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EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt

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Rakesh Barik

This document provides an overview of the essential oils industry, including definitions of key terms, the nature and structure of the industry, major production regions and crops, and different business models for essential oil production. It discusses the supply chain from producer to end markets and provides statistics on the size and segmentation of the global essential oils and flavours/fragrances market. Production methods like wild collection, contract growing, and large-scale plantation models are examined.

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Flavours, Fragrances & Essential Oils Art, Agriculture,Science, Industry & Entrepreneurship Presentation by Murray Hunter © Murray Hunter 2007
1. Introduction 2. Definitions 3. The Nature of the Industry 4. The Olfactory System and Classification of Fragrances 5. Uses and Markets 6. Natural Product Chemistry 7. Extraction Theory and Practice 8. Aroma Chemicals 9. The Essential Oil Development Process 10. Screening Process 11. Development Process 12. Problems in Developing New Essential Oils 13. Regulatory Requirements 14. Flavour & Fragrance Operations 15. Organic Farming 16. Some Essential Oils Economics 17. Some Fine Fragrance Profiles 18. Formulary of Finished Products 19. The Trends of Fine Fragrance 20. Essential Oils in Thailand 21. Potential Research Projects 22. Potential Careers in the Industry 23. References
Some Generic Global Issues Introduction
CO2 Emissions Resource Depletion Global Warming Changed Weather Patterns Decline of Arable Land Temp. Increase Sea Levels Rise Decline of eco-system, biodiversity and sustainability Pests & Diseases Droughts Floods Food Crisis Declining Productivity Alternative Land Use Rising Costs Urbanisation Unstable Production Lack of finance for production Population Growth Production Growing unemployment Consumption Loss of Confidence And consumption Bank Liquidity Global Warming, The Food and Economic Crisis
The Rural Crisis
Average age of farmers in Malaysia
Templating of Natural Aromatic Molecules
Templating of Natural Aromatic Molecules Plants Animals Food Objects Analysis Modeling Synthesis Product Biotechnology Organic Odour plus Stability Threshold Efficient Value synthesis Added Benefits Applications Perfumery Cosmetics Stable in formulations Cost effective Efficacy (i.e., antimicrobial) Botany/ethnobotany Bio-prospecting Head-space Chromatography Separation Extraction Screening Antimicrobial Anti-fungal Anti-tumor Anti-aging Flavour & Fragrance Botany Biochemistry Computational Chemistry
Sustainability
Production Processes Farm size & layout Organisation & methods Propagation Cultivation Processing Marketing Climate Weather Rainfall Wind Sunshine UV radiation Temperature Humidity Conducive weather Or Floods, droughts, etc Physical Environment Soil Topography Atmosphere Natural flora & fauna habitat Urbanisation Suitability of conditions Pollution (air, land & water) Labour sources Water resources (create hinterland where farm part of) Human Habitisation Knowledge Suppliers & contractors Pollution Attitudes and concerns Resource inputs, fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, machinery, research capabilities Positive Inputs Water Sunshine Nitrogen Agricultural inputs Fertilizers etc Knowledge Labour Negative Inputs Adverse physical conditions Pests & diseases Pollution Heavy metals Business Environment Markets Finance Trade environment Customers Financing & various kinds of capital Competition Low prices Changing demand patterns Government Infrastructure Regulation Taxes & subsidies Trade environment Research Negative Outputs Runoffs, wastes, carbon Some recycling back to system Positive Outputs Products Revenue flow back to system An Agricultural Enterprise as a System
Wind drift Farm/Plantation Soil Floor Sub-Soil Fertilisers, herbicides, insecticides Leaf & organic decompositions Sub-terrainium water Sun Climate & Weather Cultivation Propagation Processing Economic Products Runoffs Surface water Wastes Chemical residuals Some wastes recycled Watershed runoffs onto farm/plantation Atmosphere Nitrogen, gasses, etc Lakes Rivers Canals Oceans Daylight hours UV radiation Temperature Humidity Rainfall Conducive weather, or floods, droughts, etc Regional Eco-System A Farm/Plantation as a System Other Farms Insects and pests Genetic Biodiversity
Soil Surface Rainfall (Moisture Source) Organic Materials Phosphorous (P) Sulfur (S) Nitrogen (N) Nitrogen fixing bacteria In root system Water (H2O) Mineral Based Materials (Amphibole & Feldspar) Calcium (Ca) Potassium (K) Magnesium (Mg) Iron (Fe) Carbon (C) Oxygen (O2) Hydrogen (H) Through air in pores
Research
Idea from Research Institute, University faculty or individual within them Undertake study with objectives interesting to researchers Primarily single discipline approach Objectives based on discipline thinking Project results and conclusion Publish Paper at Conference Add to CV Little commercial interest: Private sector unaware No or limited economic study or little consideration to scale up potential NB: to bioprocess engineer has this as a fundamental consideration (difference between scientist and engineer) Typical Research Model
Desirable Research Model
Planning Phase R&D Phase Commercial Phase Start-up Growth Maturity Information seeking and Planning orientation Seeking of information, looking for ideas, screening for opportunities, setting of a vision and planning out the project Test hypothesis, review market, confirm viability, develop applications, increase knowledge, learn how to operate commercial operation. Collaborate with customer & R&D Institutions Research and collaborative orientation Begin with an entrepreneurial management style, then move to marketing orientated style and eventually corporate management style Start-up Develop company, production and early customer base, usually very personal & hands on. Growth Develop value-added products, new market, customers, expand production, move to more formal management Maturity Corporate orientation with well defined depts. Formalised marketing & production roles in organization, take strategic outlook for business.
RM 4,200,000
RM 200,000
Specific Issues & Challenges To Malaysia
Biodiversity
Low Crop Diversity in Malaysia
Limited number of students interested in natural product chemistry & agro- entrepreneurship Very few world class professors
What are essential oils?
Essential Oil A volatile oil obtained from a wide variety of plant, scrub, and tree species and from various parts of the plant anatomy, such as the roots, rhizomes, wood bark, leaves, stems, fruit, flowers and seeds. Usually extracted by hydro or steam distillation, expression or effleurage - Hunter 1996
Concretes and Absolutes Volatiles and waxes extracted from plant material with hydrocarbon solvents (usually benzene and hexane) through washing and removal of the volatile solvent with distillation. A waxy aromatic substance remaining is called a concrete. The concrete is washed with alcohol to remove the volatile materials and ethanol removed through vacuum distillation to leave an absolute.
