Cognitive Psychology: Past, Present, and Contributions of PsychometricsJames Smith
A high level overview of the field of cognitive psychology, including the contributions of the Ancient Greeks, pre and post-20th century philosophers and psychologists, and how the field of psychometrics is contributing to, and advancing cognitive psychology.
(C) 2015 James R. Smith. All rights reserved.
Cognitive Psychology: Past, Present, and Contributions of PsychometricsJames Smith
A high level overview of the field of cognitive psychology, including the contributions of the Ancient Greeks, pre and post-20th century philosophers and psychologists, and how the field of psychometrics is contributing to, and advancing cognitive psychology.
(C) 2015 James R. Smith. All rights reserved.
This is a revision of my presentation from the August 2013 International Human Science Research Conference in Aalborg, Denmark. My objective was to convey the interrelationship of description and interpretation within phenomenological philosophy and upon Giorgi's descriptive research approach drawing upon Ricoeur's hermeneutic philosophy.
The Import of Integral pluralism in striving towards an integral metatheory o...Guy Du Plessis
ABSTRACT In my previous work I explored how Integral Theory can be applied as a
meta‐theoretical and transdisciplinary framework, in an attempt to arrive at integrally
informed metatheory of addiction, yet indispensable aspects were overlooked.
Moreover, an overemphasis was placed on Integral Methodological Pluralism, without
clarifying the ontological pluralism of addiction as a multiple object enacted by various
methodologies. I believe what is needed in an attempt at a comprehensive integral
metatheory of addiction is to include Sean Esbjörn‐Hargens and Michael Zimmerman’s
Integral Pluralism and Integral Enactment Theory. Integral Enactment Theory highlights
the phenomenon of addiction as a multiple and dynamic object arising along a
continuum of ontological complexity. Integral Enactment Theory adeptly points out how
etiological models “co‐arise”, in relation to methodology (methodological pluralism) and
enacts a particular reality of addiction (ontological pluralism), while being mediated by
the world view of the subject (epistemological pluralism) applying the method. This
paper briefly explores the significance of including Integral Pluralism and Integral
Enactment theory in the quest of an integral metatheory of addiction
The Shift from "Ordinary" to "Extraordinary" Experience in Psychodynamic Supe...James Tobin, Ph.D.
In this paper, presented to Division 39 (Psychoanalysis) at the 2012 APA Conference in Orlando, Florida, Dr. Tobin argues that the trainee and novice clinician may create a therapeutic setting in which the therapist manifests an attitude and demeanor drawn largely from standards forms of interpersonal interaction and the mores constituting typical social discourse. Clinical supervision may also reflect an investment in restricted forms of experience, thus leading to “sterile supervision” characterized by defensive processes and false manifestations. Dr. Tobin argues that the clinical situation is an "extraordinary" social experience that sacrifices most forms of standard social discourse in order to create an open space in which therapist and patient are unhindered by that which normally is. Supervision, therefore, should be focused on developing in the supervisee a therapeutic persona mobilized by the trainee's experience of new freedoms encountered in supervision.
Phenomenology: The Study of Individuals' Lived Experiences of the WorldRyan Bernido
Phenomenological Research is a research design used to study and describe the essence of the lived experiences of individuals within the world. There are two main types of phenomenological research, these are (a) descriptive phenomenological research and (b) interpretive phenomenological research. Many scholars regarded Edmund Husserl as the Father of Phenomenology.
This is a revision of my presentation from the August 2013 International Human Science Research Conference in Aalborg, Denmark. My objective was to convey the interrelationship of description and interpretation within phenomenological philosophy and upon Giorgi's descriptive research approach drawing upon Ricoeur's hermeneutic philosophy.
The Import of Integral pluralism in striving towards an integral metatheory o...Guy Du Plessis
ABSTRACT In my previous work I explored how Integral Theory can be applied as a
meta‐theoretical and transdisciplinary framework, in an attempt to arrive at integrally
informed metatheory of addiction, yet indispensable aspects were overlooked.
Moreover, an overemphasis was placed on Integral Methodological Pluralism, without
clarifying the ontological pluralism of addiction as a multiple object enacted by various
methodologies. I believe what is needed in an attempt at a comprehensive integral
metatheory of addiction is to include Sean Esbjörn‐Hargens and Michael Zimmerman’s
Integral Pluralism and Integral Enactment Theory. Integral Enactment Theory highlights
the phenomenon of addiction as a multiple and dynamic object arising along a
continuum of ontological complexity. Integral Enactment Theory adeptly points out how
etiological models “co‐arise”, in relation to methodology (methodological pluralism) and
enacts a particular reality of addiction (ontological pluralism), while being mediated by
the world view of the subject (epistemological pluralism) applying the method. This
paper briefly explores the significance of including Integral Pluralism and Integral
Enactment theory in the quest of an integral metatheory of addiction
The Shift from "Ordinary" to "Extraordinary" Experience in Psychodynamic Supe...James Tobin, Ph.D.
