisse Soumayilla), refused having
ordered the transfer of funds into the defendants account in
Douala, Cameroon. Gabonese authorities thus contacted the
bank officials in Cameroon and the defendant was arrested
as he tried to withdraw the said amount. A request for
extradition of the defendant was accordingly made to the
Cameroonian authorities for forgery and other forgery
related offences70, punishableundersections119,120,301 of
the Gabonese penal code which corresponds to offences
punishable under the Cameroonian penal code under
sections 318(1)c71 on false pretences and section 314 on
forgery; each with an imprisonment term of at least five
years. After hearing, the Cameroonian courtdecidedthatthe
extradition request be granted.72 The court laid much
emphasis on the fact that the conduct which formed the
basis of the request for the defendants surrender was
punishable with imprisonment of at least two years under
Gabonese as well as Cameroonianlawandthenproceededto
cite the offence of forgery as complying with the
requirement of minimum of two years term of
imprisonment. In the past most extradition cases failed
because of a technical flaw in the dual criminality approach.
However, the modern test for dual criminality, incorporated
in many extradition treaties and instruments, focuses not on
these technical terms or definitions but rather on the
substantive underlying conduct.Thus,thetestiswhether the
conduct alleged against the fugitive would constitute a
criminal offence in the requested state, regardless of
whether the offences in the two statescarrya differentname
or have different elements to them73. This development has
greatly simplified and improved extradition practice.
68Article 43(1) of the 1961 Antananarivo Convention on
Mutual Legal Assistance
69 Arret N° 1101/COR du 23 Septembre 1994.
70 Cameroon and Gabon are signatories to the 1961
Antananarivo Convention
71 This section punishes certain conducts including false
pretences .The section provides that whoever causes loss to
another by false pretences , that is by influencing him
deceitfully by tricks or by representation or concealment of
any fact , shall be punished with imprisonment of from five
to ten years
72 S.D.GALEGA, "Extradition as a Mechanism to Combat
Transactional Criminality: A Cameroonian
Perspective."(2005), Juridis Periodiques N0 61, P. 97
73 Article 43, paragraph 2, of the United Nations Convention
against Corruption
Countries of the sub region do not encounter any obstacles
in obtaining or extending cooperationtootherCEMACStates
on account of the dual criminality principle. This
notwithstanding as far as corruption-related offences are
concerned, there is a problem with countries that do not
criminalize acts covered bynon-mandatoryprovisionsof the
Convention, such as bribery offoreignofficials,briberyinthe
private sector and illicit enrichment. There are instances
where if a state does not include foreign public officials and
officials of public international organizations in the
definition of public officials used in domestic legislation, a
strict interpretation of the dual criminality principle, may
lead to the conclusion that extradition for bribery74, is not
possible. Based on this, countries of the sub regionareurged
to consider relaxing the dual criminality requirement and
granting the extradition of a person for offences that are not
punishable under its domesticlaw.Mostimportantly,thefull
criminalization of all offences established under the sub
regional legal framework is recommendedinorderto ensure
that the absence of the dual criminality requirement can no
longer constitute an obstacle to the surrender of suspected
offenders.
PRACTICALISSUESTHAT MAYOBSTRUCTEXTRADITION
BETWEEN STATES IN THE CEMAC SUB REGION
Generally extradition will be refused if the requesting state
does not fulfil any of the relevantrequirementsnecessaryfor
granting extradition. These are dual criminality, whether or
not the conduct constitutes an extraditable offence,whether
the requirement of evidence is satisfied or whether the
extradition request packageisdeficientonanyotherground.
It will be appropriate to point out that the court will also
consider if there are any peculiar circumstances in a
particular case which justify refusal of the request for
surrender( such as , triviality, bad faith , time lapse, etc).
There are also other important grounds for refusing to
comply with an extradition request. All the same these
grounds on which extradition may be refused do not have
the same effect. Some are mandatory while others are
discretionary to the requested state with the classification
varying very much depending on the instrument used.
Refusal on grounds of a political offence, discrimination or
double jeopardy are regarded as mandatory , while others
such as the prospect of facing a death penalty, nationality or
extraterritoriality , may be refused or accepted by the
requested state as it deems it fit. This practice is laden with
problems, ranging from the simple question of channels of
communication, to the complex issue of the proper role of
the political offence in modern day extradition. It is not
possible to review this myriad of issues here and now.
Rather it is most useful to focus on a problem which most
often affects the practice of extradition amongststatesofthe
sub region. That of the non- extradition of nationals.
A. Non-extradition of nationals
Equity demands that once the criminal law safeguards at
trial and other guarantees for the fair trial of the fugitive are
equivalent in both states, the extradition of all offenders
should be permitted75. There is a big dilemma whether a
state should allow the extradition of their own citizens, or
74 as set forth in article 16 of the Convention,
75 Shearer, Ivan Anthony. 1971. "Extradition in international
law". University of Manchester at the University Press,page
107.