Plant Material Expressed Oil Cold expression of citrus fruits Terpeneless Oil Terpene Tails Essential Oil Water, water & steam and steam Distillation Absolute Concrete Solvent Extraction Washing with ethanol and vacuum distilling ethanol away Pomade Enfleurage Vacuum distill away the ethanol Oleoresin CO2 Extract CO2 Extraction The Natural Aromatic Product Family
Raw Herbs Fresh Consumption Dried Fermented Extracts Medicinal Powders Medicinal Beverages Essential Oils & Other Volatiles Flavour & Fragrance Personal Care & Cosmetics Standardised Extracts Phytopharmaceutical Products Fractions & Isolates Bioactive Compounds Prescription & OTC Drugs Figure 1: The Family Tree of Herb Derivatives Agricultural Application Traditional Herbal Medicines Aromatherapy Enzymes
The Biotechnology Pyramid Genomics Fermentation Micro-propagation Mutagenesis Thermodynamic Processes Green Biotechnology Reframed Disciplines White Biotechnology Red Biotechnology Micro-organisms
The Nature of the Industry
Hunter 1996
Trader Manufacturers Wholesalers Retailers Consumers Usually bulk oils to traders who do all distribution. Lowest price and little control over market, but wide distribution With differentiated product some flexibility to sell to manufacturers, costs higher but increased margin maybe compensate. This part of supply chain for smaller packs and end products. Can be local, national or international. Value added method like branding in use. Usually branded item small packs, end product. Either selective (region or retailer type), or general distribution. High value, low volume with added distribution costs. Usually direct to consumers through internet and/or direct marketing organisation. Usually specialised end products with high profit Need high volume due to low margin unless specialised product Need differentiated product. Above average returns, higher marketing costs Need branded specialised product, high margins volume depends on coverage Business focus towards consumer marketing away from agricultural production Supply Chain/Product Focus Bi-products to Other Supply Chains Essential Oil Producer
Characteristics of the Flavour & Fragrance Industry The flavour and fragrance ingredients trade has its own culture and business strategies, which can be summarised as follows: a) Flavour and fragrance ingredients are subject to derived demand, where demand originates from final flavoured and fragranced end product demand, b) Demand for flavour and fragrance ingredients is relatively inelastic in the short term, c) Flavour and fragrance ingredients are subject to fluctuating and cyclic demand, d) Purchasing and use of flavour and fragrance ingredients is based on artistic and technical complexity, and e) The world market is geographically concentrated. Unger (1987)
World Geographical Distribution of Flavour & Fragrance Compound Sales 28% 14% 11% 10% 37% USA Europe Japan Asia Other
Cosmetics, USD 90 M, 6% Agrochemicals, USD 150 M, 10% Intermediates, USD 120 M, 8% Pharmaceuticals, USD 220 M 15% Aromatherapy USD 250 M 17% Flavour & Fragrance, USD 650 M, 44% The Size of the Essential Oil Market
The market size for Natural Raw Material for the Flavor and Fragrance Market is USD650 M Essential Oil Production USD 650 million Fragrance & Flavour Production USD 20 Billion
Ratio of Natural to Synthetic Materials Used in the Flavour & Fragrance Industry Essential Oils & Natural Aromatic Materials 13% Synthetic Raw Materials 87%
Growth of Flavour & Fragance Industry 0 5 10 15 20 2002 2003 2004 USD Billion $
60% 40% 0% 50% 100% Fragrance Flavors Flavor/Fragrance Split 2002
326 252 196 192 80 72 54 50 30 800 650 Various Food Products Processed Meat Beverages Dairy Products Animal Feed Processed Food & Vegetables Flour & Starch Products Oils and Fats Fish Products Cosmetics Household Products World Wide Market Size Estimate 2003 (USD Billion)
EssentialOil Production Trading Flavour& Fragrance Compounding EndProduct Manufacture Wholesaler Retailer Consumer 1.0 1.6 2-3.0 (6-9) 2-2.5 (18-24) Relative and (Absolute) Value Added Through Chain 1.1-1.2 (19.8-28.8) 1.2-1.4 (23.76- 40.32) The Essential Oil Value Chain (Flavour & Fragrance Industry)
The World Essential Oil Map
Indonesia • USD 85 Million Cajuput Cananga Cassia Citronella Clove Clove Leaf Ginger Gurjun Balsam Nutmeg Palmarosa Patchouli Sandalwood Vetiver Vanilla Massoia Malaysia Tea Tree 200Ha Pepper Oil Nutmeg Oil Lime Oil Lemongrass Tangerine Ginger Tuberose Tumeric Vetivert Grapefruit Sweet Basil Clove Citronella Galabga Jasmine Kaffir Lime Champaka Plai Oil Coffee Bean Extract Rose Absolute Laos Benzoin Resin (100 Tonnes) Sassafras Oil Agarwood Cambodia Cajuput Oil (100 Tonnes) Sassafras Oil (1-200 Tonnes) Lemongrass Tea Tree Oil Vietnam Old Established Industry Cornmint Oil Basil (40 Tonnes) Citronella (2-500 Tonnes) Cajuput Oil (150 Tonnes) Sassafras Oil Star Anise Litsea Cubeba Cassia Patchouli Palmarosa Tea Tree Eucalyptus Citriodora Ginger Agarwood
Top Twenty Essential Oils Produced in the World Essential Oil Botanical Name Volume (Tonnes) Under Threat Cosmetics Under Threat Biocides Under threat Fragrance Orange Citrus sinensis 26000 X X Cornmint Mentha Arvensis 4300 Eucalyptus Euc. globulus 3728 X X X Citronella Cym winterianus 2830 X X X Peppermint Mentha piperita 2367 Lemon Citrus limon 2158 X X Euc. Citriodora Eucalyptus citriodora 2092 X X X Clove Leaf Syzygium aromaticum 1915 X X X Cedarwood (US) Juniperus virginiana 1640 Litsea cubeba Litsea cubeba 1005 X X Sassafras (Brazil) Ocotea pretiosa 1000 X X Lime Citrus aurantifolia 973 X X Spearmint Mentha spicata 851 Cedarwood (China) Chamaecyparis funebris 800 Lavandin Lavandula intermedia 768 X X Sassafras (China) Cinnamomum micranthum 750 X X Camphor Cinnamomum camphora 725 Coriander Coriandrum sativum 710 Grapefruit Citrus paradisi 694 X X Patchouli Pogostemom cablin 563 X X
Potential Models of Essential Oil Production • Wild Collection • Co-operative or Contract growing (community organisation) • Small Scale Plantation (boutique/niche/agro tourism /vertical integration – manufacture consumer products) • Large Scale Plantation (competitive cost advantage required to enter market) • Production of Essential Oil as a Bi-product (focus on other industry, timber, etc)
Wild Collection & Distillation Tea Tree Australia
Small Holder (Patchouli Indonesia)
Cambodia (Lemongrass, Cajuput)
Medium Size Plantation
Bridgestow Tasmania
Large Scale Production
Large Scale Plantation Tea Tree
Bi-Product (Citrus Fruits)
Aromatic Products from Citrus Fruits Harvested Oranges Extractor Cold Press Process Press Liquor & di-limonene Vacuum Distillation Technical Grade di-limonene Peel Heat Evaporator Molasses Ferment to Alcohol Cattle Feed Orange Juice Centrifuge Cold Pressed Orange Oil Distillation Terpeneless Folded Oil Food Grade di-limonene
Tasmanian Industry Model
Sri Lanka Cinnamon Oils
Business Positioning – The Value Chain USD 1.2 Billion Industry – poor man’s industry Through Product Development Through Seeing Production as a Means to Another Business Agro tourism FMCG Various Products Ind. Products
The Issues
Market Turbulence
Price Price Quantity Quantity Demand Demand Current Supply Current Supply Forecast Supply (FS) Actual Future Supply (AFS) Forecast Supply (FS) Actual Future Supply (AFS) P1 P3 P2 Aggregate Decrease in Production P1 P2 P3 b) Upward Trend in Pricing Leading to Greater Supply a) Downward Trend in Pricing Leading to Decreased Supply A forecast is accepted that supply will decrease in the coming year and traders buy up stocks leading to higher prices (P2). Producers see good returns and increase production leading to a glut of supply, thus decreasing prices (P3). This fluctuation is on a time lag depending upon the time frame from extra planting to harvests. Aggregate Increase in Production A forecast is accepted that supply will increase in the coming year and traders don’t buy up stocks leading to lower prices (P2). Producers see poor returns and switch to alternative crops, leading to a shortage of supply, thus increasing prices (P3). This fluctuation is on a time lag depending upon the time frame from extra planting to harvests.
Wild Collection and Threatened Plant Species
Bargaining Power of Producers Bargaining Power of Producers
? The Olfactory System & Odour Classification
The Human Olfactory System Odour molecules pass through the olfactory organ
15-25% 30-40% 45-55% Top Notes Middle Notes Base Notes The Structure of a Fragrance Bergamot oil, Rosewood oil (linalool), Linalyl acetate, Neroli oil, Ciste Oil Rose Oil 5%, Jasmin absolute 4%, Ylang Ylang Oil, Aldehyde C11, C12, Methyl ionone 8%, hydroxycitronellal 10%, Cinamic Alcohol, Styrax. Phenol ethyl alcohol, Phenylacetaldehyde Vetiveryl acetate, Sandalwood, Isoeugenol, Vanillin 1.5%, Coumarin 15%, Nitromusks 10% “First Impression” in Perfume. High Volatile Citrus, Fresh, Green notes….. “ Heart of fragrance”. Intermediate Volale Floral, Aldehydic notes….. Basic of fragrance”. (Bottom) Low Volatile Woody, Powdery, Musky …..