In this paper, presented to Division 39 (Psychoanalysis) at the 2012 APA Conference in Orlando, Florida, Dr. Tobin argues that the trainee and novice clinician may create a therapeutic setting in which the therapist manifests an attitude and demeanor drawn largely from standards forms of interpersonal interaction and the mores constituting typical social discourse. Clinical supervision may also reflect an investment in restricted forms of experience, thus leading to “sterile supervision” characterized by defensive processes and false manifestations. Dr. Tobin argues that the clinical situation is an "extraordinary" social experience that sacrifices most forms of standard social discourse in order to create an open space in which therapist and patient are unhindered by that which normally is. Supervision, therefore, should be focused on developing in the supervisee a therapeutic persona mobilized by the trainee's experience of new freedoms encountered in supervision.
Phenomenology: The Study of Individuals' Lived Experiences of the WorldRyan Bernido
Phenomenological Research is a research design used to study and describe the essence of the lived experiences of individuals within the world. There are two main types of phenomenological research, these are (a) descriptive phenomenological research and (b) interpretive phenomenological research. Many scholars regarded Edmund Husserl as the Father of Phenomenology.
Content:
Introduction and Status quo . 2
Ontology .
Epistemology .
Me hodolog . . .3
Research De ign . . 4
The introduction of Background Theory . 4
Background Theorie .
Reference . . . .. . 6
Introduction and status quo
The family business is the prevalent organizational form of business globally (Daily and Dollinger,
1993). One of the distinguishing features of family firms (FFs) is that they are built upon close
relationships among family members (Cruz et al., 2010), which can serve as a valuable resource
for serious tensions (Herrero, 2018). Some scholars see conflict as the source of all evil (Jayantilal
et al., 2016) that can create anxiety, especially among spouses. The tensions may be transferred to
other family members, notably the children, which may cause severe dysfunctional problems in
the family. These problems may put the whole family business in danger. These assumptions are
too simplistic and misleading and are one of the main reasons why the literature on this topic
remains largely undertheorized and fragmented, resulting in theoretical limitations and empirical
indeterminacy (Pai and Bendersky, 2020). we (Paola Rovelli,2021) advice for further research
that looks more closely at the family system, considering for instance aspects such as conflicts to
increase their attention towards the consequences of such inconsistencies. The psychology
literature suggests that moderate levels of conflict may enhance group performance through
improved decision-making processes, fostered innovation, and enhanced creativity Likewise,
conflict is not always negative (cognitive conflict), as it may lead to constructive challenges and
improvements (e.g., Ensley & Pearson, 2005. The purpose of this research is that it will give
insights to understand why in some contexts conflict leads to negative performance and why in
others to a positive outcome.
Ontology
An area of philosoph , that deals with the nature of being, or what exists; the area of philosophy
that asks what is and what the fundamental categories of reality are (Neuman, 2014, p. 94). social
reality is created by subjects through their interactions and interpretations, actors influence
structures and regularities, knowledge about social reality is always dependent on subjects and
social relations. In the concept of ontology, this research will put in the concept of nominalism
(as opposed to realism). Nominalists believe in multiple versions of reality, which is derived from
the researcher s interpretations of truth, and depending on the researcher s experience, it can only
be transferred to similar contexts. conflicts, as phenomena of social reality (Kellermanns and
Eddleston, 2004) focuses on communications, relationships and sees communicative acts as the
elements rather than persons. To understand it, the researcher should penetrate the depth of the
matter. Conflicts as a complex web of ...
For my final project I am choosing the environmental influences on.docxrhetttrevannion
For my final project I am choosing the environmental influences on personality particularly about childhood experiences and their effect on an individual’s personalities. I am contrasting childhood experiences that are caused by their environment to the effect on their personality, I will use the correlation research method. A questionnaire will be used in order to obtain the information I would need. This method would admit me to have a larger sample base, have a better image of the relationship, and numerous variables providing for better research circumstances down the road. The disadvantage to this technique would be, I would not have a personal relationship from those apart of the study and this could cause a lack of dishonesty. Second, establishing a questionnaire that was both dependable and accurate could be an issue. Lastly, I would only get a view at what those in the group went through.
Ethically, I would run into a problem of confidentiality and making sure all of the questionnaires were kept secret and those taking them were offered secrecy. Anyone who take part in the activity would be able to eliminate themselves from the research if they wanted to and if they left the documents it would be destroyed. I would maintain their best interest and would be real and honest with them regarding what the study is being used for and why it was being done. Still, because there isn’t a personal relationship but just general on this could be difficult to prove and cause doubt and that could be an ethical crisis.