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should it be avoided? Most states of the sub region, by
constitutional law as well as by practice, prohibit the
extradition of their nationals76. In most instances those
countries that do notextraditetheirnationals,havedomestic
jurisdiction to prosecute their nationals for offences
committed in the territory of a foreign state. In the case of a
crime committed outside Cameroon by a Cameroonian
national, Cameroonian criminal law applies. This is to the
effect that nationals or residents will be prosecuted locally
for acts committed abroad, provided they are punishable
under the legislation of the place where they were
committed and are definedascrimesorotheroffencesunder
Cameroonian law77. However, the only way a citizen or
resident who is guilty of committing a crime abroad, may be
tried by the Cameroonian courts in application of this
provision. It is for the State Counsel's Office to initiate
proceedings following a complaint or official charge
addressed to the government of Cameroon by the
government of the country in which the crime was
committed.
With Regard to the extradition of nationals,the2004CEMAC
Accord on Extradition between CEMAC MemberStates,in its
Article 5 prescribes that:78
1. The Contracting Party shall have the right to refuse
extradition of its nationals.
2. Each Contracting Party may, by a declaration made at
the time of signature or of deposit of its instrument of
ratification or accession, define as far as it is concerned
the term "nationals" within the meaning of this
Convention.
3. Nationality shall be determined as at the time of the
decision concerning extradition. If, however, theperson
claimed is first recognized as a national of therequested
party during the period betweenthetimeofthedecision
and the time contemplated for the surrender, the
requested party may avail itself of the provision
contained in subparagraph 1 of this article.
Accordingly; if the requested Party does not extradite its
national, it is expected at the request of the requestingParty,
to submit the case to its competent authorities in order that
proceedings may be taken if they are considered
appropriate79.For this purpose, the files, information and
exhibits relating to the offence shall be transmitted without
charges.80 The requesting Party shall be informed of the
result of its request.
There is generally no obligation to prosecute in such cases,
although the possibility of refusing to extradite citizens may
76 Article 10 of the Cameroonian Penal Code, cf. Articles 635
to 675 of the Cameroonian Criminal Procedure Code.
77 The obligation to extradite or prosecute (aut dedere aut
judicare) is applicable as a principle ofGaboneselawanditis
also provided for under the Antananarivo Convention (art.
51), the CEMAC Extradition Agreement (art. 16) and the
France-Gabon Agreement (art. 51) .
78 See also the 1961 Antananarivo Convention
79 Article 164 of regulation N0 01/CEMAC/UMAC/CMonthe
prevention and suppression of Money Laundering and the
Financing of Terrorism and Proliferation in Central
Africa2016
80 Article 13, paragraph 1.of the 2004 CEMAC Accord on
Extradition between CEMAC Member States
be coupled with a duty to prosecute them in the courtsofthe
requested state. For example, CEMAC countries havealways
applied the principle aut dedere aut judicare referring to the
non-extradition of nationals. Thus the main extradition
agreement in the sub region which is the 1961 Antanarivo
Convention on Mutual Legal Assistance lays down the
principle, based on which extradition is refused on grounds
of nationality, and where this is the case, the matter is
referred to competent authoritiesinthe requestedstate with
a view to prosecution. Therelevantarticlesofthisagreement
are thus intended to ensure that no criminal escapes justice
and find safe haven on the basis of nationality. This
notwithstanding it is now obvious that the domestic
prosecution of offences committed outside a country is a
process replete with problems.
This explains why the use of the principle aut dedere aut
judicare is in theory an alternative to the extradition of
nationals and has actually in practice proved effective.
However there have been several practical problems in its
application, including the low priority assigned to such
prosecutions by overburdened requested States. The
difficulty and costs of obtaining evidence from the
requesting State, and the serious burdens imposed by such
trials on the victims, witnesses and other persons, are some
examples. These problems significantly impeded the
effectiveness of this alternative to extradition81.Because of
the litany, of practical problems, it is no longer possible for
states to ignore the growing problemsassociatedtothenon-
extradition of nationals. There is therefore a need for
countries of the sub region to critically examine their
extradition policies in relation to nationals. If they cannot
abolish the prohibition, it will be advisable to adopt other
alternatives. One of such being an extradition of a national
following a treaty based agreement between states where
the parties agree to extradite their nationals provided they
are bound by a prisoner transfer treaty, which allows forthe
return of the person for service of whatever sentence
imposed. This however does notmeanthatswiftchanges are
expected within the sub region on the issue of non-
extradition of nationals in domestic policies. This is
especially as in many instances, the principles are deeply
entrenched and in some countries, they are constitutionally
enshrined. Thus, practitioners will continue to face
situations where the extradition of nationals will not be
possible. For such cases, there exist many challenges for
prosecutors, who wish to see the alleged offender brought
before a court, for an effective trial. Initially, the prosecutor
in the requesting state will have to make a decision whether
to press for prosecution in the foreign state or await an
opportunity or circumstance where extradition might be
possible (e.g. if the fugitive travels to another country). If
prosecution is to be pursued in the foreign state, then
prosecutors in both Jurisdictions will have to consider how
best to ensure the transmission of evidence to the
prosecuting state. And as long as the non-extradition of
nationals remains a reality, it will becritical thatprosecutors
meet the challenges in this area of the law. For without
solutions that bring the fugitives to justice in some forum,
safe haven for such criminals will be the reality.