Classification of Odours Spicy Medicated Aldehydic Marine Coniferous Minty Green Herb -aceous Fruity Balsamic Animalic Woody Floral Agrestic Curtis & Williams (1994)
Floral Family Broom Sweet, Floral, Herbaecious Carnation Delicate, Floral, Clove Cassie Floral, Orange flower, Violet Clover Sweet, Honey, Herbaecious, Floral Cyclamen Floral, Lily, Lilac, Violet, green Gardenia Floral, Tuberose, Jasmin, Orange flowr, Green Hawthorn Floral, Bitter almond, Bitter, Diffusive Heliotrope Floral, Almond, Balsamic, Fruity Honeysuckle Swet, Floral, Heavy, Orange Flower, Tuberose, Honey, Rose Hyacinth Fresh, Green, Floral, Jasmin, Balsamic Jasmin Sweet, Floral, Heavy, Fruity, Herbaecious Jonquil Fresh, Floral, Sweet, Heavy, Honey, Green Lilac Fresh, Meadow-Floral, Jasmin, Green Lily Sweet, Heavy, Floral Lily of the Valley Floral, Rose, Green, Slightly citrus Lime Blossom Floral, Fresh, Lily, Lilac, Orange Flower Magnolia Floral, Lily, Ylang Ylang Mimosa Sweet, Floral, Hawthorn, Orange flower, Green Narcissus Delicate, Fresh, Green, Floral, Sweet Orange Flower Floral, Heavy, Animalic, Fresh, Rich, Bitter Orris Delicate, Dry, Woody, Somewhat Violet Reseda Floral, Green, Anisic, Herbaceous Rose Sweet, Floral, Honey, Waxy, Slightly spicy, Fruity Sweet Pea Sweet, Delicte, Floral, Orange Flower, Hyacinth, Lily Tuberose Heavy, Floral, Orange Flower, Ylang Ylang, Caramel, Green Violet Floral, Powdery, Green Wallflower Floral, somewhat liliacy, bitter almond Ylang Ylang Rich, Sweet, Medicated, Floral, Fruity, Clove Floral Family Descriptions
Woody Family Cedarwood Woody and slightly earthy, with smoky notes Hibawood Like cedarwood, but more intensely woody, Dry, Pungent Rosewood Woody, Floral, Sweet, Spicy, Delicately Fatty Sandalwood Soft, Sweet, Woody, Slightly Balsamic Woody Family Descriptions Animalic Family Amine Fishy notes, Ammonia Castoreum Warm, Phenolic, Sweet, Somewhat herbaceous, clean smelling Catty Feline odour Civet Warm, Slightly faecal, Musky Equine Horse like Faecal Indolic, skatolic Indolic Lilac, Heavy, Animalic, Naphthalenic Musky Blackberry like Leather Phenolic, Cresylic, Animalic, Castoreum, Balsamic Animalic Family Descriptions
Balsamic Family Cistus Rich, Balsamic, Ambergris, Herbaceous Labdanum Rich, Balsamic, Ambergris Myrrh Rich, Warm, Balsamic, Spicy Opopanax Warm, Vegetable note, Rich, Balsamic, Spicy Peru Balsam Sweet, Balsamic, Rich, Soft, Vanilla, Cinnamate, Benzoate Styrax Sweet, Balsamic, Cinnamate Tolu Balsam Sweet, Balsamic, Cinnamate, Vanilla Vanilla Soft, Sweet, Powdery, Balsamic Balsamic Family Descriptions Herbaceous Family Lavender Fruity, Floral, Herbaceous, Woody, Balsamic Rosemary Herbaceous, Resinous, Woody, Balsamic Sage Herbaceous, Slightlycamphoraceous Herbaceous Family Descriptions Agrestic Family Earthy Fresh, Woody, Vegetable Forest Moist, Fresh, Vegatable, Woody Fungal Mushroom like Galbanum Sharp, Agrestic, Green, Earthy, Coniferous Hay Sweet, Warm, Agrestic, Herbaceous Agrestic Family Descriptions
Green Family Cress Hyacinth like, Green Cucumber Green like sliced green vegetable pods Fresh and Clean Grassy Fresh, Green, Fruity Leafy Light, Green Green Family Descriptions Minty Family Peppermint Fresh, Cool, Mentholitic, Minty, Slightly Green Spearmint Sweet, Warm, Minty, Herbaceous, Green Mossy Notes Forest, Woody, Phenolic, Green, Somewhat marine Minty Family Descriptions Coniferous Family Description Coniferous Family Pine Resinous, Balsamic, Terpenitic Resinous Forest, Woody, Terpenite, Balsamic
Marine Family Ambergris Marine, Seaweed, Mossy, Dry Beach Ozonic Fresh, Marine, SlightlySweet Seaweed Marine, Mossy, Amine Marine Family Descriptions Aldehydic Family Fatty, Waxy (pleasant in dilution) Aldehydic Family Descriptions Medicated Family Camphorous Camphor Cineolic Eucalyptus, Cresylic Cresolic, Phenolic Ethereol alcoholic Mentholic Menthol Phenolic Phenol Terpenic monoterpenes Thymolic Thymol Wintergreen Methyl salicylate Medicated Family Descriptions
Fruity Family Bergamot Fresh, Lemon, Sweet Orange, Herbaceous, (Citrus Sub-Class) Pepper, Floral Grapfruit Lemon Lime Mandarin Orange Sweet Orange Bitter Pithy Orange Peel Tangerine Fruity Family Apple Apricot Banana Blackberry Blackcurrent Pear Peach Pineapple Prune Rasberry Strawberry Vinous Cognac like Watermellon Fruity Family Descriptions Sub-Class (Citrus)
Spicy Family Celery Cinnamom Clove Coriander Cumin Fenugreek Ginger Nutmeg Pepper Spicy Family Description Miscellanious Bitter Almond Notes Anisic Benzoate Burnt Caramel Cinnamate Coconut Fatty Geranium Honey Metallic Naphthenic Nondescript Oily Patchouli Salicylate Smoky Sulphorous Tobacco Waxy Miscellaneous Notes
Light Heavy Sweet Dry Fresh Stale Warm Cool Soft Hard Smooth Harsh Rich Thin Delicate Coarse Odour Characteristics Bitter Difussive Powdery Pungent Sharp Tropical Additional Characteristics
Spicy Medicated Aldehydic Marine Coniferous Minty Green Herb aceous Fruity Balsamic Animalic Woody Floral Agrestic Fragrance Description Workshop
Fragrance Description Worksheet Light Heavy Sweet Dry Fresh Stale Cool Warm Soft Hard Smooth Harsh Thin Rich Coarse Delicate
0 Bitter 10 0 Diffusive 10 0 Powdery 10 0 Pungent 10 0 Sharp 10 0 Tropical 10
GC-MS Performance Test A Fragrance Development Lab A trained human more accurate than a GC-MS
Sample of a Flavour Chart
Uses and markets
Processed Food
Beverages
Fine Fragrance
Aromatherapy
Cosmetics & Personal Care
Household Products
Solvents
Pharmaceuticals
Herbs & Spices
Organic Agro-Chemicals
Natural Product Chemistry
A Green Factory UV Input Enzymes
Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Glycolysis Glycose Nitrates & Mineral Salts Isoprenoids (terpenoids) 6-Deoxyxylulose Polysacccharidess Disaccharides Phosphoenol pyruate Pyruvate KREBS CYCLE Acetyl-CoA Mevalonic Acid Malonyl-CoA Complex Isoprenoids (terpenoids) Aliphatic Amino Acids Polyketides Complex Alkaloids Alkaloids Pentose Phosphate Pathway Erythrose 4- phosphate Shikimate Pathway Aromatic Amino Acids Phenylpropan oids Hydroxy- Benzoic Acid Flavonoids Complex Flavonoids Secondary Metabolites Primary Metabolites Primary Metabolites
Volatiles from an attacked plant Parasitoids Predators Plant Insect Gene Activation Signal Indirect Responses Direct Responses Volatiles Leaf shape Plant architecture Secondary metabolites Volatiles Physical Barriers Secondary metabolites and proteins Nutritional hurdle Inhibitors Increased activity Heterogeneous set High specificity bifunctionality High complexity Wound Insect Elicitors SIGNAL Gene Activation Herbivory Avoidance New metabolites Temporal/ spatial avoidance Sequestration of the poisons Utilization of alternative hosts Increase the consumption rate Modify the nutritive quality of the host plant tissue Establish associations with microorganisms Improved digestive enzymes High activity Modified spectrum Low sensitivity to PIs Proteinases to destroy PIs
Acetyl CoA 3-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA) Mevalonate Isoprenyldiphosphate (IPP) and Dimethyllallyldiphosphate (DMAPP) Geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) Geranyl geranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) Other Terpenes (Triterpenes & Tetraterpenes) C30+ (6 Isoprene Units +) Monoterpenes Glyceraldehyde phosphate Pyruvate Mevalonate Pathway Deoxyxylulose Phosphate Pathway Farnesylpyrophosphate (FPP) Sesquiterpenes C5 (1 Isoprene Unit) C10 (2 Isoprene Units) C15 (3 Isoprene Units) Diterpenes & Carotenoids C20 (4 Isoprene Units) Ionones (from degraded carotenoids)