References:
APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2017) (PDF, 272KB)
APA Manual (Publication manual of the American Psychological Association). (2010). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Cervone, D. (2019). Personality theory and research (14th ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley &sons.
1
PSY 216 LITERATURE REVIEW TEMPLATE 7
PSY 216 Literature Review Template
Student Name
Institution Affiliation
Course Number and Name
Submission Date
Article One
What is the title of the article? Provide a citation for the article in APA format.
Birth Order Effects on Personality and Various Achievement within Families.
Paulhus, D.L., Trapnell, P.D.,& Chen, D. (1999). Birth Order Effects on Personality and various Achievement within Families. Psychology Science, 10(6), 482-488.
What is the purpose of the article, and how does the purpose relate to personality development?
The main objective of this research article is generally to investigate on the effect of character and diverse achievements that occur due to confinement order.
What is the hypothesis of the study? In other words, what claims do the authors make in the article?
Throughout the literature review reading, it is clear that firstborn mostly stayed nominated as attaining and contentious. Concurrent, most children, born later, were profoundly stated to be most insubordinate and courteous.
What variables (factors) are being looked .
Ontology as a Hidden Driver of Politics: Commoning and Relational Approaches ...Zack Walsh
This report offers a synthesis of findings from 18 experts who, at a three-day workshop, discussed how shifting the ontological premises of political and economic thought toward process-relational ontology could transform society. The workshop, called “Onto-seeding Societal Transformation,” was co-hosted by the Commons Strategies Group and the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, in Neudenau, Germany, between September 9-12, 2019. It consisted of three successive sessions focused on process-relational approaches to ontology, design patterns, and politics. A final, fourth session focused on the integration of ontology, patterns, and politics in concrete case studies. This report concludes with new questions and next steps for strategically advancing relational approaches to governance and the commons.
Exploration of Meaning as Emergent Phenomenon in Transformation by Dr Cynthia Cavalli
1. An Exploration of Meaning as Emergent Phenomenon in Transformational Experiences
Cynthia Cavalli*
Abstract
Cambray (2009) and Hogenson (2005) proposed that synchronicity, C. G. Jung’s symbolically
based theory of meaningful coincidence, is emergent and complex in nature. A study was
conducted to explore this proposal, focusing in particular on the relationship between the
emergence of meaning in synchronicity using Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method in
psychology (2009). The current paper extrapolates from the essential structure to suggest
adaptations for organisational contexts, in an example of theory building from individual to
organisational level. The results of the study are examined for implications to the field of
organisational complexity especially with respect to uncertainty, meaning, and non-rational
approaches.
Key Words: synchronicity, meaningful coincidence, emergence, complexity, emergence of
meaning.
*Cynthia Cavalli has a doctorate in human and organisational systems from Fielding Graduate
University. She also has an MBA, and a BS in Physics, with 30 years of experience in aerospace
engineering. She is currently studying the psychology of C. G. Jung using the perspective of
complexity science and emergent processes for implications to organisations. Cynthia can be
reached at: ccavalli@email.fielding.edu.
Disclaimer: This case has been written solely as the basis for class discussion, for educational
and development purposes and is not intended to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling
2. An Exploration of Meaning as Emergent Phenomenon in Transformational Experiences
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of an administrative situation or to represent successful or unsuccessful managerial decision
making or endorse the views of management. Some of the names, events, financial and other
information has been disguised or camouflaged to protect the identity and to maintain the
confidentiality
Introduction
This paper examines the results of a study on synchronicity and emergence (Cavalli, 2013) for
implications to the field of organisational complexity. The study was conducted to explore the
relationship between synchronicity, C. G. Jung’s theory of meaningful coincidence, and
complexity science through the phenomenon of emergence. Specifically, the study used
phenomenological methods to research the experience of meaning that arises out of life changing
synchronicities for nine individuals. The results seem to correlate with models of organisational
change and transformation found in the literature. This paper summarises the main similarities
and concludes with the value the study holds for organisations as complex systems.
Need for Study
The twentieth century psychiatrist, C. G. Jung observed certain patterns in the experiences of his
patients where inner subjective events seemed to match or in some way correlate with outer
events. He formulated his theory of synchronicity using observations from his clinical practice.