See also the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December, 1948 78 U N T S 277.
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B. The Lack of an Austere Enforcement Mechanism
International law lacks rigid enforcement because of the
absence of a sovereign sanction82. Noncompliance emanates
from the lack of sanctions and this isa majorweaknesstothe
universal application of International laws. Extradition is a
form of International law that aims at the delivery of a
fugitive of justice by one nation state to another which
requires coordination and compliance by these nations to
the Extradition treaties ratified bythem.83 Generally,thereis
a consensus in International law that there is no obligation
on states to extradite fugitives of justice without being
signatories to these treaties. The principle of sovereignty is
to the effect that every nation has jurisdictionoveritspeople
within its borders. However, theprinciplesofreciprocityand
comity are there to favour extradition even in the absence of
extradition treaties.84
The nonexistence of an international obligation and the
prerogative to demand domestic criminals from other
countries has caused the evolution of a web of extradition
treaties. When there is no extradition agreement, sovereign
states can still implore the expulsion of a fugitive of justice
pursuant to the domestic laws of the State required to
extradite the individual. This can also be done under the
immigration or any other domestic laws which may be
applicable under the jurisdiction of the State where the
individual has fled.85. There are a multiplicity of problems
which arise in the implementation of extradition treaties,
and these problems are endemic to the very nature of
extradition law.
CONCLUSION
The obstacles resulting from the non extraditionofnationals
by most states of the sub region are made even worse by
problems of ineffective enforcement of existing extradition
laws. The treaties that constitute the legal basis for
extradition are binding only on the signatory states. there is
no obligation to extradite a fugitive if a country is not a
signatory to such an agreement. even where they are
signatories to the treaty for extradition, they cannot be
forced to extradite criminals because there exist no system
of sanctions imposed on countries not abiding by the law on
extradition.86 There is a lack of uniformity in the
enforcement of extradition treaties and this lack of
uniformity diminishes the legitimacy of the law itself. The
law on extradition is completely based on the existence of a
treaty and existing case law on extradition demonstrates
that there is no obligation to extradite fugitives in the
absence of a treaty.87 In such instances, the fugitives tend to
believe that they can flee justice by going to a country which
82 EDWIN W.PATTERSON,Hans Kelsen and His PureTheory of
Law, VOLUME 40, ISSUE 1, CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW 4, (1952).
83 M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, The Penal Characteristics of
Conventional International CriminalLaw, 15CASEW.RES.J.
INT'L L. 27 (1983),
HTTP://SCHOLARLYCOMMONS.LAW.CASE.EDU/JIL/VOL15/ISS1/5
84 IBID.
85 DAN E.STIGALL,Ungoverned Spaces,TransnationalCrime,
and the Prohibition on Extraterritorial Enforcement
Jurisdiction in International Law, 3 NOTRE DAME J. INT'L &
COMP. L. 1 (2013),
86 BASSIOUNI, supra NOTE 2.
87 FACTOR V.LAUBENHEIMER,290U.S.276, (1933), VALENTINE V.
UNITED STATES, 299 U.S. 5, (1936).
does not have an extradition treaty with the country in
which the crime was committed. This loophole fuels evasion
of justice on a massive scale, thus undermining the sole
intention behind the formulation of extradition laws in the
first place. Excessive reliance on extradition treaties by
countries can also cause various other problems such as
severing of diplomatic relations and a perennial dilemma of
maintaining a network of treaties with over one hundred
states.88
One of the most serious problems withextraditiontreatiesis
that the treaty allowing extradition also sets grounds for a
defense against that extradition. Thus the Political offence
exception is an excellent paradigm which explains this
problem of providing a defense to an offense in the treaty
itself. This exception is includedinmostofthecontemporary
extradition agreements and none of these agreements
objectively define political offense. As a result, a wide
interpretation and discretion can be awarded to such an
exception leading to most of the fugitives escaping justice.
Therefore, it is essential to develop a firmer law for
extradition so that criminals (whether political,corporate or
international) cannot flee justice.
88 BARBARA M. YARNOLD, INTERNATIONAL FUGITIVES:A NEW ROLE
FOR THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (GREENWOOD
PUBLISHING GROUP, 1991), BASSIOUNI, supra NOTE 2.