Terpenes • Unsaturated hydrocarbons •Found mostly in plants •Usually monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes used in flavours and fragrances •Generally weak odours not fully represented from the essential oils they come from •Sometimes poorly soluble in weak ethanolic solutions •Primarily used as extenders •Can oxidate or polymerise easily changing odour and lessening volatility Cis-3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-1-ol Colourless to pale liquid Stable Application: Magnolia, Neroli, Jasmin, Lilac and other floral perfumes Origin: Rose, Neroli, Petitgrain, Lavender, Lemongrass, Palmarosa and citrus oils
Geraniol Trans-3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-dien-ol Colourless liquid Stable Applications: Floral and most other perfumes Origin: Rose, Citronella, Geranium and Palmarosa Linalool 3,7-Dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol Colourless Liquid Stable Applications: Almost universal application in fragrances, especially floral Origin: Rose, rosewood, Lavender, minor constituent of others
Biosynthesis and isomerization- cyclization of geranyl pyrophosphate
The biosynthesis and isomerisation process is undertaken by enzyme from the oil glands of plants in nonoterpene producing species
Esters Transacylase (coenzyme) Dihydrofolate Reductase (coenzyme) Dihydrofolate Reductase (coenzyme) Aldehydes & Ketones Alcohols Acids (carboxlic) & Acyl CoA
Alcohols •Hydroxy compunds consisting of hydrocarbon chains •Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols (i.e., no. carbon atoms), also aliphatic alcohols •Terpenoid alcohols very important chemicals found in many plants •Polyhydric alcohols (2 or more hydroxy groups) odourless, but solvents •Acyclic alcohols faint odours (close to phenols) Phenylethyl Alcohol 2-Phenylethanol Colourless liquid Stable Sweet rosy like odour Applications: widely used in synthetic form From floral to aldehydic, chypre and fougere Fragrances Origins: Rose, Neroli, Geranium and Ylang Ylang
Octenol OH Oct-1-en-3-ol Colourless liquid Stable Strong, fatty, orange like, balsamic Applications: In the reconstruction of lavender and lavindin oils Origin: in some mushrooms and savory oil Citronellol 3,7-Dimethyloct-6-en-1-ol Colourless liquid Stable Applications: used extensively in florals Origin: Rose, citronella oils
Islam & Alcohol Ethanol (alcohol) is a ‘spirit’ odour substance It is a different chemical composition to alcohols used in flavour & fragrance Dodecan-1-ol Benzyl Alcohol Spirit alcohol forbidden in Islam for consumption (An-Nahl 16:67), but allowed in medicine.Many Islamic scholars allow it for use on the skin.
Amines •Compound with one or more hydrogen atoms of ammonia, replaced with hydrogen radical •3 types, primary, secondary and tertiary •Most foul smelling “animalic” Methyl Anthranilate (Methyl 2- aminobenzoate) Colourless liquid Discolouration From many flowers such as orange and ylang ylang
The Esters • Derived from alcohols in reverseable reactions • Fruity notes •Not very pH stable Colourless liquid Stable Applications: Versitile in many fragrances, especially jasmin and gardenia Origin: Jasmin, Tuberose, neroli, Ylang Ylang Benzyl Acetate
The Aldehydes • Fatty aldehydes have pungent odours •Aliphatices used in perfumery and flavours mainly from synthetic sources •Usually used in very diluted forms •Aldehydes are very reactive (oxidisation, polymerisation and acetal formations) Benzaldehyde Colourless liquid Can oxidize to benzoic acid Applications: In traceable amounts in sweet florals Origin: Bitter almond oil, cassia
Lactones • Naturally ocuring in many fruits •Most often hydroxy group of alcohols which reacte with carboxylic acids •Contain ester functional group in the cyclic part of the molecule •Important fruit flavours & fragrances Y-butyrolactone & a- caprolactone
Carboxylic Acids • Organic acids with a carbonyl and hydroxy group •Usually derived from aliphatic alcohols or aliphatic aldehydes through oxidisation •Odours usually resemble precursers Colourless crystaline solid Slightly pungent odour Benzoic Acid
Shikimate Chorismate Prephenate p-hydroxybenzoate p-aminobenzoate Phenylalanine Cinnamic Acids Tyrosine Alkaloides Aromatic Amino Acids Anthranilate Tryptophan Phenyl-C3 Compounds Phenyl-C1 Compounds Flavonoids The Shikimic Acid Pathway
Phenols •Compounds with 1 or 2 hydroxy groups, similar to benzyl alcohols •Tend to be toxic and caustic •Prone to oxidisation •Basically clean type odours Eugenol 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol Stable Colourless liquid Applications: Carnation, spicy fragrances, rose and oriental perfumes Origin: Clove, cinnamom leaf oil, patchouli, Ylang Ylang
Sulfate ATP Sulphurlyase Adenylation Adenosin 5’- phosphosulphate (APS) Phosphorised APS reductase Sulfite Sulfide O-acetylserine (thiol)lyase Ferrodoxin- dependent sulphite reductase Cysteine O-acetylserine 3’-phosphate 5- phosphosulphate (PAPS) APS Kinase PAPS Reductase Primary Sulphur Reduction Pathway Minor Sulphur Reduction Pathway Adapted from Kopriva and Koprivova, 2004
Extraction theory and practice
Principals: Latent Heat • Molecule speed and energy dependent upon temperature •Change from liquid to gas state requires energy •Due to motion of molecules, all compounds with determinable boiling points will emit vapours from their surafaces, if area closed this will insert pressure upon the molecule, termed vapour pressure •These vapours will saturate the molecule and take up additional molecules •This saturated vapour will carry other molecules Amount of heat required to vapourise a unit mass of liquid, without raising the temperature of the vapour above that of the liquid is called LATENT HEAT of vapourisation Heat and relative pressures are important in distillation
The Gas Laws Energy can neither be created nor destroyed in any system of constant mass and that heat is energy First Law of Themodynamics Mechanical Equivalent of heat Energy exerts a force to move a mass against the forces of friction i.e., 540 kilocalies of latent heat required to vapourise 1 kilogram of water in one second requires 2268 watts of power Second Law of Thermodynamics Heat cannot be transferred from cooler to hotter body
The Gas Laws Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction Heat will be conducted from one plane surface to another at a rate proportional to the area of contact and at the magnitude of differential temperatures Boyle’s Law At constant temperatures, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely Proportional to the pressure on the gas Charles’ Law Under constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas is proportional To its absolute temperature
The Gas Laws Avogadro’s Law Equal volumes of ideal gases under equal conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules All the above laws also apply to mixed vapours
Mixed Vapours If two immiscible liquids are in equilibrium with a common vapur space, each will contribute equally to any unit volume of that space. Thus, a mixture of two mutually insoluble liquids will boil when the temperature attains the point where the sum of the two characteristic vapour pressures becomes equal to the surrounding pressure. This is how distillation vapourises relatively high boiling materials under normal atmospheric pressure, without approaching the corresponding boiling temperatures of the essential oil;s constituents.