A key challenge in science then, as now, is how subjectively experienced inner reality is related
to externally observed reality. Together with his collaborator physicist Wolfgang Pauli, Jung
3. An Exploration of Meaning as Emergent Phenomenon in Transformational Experiences
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believed synchronicity concerned this intersection in some way and explored it from the
perspective of quantum mechanics. Developments in the field of complexity science make it an
even more appropriate framework to consider synchronicity. Drawing from the work of
researchers who are reconsidering synchronicity in the context of complexity (Hogenson, 2005;
Cambray, 2009), the study explored the connection between synchronicity, meaning, and
emergence using Giorgi’s phenomenological descriptive method in psychology (2009). The
essential structure obtained from the experiences of the nine participants reveals certain
dynamics that may hold value for individuals as well as organisations. This paper extrapolates
from the results at the individual nd identifies certain dynamics from Jung’s theory that are
proposed for adaptation at the organisational level.
Objective
The study’s objective was to explore the connection between synchronicity and complexity by
focusing on the emergence of meaning from a life changing synchronistic experience. The
objective of this paper is to adapt certain results from the study at the individual level for use at
the organisational level.
Research Method
The hypothesis of the study proposes that there is a connection between synchronicity and
complexity and that this connection can be explored through the experience of meaning from a
synchronistic event. The study used a method developed by Giorgi known as The Descriptive
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Phenomenological Method in Psychology (2009) in conjunction with alchemical hermeneutics as
described by Romanyshyn (2007). The research method, as applied to phenomenology, requires
some adaptation for use in psychology; Giorgi’s method also seeks meanings correlated with the
facts of the experience.
The alchemical hermeneutic (AH) refers to an attitude Romanyshyn employs to illustrate the
dynamics of soul-oriented research, especially focusing on reflection. Phenomenological
reflection is both asy and difficult—easy because seeing the meaning of a phenomenon is
something everyone does all the time every day; but the determination and explication of
meaning of a phenomenon is the more difficult task of phenomenological reflection (Van Manen,
1990). AH deepens this act of reflection into a purposeful reverie. By approaching the work with
emptiness and a lack of agenda, the text is invited to tell its tale (Romanyshyn, 2007).
By applying this methodology to the lived experience of individuals, the study sought to identify
areas that can be correlated to emergence, providing linkage to complexity. This paper then
draws from these results to identify theoretical elements for adaptation to organisational
contexts.
Data Collection and Results
The following sections describe the participant demographics, data collection, analysis, and
results.
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Participant Demographics
Nine individuals took part in this study, selecting names of their own choosing. Participants were
selected for experiences that involved life changing synchronicities. Each participant was
required to have had enough time to reflect on and develop some understanding around their
experience (Table 64.1).
Table 64.1.Participant Demographics
Source: C. Cavalli (2013)
Participant Selection
Participants were solicited using social networking tools and other recruiting methods. An initial
conversation (via phone and/or email) was used to confirm that each participant had experienced
the phenomenon of synchronicity, defined as experience of an inner event that matches an outer
Participant Gender Age Range Geographical Location Ethnicity Education Profession
Jen F 21 to 40 Southeast USA White PhD Professor
Shirley F 60 to 80 Northeast US White Masters Psychiatric Nurse
Mary Alice F n/p Pacific Northwest White PhD Jungian Play Therapist
Karin Ann F 21 to 40 not provided White Masters Therapist/Energy Work
Beth Anne F 41 to 60 Western US White/Native American PhD Nurse/Writer/Mythologist
Kira F 41 to 60 Northeast US White PhD IT/Naturopath
Rani F 21 to 40 Northeast US Indian Masters Finance & Mental Health
Vivian F 21 to 40 Western US White PhD Spiritual Teacher
Remo Roth M 60 to 80 Northern Europe White PhD Writer/Healer/Therapist
6. An Exploration of Meaning as Emergent Phenomenon in Transformational Experiences
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event, that is connected by meaning but not by cause and effect, and that they had had time to
process the experience enough to discuss it in depth.
Data Collection
Interviews were set up with each participant, and conducted using an open ended interview
format to gain as much detail and information as possible about each participant’s experience.
Each interview was recorded digitally and transcribed using the tool ‘Express Scribe’ available
online. The recordings were listened to at least three or more times, and each transcribed
interview was read at least five or more times, to gain an overall feeling for the data as a whole.
With each reading, personal impressions and reactions were recorded separately for bracketing
purposes.
Data Analysis
Each research protocol, consisting of the transcribed interviews for each participant, was
carefully reviewed while employing a combined phenomenological and an alchemical
hermeneutic attitude. Significant statements were drawn from this review if they provided insight
into the meaning of the event, deep emotion associated with the event, transformative aspect of
the event, reaction to the event, or insight into the structure or explanation of the event.
Following Giorgi’s method (Giorgi, 2009), these significant statements were reworded into the
third person to avoid over-identification with the participant. These statements were next
7. An Exploration of Meaning as Emergent Phenomenon in Transformational Experiences
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transformed into psychologically relevant meaning units, frequently referring back to the original
protocol to ensure true meaning of the statement was retained with nothing added or removed.
A situated structure was constructed from these meaning units; themes were identified from the
situated structure, and then summarised as thematic clusters. These steps were repeated for each
participant, resulting in nine tables of thematic clusters. Common thematic clusters were
identified across the nine tables; imaginative variation was used to determine essential
constituents, discarding the rest. These final thematic clusters constitute the essential structure of
the phenomenon, resulting in eight elements, as shown in Table 64.2. The clusters of themes
were then condensed into a structural description of the phenomenon, described in the diagnosis
and analysis section below.
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Table 64.2.Thematic Clusters, Frequency of Occurrence, Essential Structure
Thematic Clusters - Essential Structure Frequency
Crisis (death, divorce, loss of job, etc.) 9
Disruption of Emotional Balance (depression, grief, loss of direction, etc.) 9
Uncertainty (navigating without knowing, waiting, moving one step at a time) 7
Synchronicity or Non-rational Juxtaposition of Seemingly Unrelated Events 9
Numinosity (awe, feeling of sacredness/holiness, etc.)
8
Also Peak/flow experience (Samadhi, timeless, superhuman experience)
Recognition of bigger things at work – divine plan, life's larger pattern 9
Meaning (gradual unfolding, sudden understanding/emergent meaning) 9
Life Transformed (Crisis was pivotal for transformation - made me who I am) 9
Source: C. Cavalli (2013)
Diagnosis and Analysis
The main finding of the study is the essential structure, which was comprised of the following
elements—Crisis, Disruption of Emotional Balance, Uncertainty, Synchronicity, Numinosity
(Awe), Recognition of Life’s Larger Pattern, Meaning and Transformation. These elements
constitute the essential structure of the experience of meaning for individuals experiencing a life-
changing synchronicity. Three of the theme clusters, ‘synchronicity’, ‘meaning’ and ‘life’
transformed, were required for participation, and so are by default part of the essential structure
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of the phenomenon under study. Although the theme clusters as listed seem to comprise a flow,
not all participants experienced the elements in this specific order.
Analysis of the essential structure elements follows.
Crisis, Disruption of Emotional Balance
The findings indicate that the theme ‘crisis’ may not be specifically essential to the structure as
long as the theme of ‘disruption of emotional balance’ is present. In life, the two usually go
together, as they did for every participant in this study. But it seems the ‘disruption of emotional
balance’ was the critical aspect. After experiencing crisis many participants reported feeling
depressed for a period of time. Some described feelings of loneliness or disorientation, which is
why this category is called ‘disruption of emotional balance’ rather than ‘depression’. This
departure from one’s normal attitude appeared to facilitate the ability to discern the unusual
juxtaposition of events constituting the synchronicity.
Uncertainty, Synchronicity
The theme of ‘uncertainty’ often occurred concurrently with ‘disruption of emotional balance’.
During uncertain periods, previous or normal rules of conduct seemed suspended, and
participants found themselves unable to do anything but wait for further information or insight to
emerge. Several participants described their experience of the element ‘synchronicity’ by
suggesting how to navigate ‘uncertainty’. The process generally involved moving one step at a
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time and waiting for further information. One participant described synchronicity as based on the
Chinese principle of Tao saying that life is teleological and something in us knows the future of
our life, and where the Tao wants to lead us. When the Tao is not followed, synchronicities come
to show the way forward. Continued resistance of the individual’s path could result in negative
synchronicities.
Synchronicity as Non-rational Juxtaposition of Seemingly Unrelated Events
For many, the recognition that a synchronicity occurred, or more specifically that something
from inner life had been matched in outer reality, had a shocking effect. In fact, the element of
‘synchronicity’ was given the alternate name ‘non-rational juxtaposition of seemingly unrelated
events’ precisely because it was this aspect of unconventional pairing of inner and outer
experiences that seems critical.
Numinosity
The experience of ‘awe’, often accompanying the realization that a synchronicity has occurred,
even seems to partner with the ‘non-rational juxtaposition of seemingly unrelated events’ (or
synchronicity) to direct attention away from ordinary human experience. Certainly experiences
accompanied by awe and numinosity were considered more memorable and appeared to have
greater impact on overall experience. For those who had it, the numinous aspect of experience
was unforgettable, and remained unclouded with the passing of time.
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Recognition of Larger Life Pattern
This next essential element refers to the insight all participants described, that there is a larger
pattern in life far bigger than one’s own personal plan. This realization may be responsible for
the meaning experienced by the participants, and seems to coincide with a shift in attitude
towards acceptance and healing. This realization may even ‘cause’ the shift in attitude and
acceptance, resulting in both healing and meaning. While none of the participants actually
attributed cause in this way, it remains a possibility. Furthermore, it appears that this recognition
of a larger pattern in life is facilitated directly by the synchronicity. To be more specific, it
appears that it is the recognition that an inner event is inexplicably connected with an outer event
that shifts the individual out of a normal world view, giving them a glimpse of the larger pattern
at work in life, and in turn radically altering one’s attitude, bringing acceptance and healing.