Mixed Vapours Molecules of water vapour a Molecules of water vapour b Liquid water a Liquid oil b Liquid water a Liquid oil b Molecules of water and gas vapour The composition of mixed vapours from immiscible liquids Eg. Water 99.6c Eg linalyl acetate 226c Together at 99.6c
The Principal of Essential oil Hydro Distillation The principal of all hydro distillation for the recovery of essential oils consists In bringing together two mutually insoluble liquids, water and oil, at a temperature close To the boiling point of the more volatile of the two, the water, so that the addition Of a small extra vapour pressure from the oil, will cause the mixture’s total pressure To equalise to the surrounding pressure. Dalton’s Law
Releasing Oil from Plant Materials In steam distillation water condenses of plant surfaces and latent heat surrounds the material and raises volatile materials to boiling point
Releasing Oil from Plant Materials Herb surface Water liquid mixed liquids oil liquids water liquids Vapour phase 98c saturated mixed vapour General vapour space 99c Region of oil vapour elution Method of Oil Release through Putative Impression from Leaves
Steam in Mixed Vapour Out Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation
Oil Produced (%) 20 40 60 80 100 Time (hours) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Litres Water Passed The Time-Steam-Yield Rate Relationship for a Distillation
Eugenol 1,8 Cineole Methyl Chavicol Linalool Percentage of the Distillate Progressive Total of Constituent in Quantity Stage One Stage Two Stage Three . The Distinct Stages of Distillation and During the Second Phase for Sweet Basil Oil
Slightly Soluble (<500ppm) Moderately Soluble (501-1999ppm) Very Soluble (>2000ppm) Aldehyde C11 Aldehyde C12 (lauric) Aldehyde C12 MNA Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Amyl salicylate Benzyl salicylate Cedrol Citronellol Citronellyl butyrate Citronellyl formate Eudesmol Geranyl formate Limonene Linalyl acetate a-Pinene Calamene 1,8-Cineole Nerol Neryl acetate Rose oxide Benzlaldehyde Benzyl acetate Cinnamic alcohol Citronellyl acetate a-copanene Eugenol Geranial Geraniol Limonene Linalool Mentone Myrcene (E)-β-ocimene Phenylethylacetate Phenylethylalcohol Sabinene Terpinen-4-ol a-Terpineol Terpinolene
Practice of Distillation Different methods of distillation will be used according to: a) Structure of leaves and other plant materials b) “potential modification” of plant’s chemical constituents to heat c) Some resinous materials not volatile and wont react to distillation
Due to material distillation times with differ for various essential oils Lavender Mint
H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
Steam Distillation Still Steam Inlet from boiler Still Drain Valve Welded Wire Mesh Floor Still chamber for plant material (loaded by cartridge or directly) Vapour outlet to condenser Vapour Condenser Condenser cooling water inlet Condenser cooling water outlet Separator Flask Steam Outlet
Steam Inlet Downward Steam Flow Plant Material Condenser Array Grated Base Side opens so cartridge with Plant material can be slide in and out of still. Water & Oil Collector Collector vessel Schematic View of a Hydro-diffusion Distillation System
H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
Solar Distillation
The Synthetics
Aroma Chemicals Derived from Terpenes
Some aroma chemicals
Aldehyde C16 (strawberry) Ethyl methyl phenyl glycidate (the methyl ester of methyl phenyl glycidic acid) Odourless liquid Used at low dosage levels for fruity notes in jasmines, lilac, rose and orange flower and as a sweetening agent Not reported in nature
Anisaldehyde 4-Methyoxybenzaldehyde Colourless liquid Used in lilac, gardenia, honeysuckle and other florals and to produce powdery notes A minor constituent of vanilla
Benzaldehyde Colourless Liquid Used in traces for floral fragrances and in higher quantities for industrial fragrances Found in bitter almond, peach, apricot, ylang ylang, cinnamon bark, cassia.
Benzyl Salicylate Colourless liquid Used as a solvent for crystaline, musk smelling aroma chemicals, as a blender and fixative for florals Naturally occurs in ylang ylang
Cedrol Colourless crystals Powerful odour used as a fixative in soap perfumes and household products Naturally occurs in cedarwood and cypress oils
Cinnamyl Alcohol 3-Phenylprop-2-1-ol White crystalline mass or pale yellow liquid Modifier and fixative in rose, hyacinth, lilac, muguet and other florals, particularly for soaps Found in cinnamon leaf oil
Coumarin 2-Hydroxycinnamic acid lactone Colourless crystals Used in chypre and fougere fragrances, lavenders and other herbal florals, usally as a fixative Found in Tonka bean absolutes, lavender oils
Dihydromyrcenol 2,6-Dimethyloct-7-en-2-ol Slightly coloured yellow liquid Major ingredient in base of citrus fragrances, as a refresher in lilac, lily of the valley and distinction in rose fragrances. Not reported in nature
Exaltolide (Firmenich) Colourless crystaline powder or clear liquid Used at very low dosages as a fixative and intensifier of other fragrance notes in fine fragrances Occurs in traces in angelica root oil cyclopentadecanolide 15-Hydroxypentadecanoic acid ketone
Hedione (Firmenich) Methyl dihydrojasmonate Colourless liquid Used extensively in floral fragrances to create radiance and diffusive power. Not reproted in nature
Cis-3-Hexenol Cis-Hex-3-en-1-ol (Leaf alcohol) Colourless to slightly green liquid In trace amounts for natral green foliage notes in florals Occurs widely in green leaves and many essential oils
Indole Colourless crystals Very lightly in solution as a floral enhancer in jasmines and heavy florals, together with some aldehydic fragrances Occurs in orange flower, jasmine
Alpha-Ionone 4-(2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohex-2-enyl)-but-3-en-2- one Pale yellow liquid In violet compositions, also rose, as a floraliser. Used to contribute to non- florals to enhance the powdery notes in heliotropes, and vanilla In boronia and cassie absolutes and other essential oils
Liliial (Givaudan-Roure) p-tert-Butyl alpha-methylhydrocinnamic aldehyde Colourless to pale yellow liquid Very widely used in florals as a floral fortifier Not reported in nature
Methyl Salicylate Methyl 2-hydroxybenzoate Colourless liquid In synthetic floral compositions, especially Ylang ylang and tuberose. Heavy florals. In trace amounts in light florals. In wintergreen oil, ylang ylang.
Phenyl ethyl alcohol 2-Phenylethylethanol Colourless liquid Widely used in florals, especially rose and with aldehydes. In rose oil, neroli, geranium and ylang ylang
Vertenex (IFF) P-tert-Butyl cyclohexyl acetate Colourless liquid Modifier, blender and sweetening agent for most perfumes. Not reported in nature
Vetiveryl acetate A mixture of bicyclo- and tricyclo- vetiveryl acetates Colourless liquid Effective in chypre, aldehydic and oriental fragrances for lifting and freshening. Also as a fixative. Not reported in nature
The Essential Oil Development Process
Biological Screening Bio-prospecting Literature Review Consider Crop Reintroduction Consider New Crop Introduction Identify Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil Screening for Development Potential o Match chemical constituents of essential oil with possible market uses o Evaluate application potential of essential oil o Evaluate theoretical yields, cost of production o Evaluate time and cost of development Value Determination (Use Criteria) Preliminary study due to volume of possibilities Screening Process Market Development Policy (Product & Enterprise) o Identify Opportunities o Develop Evaluation Criteria o Identify Customer Industry o Determine Required Quality and Monitor Development o Consider Market Entry Strategies o Determine Scope, Resources and Limitations Scaling Up of the Project Environmental Analysis Evaluation of Capabilities Resources, skills, knowledge, Technology, Financial Market Analysis Field Development o Project preparation & early work o Land Selection o Development of planting, cultivation and harvesting techniques o Development of oil extraction techniques Development Process Regulatory Screening (FDAs, REACH, SCCP, BPD, etc) Market Entry Enterprise & Business Evaluation
Screening Process
Value
Availability Increases Usefulness Increases Media Reports Ideas Data Information Knowledge Wisdom The Continuum from media reports to wisdom in relation to availability and usefulness
Value today known and action taken on the basis of today’s value Many people take this action Over supply Into the future
Market Requirements of an Essential Oil Required Oil Yield, Quality for production/market Viability Propagation and Planting Costs Crop Management Harvesting & Extraction Costs Volume and Market Acceptance Laboratory Research Field Research Weather Land Suitability Knowledge and Skills De-stabilising Event – competitor, regulation, new substitute Market Contacts & Network Actual Yields and Oil Quality Other unforseen external factors – politics, disaster, war, regulation, etc Assumptions & Patience Validity based on information & Judgement Risk Environment in Essential Oil Development Evaluation & selection of suitable planting materials Knowledge of specific crop management techniques Knowledge of harvesting, handling & extraction techniques Economies of scale & correct business model, Market strategy Plant physiology & propagation protocols All factors effect on yield & quality
$ Cost $ Return Degree of Processing Final Product Form Selection of Crop Trials Propagation Land Preparation Planting, Maintenance & Irrigation Harvesting & Extraction Product Development Final Product Crop & Project Failure No Return Compost & Mulch Biofuel Animal Feed Crude Essential Oil Organic Agro- product Cosmetic & Aromatherapy Nutriceutical Pharmaceutical Conceptual Value Added Processing Options with Revenue and Cost Implications