Meaning
The experience of meaning was the focal point of the study and was found to manifest both
gradually and suddenly. Meaning appears to occur when the individual is able to make sense of
the elements of the big experience that happened, to put them in a larger context, find some
purpose in them, or understand how ‘what happened’ relates to the individual’s personal life.
This appears to occur in multiple layers, sometimes happening over time as future events unfold,
providing greater context; and also swiftly, with sudden insight. Several respondents described
their experience of meaning as resulting from following the thread of synchronicity as it wove
through their crisis. Once the meaning around the otherwise confounding experience was
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obtained, healing was spontaneous and the suffering ended. The achievement of meaning or
understanding related to the diminishing of uncertainty.
Transformation
This was a required element (as was ‘meaning’). The sentiment ‘crisis was pivotal for
transformation’ or ‘the crisis made me who I am’ was expressed by all participants. These
realizations appear to result once the experience of meaning had been integrated across the
course of many more life events. They also relate to the experience of healing. In fact, the sub-
theme ‘the experience made me what I am today’, seems to manifest, once the experience of
meaning has been integrated across the course of life, and the unfolding of life has turned
uncertainties into understanding. It then becomes possible to see how tragedy or malaise, the
very thing that we deem should never have been, turns out to be essential, a pivotal event we
would never choose, but is nevertheless fundamental to our being, what makes us who we are,
the so-called ‘blessings in disguise’. This realization may not be necessary to transformation but
is nonetheless incidental to it.
The essential structure elements may appear sequential but often were not experienced as such.
Sometimes elements were repeated, at other times several elements manifested simultaneously.
Nevertheless, it does appear that the crisis lent itself to the disruption of emotional balance,
which in turn facilitated a state of mind whereby the unusual juxtaposition of inner and outer
events could be recognised. Often recognition of this juxtaposition was shocking and produced
awe, a sense of sacred purpose, and coincided with the glimpse of life’s larger pattern. Often the
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elements of ‘synchronicity’, ‘numinosity’, and ‘recognition of life’s larger pattern’ occurred
simultaneously. In some cases ‘recognition of life’s larger pattern’ seemed to catalyze the
experience of meaning, and healing occurred simultaneously at this point as well. This
recognition of life’s larger pattern seemed facilitated by the synchronicity which allowed a
deeper experience and understanding of how inner and outer realities are connected. All of these
elements taken together contributed to the transformation.
Regarding complexity, the study found that multiple forms of emergence do occur through the
experience of meaning from life-changing synchronicities and further study would help identify
the kinds of complexity manifested. But the conclusion of the study relevant to this paper is that
once meaning emerges around even very difficult or painful situations, healings are also affected,
and transformation is likely.
Background on Jung and the Psyche
Since the study explored the Jungian concept of synchronicity, a review of certain elements of
Jung’s framework of the psyche is helpful in providing context for the data results.
The Collective Unconscious
Jung is best known for his development of the ‘collective unconscious’, a hypothetical construct
(Brooke, 1991) which constitutes the third of three distinct but ‘dynamically interrelated’ levels
constituting Jung’s conception of the psyche. These levels are summarised briefly. The first level
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is ‘consciousness’, also known as ‘ego-consciousness’ consisting of all that is conscious in an
individual. The ego in Jung’s framework is the vehicle used to meaningfully navigate a person
through consciousness and life, and where the individual’s sense of identity lies. The second
level is the personal unconscious, consisting of all that used to be conscious in an individual; it is
also where dreams occur. The third level is the ‘collective unconscious’, which contains
completely unknown, unconscious material that never comes into contact with consciousness; it
is also where psyche and matter meet (Von Franz, 1992).
Compensation/Individuation/Transcendent Function
The psyche in Jung’s framework consists of what is conscious and unconscious, and is where
experience and meaning are integrated (Brooke, 1991). It is also homeostatic, in other words, it
is a self-regulating system that finds equilibrium through feedback loops between conscious and
unconscious content. Jung termed this process compensatory (Aziz, 1990).
Unconscious compensatory mechanisms are activated when a conflict arises between a person’s
conscious position and his/her unconscious desires, drives, and instincts. This action is most
notable through dreams, symptoms, fantasies, etc., and continues until a new, transcendent
position is attained (Aziz, 1990) and only emerges from holding the tension of opposites long
enough for the possibility of a third position to form. Miller (2004) describes this transcendent
function as the primary means through which reconciliation of opposing tensions is
accomplished and is an example of the psyche’s self-regulation capability. The transcendent
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function typically manifests through symbols; it is experienced as a new attitude towards life.