Consumers Wholesalers & retailers Manufacturers Flavour & Fragrance Houses Traders & Brokers Primary Producer Essential oil as primary Product. Focus on market demand & supply and meeting standard Essential oil as an ingredient in a product. Focus on uses and applications research Manufacture of end products. Focus on formulation and end product development  Technical Focus  General or Niche Customers Vertical Integration Along the Supply Chain  Application Focus  Technology Focus  IP Focus (?)  Specific Customer  Branding  Theme  Consumer Marketing  Reaching Mass or selected Markets  New Product Development Agro Industrial Consumer Orientation Orientation Orientation Consumer Trends Important Technical Trends Important Demand & Supply, Buying Criteria Important Venture Focus Along Different Parts of the Supply Chain
Essential oil as primary Product. Focus on market demand & supply and meeting standard Essential oil as an ingredient in a product. Focus on uses and applications research Manufacture of end products. Focus on formulation and end product development Vertical Integration Along the Supply Chain Focus Along the Supply Chain Production Orientation Application Orientation Market Orientation
Essential Oil Other Aromatic Extract Aromatic Chemical (bio-route) Aromatic Chemical (physical route) Agro-Tourism Agricultural By-Products The set of opportunities for an essential oil producer Flavour & Fragrance Commodity Oil Specialty Oil Aroma Chemical Aromatherapy & Cosmetic Production & marketing of products Pharmaceutical Agro-chemical Business through select supply chains Single Crop Portfolio of Crops Higher differentiation and value adding Builds brand image and support. Complements other activities. General Trading (marketing)  Region’s production  Specialised single oil marketing  General multi-oil marketing Diversification of activities Mulches Bio-fuel Cattle feeds Paper Utilisation of wastes Production of herbs and spices Other diversification Research Should be Focused Here
Natural Feed-Stocks Physical Extraction Essential Oils Solvent Extraction Aromatic Extracts Selective Extractions Aroma Chemicals Enzyme Precursors Microorganism synthesis Specialty Chemicals Mostly Imitation Here The Areas of Growth are Here
Other Potential Economic Products Lemon Myrtle Dried leaf Spice extract Essential Oils Herbal Tea, Food Flavouring, Spices Antibacterial, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant Dietary Supplement, Energy Drinks, Toiletries (soap, shampoo) , Aromatherapy and Fragrances Pharmaceutical Functional Food Nutraceutical Body Care Semi - Finished Finished Product Potential Product Development
Discovery: 2-10 years The extraction or synthesis of a new clinical or biological substance Preclinical Testing: 4 years Laboratory and animal testing Clinical trials: 7 years Phase 1 20-80 health volunteers used to determine safety, pharmacological and dosage. Clinical trials: Phase 2 100-300 patient volunteers used to determine safety and efficacy Clinical Trials: Phase 3 1000-5000 volunteer patients used to determine clinical health benefit and incidence of adverse reactions TGA Registration 1.5-2 years 35-40K pages of data submitted for evidence on average Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme: 8 months Determination of cost effectiveness Product Promoted to the Medical Profession Post Marketing Monitoring: monitor safety and efficacy when used in wider population, with other diseases and taking other medicines.
Opportunity JV, partnerships, strategic alliances, etc Underlying Knowledge Unexploited or idle resources Sustainability of the venture for long-term survival Cost and performance benefits of product Impact on and from local community Access to capital R&D Economies of scale or competitive advantage through differentiation Access to market/network Market driven selection of crops and product Customer driven management Govt./institutional support Some Success factors
An Existing Crop – Product Already Traded This can be seen as an improvement on existing production or setting up new production in an area already producing the crop.  Improving cultivation and harvesting methods to improve productivity  Finding new customers and channels to increase sales An Existing Crop – Leading to a New Product This may involve moving along the value chain to a new market based on an essential oil already produced or producing an essential oil for some type of value added product.  Improving cultivation and harvesting methods to improve productivity  Finding out what products potential customers want In a new product  Producing a new product according to identified consumer needs  Organising the supply chain for the new product to get to market  Making the product available to more consumers who are likely to want it A New Crop to a New Geographic Area This involves producing an essential oil already in trade in a new geographical area.  Establishing the most efficient way to cultivate, harvest and process the essential oil  Matching the newly produced essential oil with customer expectations and requirements  Organising the supply chain so the essential oil reaches the market  Making the essential oil available to new customers who are likely to require it A New Crop and New Product This involves producing a product higher up the value chain, differentiating it and producing the essential oil.  Making informed decisions about new crop choices  Establishing the most efficient way to cultivate, harvest and process the essential oil  Finding out from potential customers what they want in the new oil  Making sure the oil meets the customers needs as closely as possible  Organising the supply chain so the essential oil reaches the market The Essential Oil Strategic Matrix
Market Analysis • Knowledge of Industry • Knowledge of Potential Applications • Knowledge of Customers • Understanding of Derived Demand • Understanding of Trends • Understanding of Other Developments & Improving Technology and Knowledge
Competitive Rivalries Lemongrass quick yield and straightforward to cultivate and distil – expect high elasticity of supply from both existing and new producers. Producers of substitutes very aggressive Bargaining Power of Suppliers Collecting the most suitable planting material require effort. Extraction and harvest .technology needs to be acquired or developed Analytical equipment or service maybe expensive/remote. Substitutes Citral (main constituents) can be produced from a number of chemical feed stocks. Alternative oils (litsea cubeba) cost much less to produce. Lemon myrtle oil much smoother and acceptable to end users Many alternatives to lemongrass in product formulations. Trends & Technology Alternative technologies to steam distillation (CO2) can make much smoother oil but will increase capital needs greatly. Natural, exotic, organic, FAIRTRADE could increase oils popularity (?) if seen as exotic. Substitutes Trends & Technology Bargaining power of buyers Bargaining power of suppliers Competitive Rivalries Regulation Regulation SCCP placed lemongrass oil under scrutiny as a cosmetic ingredient in EU. Industry Competitors Intensity of Rivalry Bargaining Power of Buyers Currently small item of trade in flavour industry, strong relationships with established producers.
Opportunities Threats Cognitive Bias Strengths Weaknesses  Competitors identifying the same opportunities and enacting upon them  The regulatory environment and potential changes within it  Inability to penetrate the existing supply chain and make alternative strategies  Dependence on survival from a single or very few customers  Depending on a single product for total revenue  Adverse acts of God, bad weather, drought, etc. Opportunities Threats Cognitive Bias Strengths Weaknesses  Competitors identifying the same opportunities and enacting upon them  The regulatory environment and potential changes within it  Inability to penetrate the existing supply chain and make alternative strategies  Dependence on survival from a single or very few customers  Depending on a single product for total Any factor or group of factors that may potentially hinder enterprise growth in a sustainable manner without any contingencies verse acts of God, bad weather, drought, etc.  An identified market where enterprise resources and competencies will be able to exploit  The potential opportunity will have a large enough market size to sustain the enterprise  The enterprise will be able to take advantage of this opportunity better than any other competitors  Outside elements in the supply chain will support the enterprise Any factor or group of factors that will allow the enterprise to grow in a sustainable manner from the market environment  Personal and enterprise competencies, knowledge & experience that can be utilised for the benefit of the enterprise  Facilities, infrastructure, financial backing & liquidity, long timeframe view  Ability to learn through research and experimentation  Any network connections with industry and access to the supply chain for both information and marketing  Ambition and vision (but not delusional), focus & commitment  Ability to innovate technically, market and organisational wise Any factor or group of factors that can assist the enterprise gain competitive advantage over its competitors  Competency gap  Short term timeframe, no fall back position if positive results delayed or there are technical or market failures  Poor infrastructure that hinders production or marketing  Shortage of funds to undertake project to completion  Qualified or lack of commitment by any key people within organisation  Lack of network, knowledge and access to supply chain Any factor or group of factors that can hinder the enterprise gain competitive advantage over its competitors Opportunities are seen with bias according to knowledge, experience, wisdom, educational background, market knowledge, competencies, etc.