The data show elements of this process carried out in every participant’s experience.
Building on this theory of compensation, Jung developed a broader concept of personality
development called ‘individuation’. He noticed that compensation served more to develop the
individual’s whole personality than simply dealing with one’s immediate problems. Contrary to
what individuals may believe about themselves, the ego, or primary agent of consciousness and
personal identity, is not in control but is rather led to the goal of wholeness by the unconscious.
Thus, the psyche not only maintains equilibrium, but is also self-realizing, purposive, and goal-
oriented (Aziz, 1990).
Reviewing the results from Jung’s framework, the data show strong correlation with the concept
of individuation, particularly when the essential structure is considered from the perspective of
ego development. The unfolding events that also resulted in transformation in every case align
with the concepts of the transcendent function and compensation.
Jung’s studies on synchronicity concluded that meaning is a connecting principle in the world,
and that it works in conjunction with cause and effect, which is more widely recognized as
responsible for organising reality (Jung and Pauli, 1955). The current study also indicates that
transformation of the individual becomes possible once meaning emerges.
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Further Observations of Study Results
Although these results refer to individuals, the ability to relate to uncertainty and large scale
change using non-rational modes of knowing and discernment (such as are found in Jungian
frameworks) have value for individuals in organisational contexts.
In addition to validating Jung’s concept of individuation, elements of the essential structure also
correlate with the literature on organisational change and transformation, especially when viewed
through the lens of complexity science.
Complexity and Organisations
Immediate similarities can be seen between this study’s results and observations gleaned from
literature on organisational change and transformation. For example, Heifetz’ framework for
adaptive leadership (1994), which seeks to transform rather than provide technical solutions,
identifies adaptive challenges requiring ‘sustained periods of disequilibrium’. The framework
also requires leadership behaviour called ‘embracing uncertainty’. Another kind of behaviour
concerns encouraging rich interactions through ‘sense-making’ which correlates with meaning
that arises through a relational understanding of the various elements of experience in the study’s
structure.
Since Lichtenstein’s studies (2000; 2009) offer representative examples of organisational
complexity principles from across the field, they are used in this paper as reference points. For
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example, he suggests a fourth condition of emergence, in addition to the three identified by
Prigogine (1955):
(1) conditions must be far from equilibrium;
(2) amplification of fluctuations near a threshold;
(3) self-organisation of structure composed of existing system elements;
(4) the fourth condition is gleaned from organisational research; and
(5) stabilization and negative feedback, which was demonstrated as critical to sustaining
successful transformations in organisations by Sastry (1997).
Note again that for emergence to occur, equilibrium must be disturbed; the system reorganises
itself (transformation, emergence); and the system re-stabilises using a feedback loop.
The fourth condition echoes the feedback loop found in the compensatory function described by
Jung, indeed they all appear to reflect the conditions identified in the study as essential to the
emergence of meaning. Elsewhere, Lichtenstein (Lichtenstein and Plowman, 2009) describes
behaviours that generate conditions for emergence in the organisational context including
‘disruption of existing patterns’, ‘sensemaking’, and even ‘embracing uncertainty’. Even a
superficial understanding of these terms indicates striking similarities that are recommended for
further exploration.
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Extrapolating from the Essential Structures for Organisational Use
The field of organisational complexity already addresses the experience of ‘collective
individuals’ from the complexity perspective. This study extends those results by providing a
complexity perspective on individual experience and introducing Jung’s concept of the dynamic
and self-regulating psyche, including the processes of compensation and the transcendent
function. It also introduces Jung’s concept of individuation which possesses the element of
teleology not typically found in other organisational perspectives. The essential structure reveals
how these elements interrelate, and lead to transformation. Although how they manifest may be
different, their existence at the organisational level is certain.
The deeper value of this study for organisations therefore, lies in its inclusion ofunconscious,
non-rational phenomena, acausal effects, and teleology or final causes. These critical elements
represent aspects of reality often unrecognised by traditional research. They are often taboo in
the arena of science, being regarded as overly subjective and non-quantifiable. But as years of
psychoanalytic research have demonstrated, these elements have substantive impact on human
perception and definition of reality, what we observe and experience.
For example, only one of the nine participants claimed a religious affiliation. Yet every
participant, over the course of the experience they shared, became convinced of a teleological
aspect to reality and for their lives in particular. This perhaps does not make it so, but is certainly
worthy of further study. In an organisational context, such an idea can have significant impact,
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that individual destiny has a goal that may extend to aspects of the organisation as well, not in a
deterministic sense, but by providing a larger sense of purpose and framework for meaning.