High Market Growth Low Strong Weak Relative Competitive Position Crude Essential Oil Steam Distilled Essential Oil under CO2 extraction Cosmetic production for international market Organic Cosmetic production for international market Essential Oil Based Agro- chemical
Organisational Capability Creative, Opportunity, conceptual, strategic, Learning, Organisational, financial, Technical, Marketing, Networking and Commitment Competencies How the Business is Currently Performing The base for potential future Development Resources Existing and Available to the Business The Set of Potential Opportunities Time and Company Evolution/Change Enterprise Performance Personal Objectives Strengths and Weaknesses Theme Personal Resources Network Product Management Finance 4 Ps & Skills Facilities Attributes External Influences & Threats Market Economy Regulation Technology Position Social Situation Change & Competition Aspirations Development Key internal influences on the strategic process The process of product/market development Key external influences on the strategic process Competitive Position Cognitive Bias Structural/Support Strategies Interventional Strategies
Threat of New Entrants Threat of competition from new technology (in past from petrochemicals) Bargaining Power Of suppliers Restrictions on The supply of beta-pinene The required feedstock Other producers of geraniol Industry competitiveness Intensity of rivalry Threat of substitutes Possible reformulation with other rose materials eg. Phenyl ethyl alcohol Bargaining power of buyers Concentration of usage into few major compounders strengthen buyer power Adapted from Porter, M. E, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York, Free Press, 1985 Porter’s Five Force Analysis for Gernaiol
Price Time New producers entering the market Price by determination of value to end users Price by determination of production costs (Most efficient production)
Potential with Right Products and Correct Distribution and Branding Depend on Location Potential with Right Products and Correct Distribution and Branding Potential with Right Products and Correct Distribution and Branding Limited Unless a Specific Market Exists Potential Large Market Dispersed Worldwide Very Limited Unless Large Domestic Market Local Market International Market Essential Oil Differentiated Product Specialty/End Product Much Larger Market with Competition Diversification Local or International Market Opportunities
Scale and Vision/Mission of the farm/plantation • Vision and mission and objectives
The Commitment
The Farm Family Family & Farm History, Current farm Operation, Current Family Status. Strategic Business Analysis Land Labour Capital Business Goals Family Values The Vision “Mission Statement” Family Goals Self Assessment Communication Skills Decision Making Skills Knowledge Personal Goals Business Plan Production & Operations Marketing Personnel Financial Risk Management Retirement Plan Timing of retirement Life after retirement Retirement Income needs Retirement Income sources Farm withdrawals Succession Plan Grooming successors Fairness to all children Transfer strategies Financing the transfer Tax planning Estate Plan Valuing the estate Liquidity needs Planning you will Establishing living powers Tax planning Investment Plan Disposable income Time horizon Investment options Risk management Tax planning Adapted from Manitoba Agriculture
Agro-Tourism
Issue Comments Focus Paradigm Requires focus on concept of product application where current focus is on cultivation This requires research This requires an entrepreneurial approach Concepts not readily understood by conventional farmers Basic Research Needs access to Worldwide data Requires availability of suitable germplasms Requires basic R&D to determine where crop technically suitable Requires R&D to determine whether potential crop is economically feasible Very difficult to get R&D assistance Shortage of skills and expertise in many areas Crop Management and Processing Propagation technologies How to plant, cultivate and manage the crop How to harvest, extract, store and handle How to process How to package Transportation and storage Marketing Infrastructure Require coordination of production with demand (important with new essential oil production) Require correct channels of distribution (critical) Requires a marketing strategy (change of paradigm from producing orientation) Economics and Logistics Requires enough volume to economically transport and distribute (especially in low to medium value oils) Requires a solution to inconsistencies of quality and production Organisation Need committed people with strong leadership and trust Government Need to translate support into action Need funding allocations for research & development Need infrastructure Regulation Need to fund infrastructure to meet EPA & HACCP, etc Need to identify and fulfil the requirements of various regulatory bodies Finance Very difficult to obtain funding for these projects Customers & Consumers Need to identify who are the customers in which part of the value chain Need to work closely with selected customers
2. The Screening Process
To Development Process First Stage: Theoretical & Biological Screening Biological Screening Screening For Development Potential To Market Development Linked to all stages Regulatory Screening REACH, BPD, SCP, GRAS, etc
Biological Screening Bio-prospecting Literature Review Consider Crop Reintroduction Consider New Crop Introduction Identify Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil Screening for Development Potential o Match chemical constituents of essential oil with possible market uses o Evaluate application potential of essential oil o Evaluate theoretical yields, cost of production o Evaluate time and cost of development Value Determination (Use Criteria) Preliminary study due to volume of possibilities The Screening Process Regulatory Screening (FDAs, REACH, SCCP, BPD, etc) Generation of Possibilities Elimination of Possibilities Leads to a number of potential possibilities that can be further studied
Potential New Crop Ideas screened through a process that eliminates potential ideas. ? The industrial product ideation process aims to generate ideas from a zero base. Leads to one crop (idea) to be developed Leads to many ideas to be further screened
Bio-Prospecting Desktop Studies
Actual Conditions Range of Possible Growing Conditions for Potential Crop  General climate  Range of micro-climates  Topography that influences micro-climates  Rainfall range (access to irrigation)  Temperature ranges  Daylight hours  Soil types  Soil characteristics (pH, humus profile, soil layers, etc)  Preferred climate(s)  Preferred micro-climates  Preferred topography  Preferred rainfall levels  Preferred temperature ranges  Preferred daylight hours  Preferred soil types  Preferred soil characteristics Comparison Factors between Potential Cultivation Site and Potential Crop Latitudes 44° North & South
Actual Conditions Range of Possible Growing Conditions for Potential Crop  General climate  Range of micro-climates  Topography that influences micro- climates  Rainfall range (access to irrigation)  Temperature ranges  Daylight hours  Soil types  Soil characteristics (pH, humus profile, soil layers, etc)  Preferred climate(s)  Preferred micro-climates  Preferred topography  Preferred rainfall levels  Preferred temperature ranges  Preferred daylight hours  Preferred soil types  Preferred soil characteristics Comparison Factors between Potential Cultivation Site and Potential Crop
Lemongrass Caraway Tea tree Artemisia Vanilla Rue Perilla Geranium Hyssop Cardamom Dill Aloe (Eaaglewood) Sandalwood Lemon Balm Galanga Cumin Lime Coriander Lemon Ylang Ylang Angelica Lavender Plant Cymbopogon citratus Carum carvi Melaleuca alternifolia Artemisia vulgaris Vanilla planifolia Ruta graveolens Perilla frutescens Pelargonium graveolens Hyssopus officinalis Elettaria cardamomum Anethum graveolens L. Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. Santalum album Melissa officinalis Alpinia galanga Cuminum cyminum Citrus aurantifolia Coriandrum sativum Citrus limon Cananga odorata Angelica archangelica Lavendula angustifolia Botanical Name Grassland s Temperat e Sub- tropical Tem/tropi cal Tropical Mediterra nean Tropical Temp/Sub -Tro Mediterra nean Temp/Tro pical Temperat e Tropical Arid- monsoon Temperat e Tropical Sub- tropical Tropical Coast Versatile Mediterra nean Tropical Temperat e Mediterra nean Habitat 24◦ C 16° C 21° C 21° C 17° C 10° C - 15° C 20° C 22° C 14° C 24° C 17° C 22° C 6°C 15° C - 5°C 15° C 30° C 20° C 30° C 30° C 26° C 24° C - 18° C 22° C 30° C 25° C 30° C 26° C 28° C 17° C 18° C - 19° C 28° C 18° C 7°C 10° C 10° C 4°C 10° C 7°C 10° C 6°C 18° C 10° C 6°C 18° C 9°C 18° C 4°C - 21° C - 7°C 34◦ C 26° C 45° C 33° C 30° C 32° C 36° C 35° C 26° C 32° C 38° C 30° C 34◦ C 26° C 32° C 28° C+ - 32° C - 24° C Temperature Range Optimal Max. 1500 mm 600m m 800m m 1500 mm 500m m 600m m 1500 mm 500m m - 450m m 500m m 1500 mm 800m m 1250 mm 1500 mm 250m m 1500 mm 600m m 500m m 3000 mm 1300 mm 3000 mm 3000 mm 1500 mm 1000 mm 1700 mm 1700 mm - 3000 mm 1300 mm 3000 mm 2700 mm 2500 mm 2500 mm 1250 mm 2000 mm 1300 mm 1000 mm 20° N&S 45- 60°N 0- 32°N&S 0-60°N 20°S- 20°N 30- 45°N 0-50°N 30-50° 25-66° 5- 35°N&S 28- 45°N&S 0- 25°N&S 20° N&S 30- 45°N&S 20° N&S Along 30°N 30°S- 30°N 40°S- 40°N 40°S- 45°N 10- 15°N&S 30- 45°N&S 35- 55°N&S Rainfall Lat. Range (mm) <1400m <700m <700m <1200m <2000m <1400m - <1000m <2500m <1700m lowlands lowlands <2200m <2200m - <400m 700- 1700m <1700m Altitude Direct Sunlight Direct sunlight Direct sunlight Direct sunlight Part shade Direct sunshine Light shade Light shade Direct sunlight Shaded areas Direct sunlight Direct sunlight Direct exposure Direct exposure Partial Shade Direct exposure Direct Sunlight Direct exposure Direct exposure Direct after maturity - Direct Sunlight Diurnal Radiation Hours
Worksheet for Rough Calculation of Financial Viability at Initial Screening Stage 1. Costs of Crop Domestication Can they potential crop be domesticated into field production easily? If not, will biomass be wild-collected? What method would be most suitable for propagation, from seed, cuttings, tissue culture, other? Does nursery propagation of the potential crop require any other special care? What staffing will be required? What would be the approximate costs of achieving the above?