Consider also the direction to ‘embrace uncertainty’ found in Lichtenstein’s model for emergent
conditions (2009) which is challenging to achieve because it goes against typical organisational
requirements for metrics and control. Periods of uncertainty are often met with increased control
or disunity, not by embracing the fearful concerns that accompany disruptive cycles. Ironically, it
is precisely at these times when the potential for productive change has most to offer. This was
certainly true to a radical extent for the participants in the study. The study data also indicate that
‘how’ the period of uncertainty is navigated, matters. Several participants chose to engage their
dreams during this time, even without knowledge of Jung or his psychological framework. The
compensatory dynamic is revealed through dreams and synchronicities and can be tracked by
developing a practice of observation and journaling. Several participants in the study used their
dreams and synchronicities to guide them through phases of their lives. When logic and rational
planning no longer worked, these exercises reoriented them and proved very helpful in making
meaning of painful experiences. They also aligned them with what they came to consider their
personal destiny. The practice of following dreams, of developing individual intuition, and
recognizing synchronicities, all impart a larger understanding of the non-linear dynamics found
in life that are beyond one’s control. All of the participant’s post-experience continue to rely on
their dreams to reveal potential realities. Recognizing the teleological aspect behind one’s life
enables a trust that what transpires in life is not random, but may be part of a larger plan.
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One of the essential characteristics of synchronicity concerns the acausal relationship between
inner and outer events that nevertheless match in some way and are meaningfully connected.
Developing a capacity for recognizing the inter-connection of subjective and objective
experience facilitates a larger systems or holistic perspective of the situation. In this arena,
rational and linear approaches are usually not sufficient alone in integrating unconscious
material.
It may be unrealistic to expect that such practice will be readily adopted at the organisational
level, at least without prior education or training. But organisational members are not just
knowledgeable about the job they were hired to do, they are also individual members of
customer communities, and users of goods and services with first-hand knowledge of trends and
market shifts. In organisations where a healthy degree of intuition is encouraged, there is a
double benefit. Not only will each member be productive to the task at hand, but as members of
the community at large could provide feedback and information that could help the organisation
remain relevant to its customers.
Recommendations
In order to translate theory into practical application, this question must be answered, ‘What
practices facilitate the elements of this framework in an organisational context?’ A short list of
sample practices follows. These are general guidelines however, since novel, tailor-made
solutions will arise where co-workers are encouraged to be creative and flexible in sharing their
ideas.
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Dialogue
The practice of ‘dialogue’, as described by David Bohm (1996), is a regularly occurring,
deepening conversation between dedicated individuals where trust facilitates the ability to
address subjects otherwise too sensitive to discuss fully. This is an ongoing, long term activity
whose benefit builds the more it is utilised.
World Café
The World Café (Brown, 2005) is another example of emergent conversation but generally
occurs in single instances, or as needed. It helps foster understanding of the theoretical elements
of the transcendent function, and is a useful tool when enmeshed in especially intractable
situations. If the tension of opposing forces can be held without manipulation, eventually a well-
integrated third position emerges. This method has demonstrated how large groups of people can
quite quickly come to an emerging consensus around divisive issues.
Mind-mapping
These types of activities help teams track the relationships between and across the movement of
ideas. This can facilitate a greater ability to recognise patterns and relationships between
elements constituting synchronistic potentials. Story-telling and learning the symbolism in
mythologies can also facilitate deeper understanding of emergent patterns in nature. Using
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meaning to connect otherwise independent map elements can add further insight into a group’s
operations.
Improvisation
Group improvisational activities, stand-up comedy or speech routines, impromptu acting
sketches, are also examples of activities that foster greater ease in dealing with uncertain
situations. The point is to gain greater comfort level with one’s own creative ability to rise to
whatever occasion emerges. What is so often disregarded or even suppressed within the
organisational structure actually possesses, as this study shows, positive and creative resources
for resolving and even reconceiving periods of uncertainty into unique, transformational
opportunities.
Conclusion
Life consists of both rational and non-rational elements. The study of complexity in
organisations recognises this fact, but without also recognising and incorporating the non-
rational elements of individual psyche, organisations risk falling short. Meaning is also a
powerful tool that can offer important leverage in the organisational context. The study’s
essential structure holds insights into the nature not only of meaning in synchronicity, but also
transformation and change at a deeply human level that possesses value for organisational
contexts, especially when leveraging complexity frameworks. Applying non-rational approaches
to life’s challenges, both at individual and organisational levels, is critical to navigating
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uncertainty in a meaningful way. Extrapolating the individual study results in organisational
contexts is worthy of further study and would add considerably to the existing body of
knowledge on complexity in organisations.
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