2. Field Preparation and Infrastructure What overall infrastructure will be needed?, nursery, road access, fencing, outbuildings, farming equipment, etc. What land preparation is needed, land levelling and contouring, drainage, etc. Does the crop require large amounts of water to thrive during growth? Is there adequate water available through rainfall to satisfy this? Will irrigation be required? If so, what method? Will dams and catchment areas have to be constructed to ensure a plentiful water supply? What will be the approximate costs of this? Are there any other potential costs?
3. Planting and Maintenance Approximately how long will the crop take from field planting to harvest maturity? How will the potential crop be planted?, manually/automated? What will be the costs involved? What would the approximate planting density be? Will nutrients have to be applied? If so, how regularly?, How much? What method will be used to apply them? What will be the approximate costs of this? How often are re-plantings required? After each harvest, after a number of seasons, after how many years, what are the costs involved to prepare for each re-planting?
4. Harvesting, Extraction and Post Extraction Is harvest timing crucial?, ie, a time of day, a very short window in a particular month, etc What are the costs involved in achieving this harvest window? What method of harvest will be utilised? Manual, semi-mechanised, fully mechanised What would be the approximate costs of building the harvest equipment? What method of extraction will be required? Hydro-distillation, steam distillation, destructive distillation, vacuum distillation, solvent extraction, other What power sources will be utilised? What are their costs? How will spent biomass be dealt with? Does it have any economic value or can it be used back in the farming process? Is the technology understood for the above processes? If not, what will be the costs of acquiring it? What will be the fabrication costs to build the above? What regulations (ie., EPA) are relevant to the processes? And how much will development and compliance cost? Will specialist staff be required? What would the approximate cost of energy to oil yield?
5. Estimated (guessed) Project Size and Yields How many hectares do you anticipate to cultivate? How many years will it take to achieve this? What (based on literature and other knowledge) would be the approximate biomass per hectare achievable? (min. and max. est.) Does the biomass have to be wilted, stored or otherwise processed before extraction? What would be the yield as a percentage of biomass after extraction?
6. Estimated Financial Viability 1. Research costs = 2. Costs of crop domestication = 3. Field preparation and infrastructure costs = 4. Propagation, planting and maintenance costs = 5. Harvesting, extraction & post extraction costs = Total Capital Costs (1+3) = Total operational costs (2+4+5) = Total amount of oil yielded = Total oil value = Value – total operational costs = Return/total capital costs x 100 = Return on investment
Biological Screening • Bio-prospecting • Literature Review • Consider Reintroduction of a Crop • Consider Introduction of New Crop Identify Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil
Screening For Development Potential • Match Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil to Possible Market Uses • Evaluate Application Potential of Essential Oil • Evaluate Yields, Cost of production • Evaluate Time and Cost of Development • Value Determination (Use Criteria)
Screening • Require Knowledge of Essential Oil Applications • Require knowledge of International Market • Require Knowledge of International Regulations • Need to Collaborate with Industry Parties
Screening Protocols • Anti inflammatory • Anti microbial • Skin whitening • UV absorbing • Anti age actives • Flavour & fragrance application • Aromatherapy
Group Characteristics Examples Uses Flavour/Odour Profile due to one or more constituents Usually high volume/low to medium value products. Level of chemical constituents very important in trade. Aroma chemicals often good substitutes. Mint Lemongrass Some citrus oils Eucalyptus Clove Perfume and Flavour compounds Flavours where natural status is desired Some citrus oils used for cleaning solvents. Isolation of natural aroma chemicals, eg., eugenol from clove oil. Flavour/Odour Profile due to one or few major constituents that cannot be easily reconstructed Usually medium to high volume, medium priced oils. Olfactory and flavour characteristics more important in purchase decisions. Difficult to reconstitute. Vativert Sandalwood Patchouli Perfumery and flavour compounds (both functional and fine perfumery) Character from main constituents, but richness and complexity from minor constituents Low volume/high priced oils. Olfactory characteristics important in purchase decisions and pricing. In most cases oils can be reconstituted efficiently. Rose oil Jasmine absolute Many herb oils Fine perfumery (mainly reconstitutions used for functional perfumes) Limited flavour use Majority of herb oils used for flavours but beginning to be used in fragrances None of the main constituents contribute decisively to the desired odour/flavour profile Low volume/hogh priced oils. Olfactory characteristics most important in purchase decisions. In most cases good reconstitutions can be produced. Mimosa absolute Fine perfumery (usually too expensive to use for functional products) Classes, Characteristics and Uses of Essential Oils Adapted from Naf (1989) and Petrzilka (1991) in Hunter (1995)
A new material must have the following characteristics to have commercial potential a) The novelty of the new essential oil b) The perceived potential uses and applications of the new essential oil c) The closeness of any substitutes to the new essential oil d) The stability of the new essential oil e) The cost/price performance ratio of the new essential oil f) The toxicity aspects of the new essential oil g) The general consistency of supply and quality h) The prevailing market/product trends, and i) The current level of technology Kastner (1991) modified by Hunter (1995)
Evaluating the Characteristic Strengths and Weaknesses of Essential Oils The novelty of a new essential oil The major factor determining the novelty is the perceived uniqueness of the essential oil’s organoleptic profile. Thus, the degree of novelty is limited by the closeness of potential substitutes. The concept of novelty extends to essential oils that are more cost effective sources of natural aroma chemicals. New natural sources of aroma chemicals would also fit into this criteria of novelty.
The potential uses and applications of a new essential oil Without perfumers and flavourists perceiving applications potential, a new essential oil will remain in the realm of curiosity. Time, effort and imagination on the part of perfumers and flavourists is required to discover useful applications for new essential oils. It is under this criteria that most new essential oils will struggle to find acceptance as a new aromatic material.
The closeness of any substitutes It is difficult to find essential oils that cannot be duplicated by reconstitutions. New essential oils with close substitutes are of little value to the flavour and fragrance industry, unless they can offer a significant cost or stability advantage. The only exception is when a new essential oil is a source of a natural aroma material.
The Toxicity The cost of proving a new material is safe to use in flavours and fragrances is a major obstacle to the development of new aromatic materials. The industry has an impeccable reputation for self regulation and added EU regulations increases the cost of preparing dossiers on new materials even more. In markets outside the EU, most international flavour and fragrance houses would not consider using a new essential oil unless it meets IFRA safety and toxicity recommendations and is included on the GRAS list.
The Cost Price/Performance Ratio of the New Essential Oil Important in the application potential of the new essential oil. New material must offer a perceptible odour/flavour at low concentrations
The Stability of the New essential Oil Stability as an essential oil and stability in end products.
The general consistency of quality and supply Natural material will vary in quality according to geographic origin, type of soil, level of nutrients in the soil, climate and weather, rainfall, time of harvest, season, method of extraction, altitude and the incidence of pests and diseases. Likewise there are risks with continual supply of natural materials because of adverse weather conditions, changes in climate, floods and other natural disasters, wars, political upheavels and the inexperience of new producers. Launching new consumer products require large investments on the part of the end product manufacturer. Flavour and fragrance houses do not want to be placed in a position of being unable to supply a manufacturer with a flavour or fragrance compound because of the unavailability of a raw material.
The prevailing market/product trends Market and product trends slowly evolve. Changes in market trends are the result of complex forces, including technology, which makes new trends possible, advertising, and cultural influences upon consumer tastes and preferences. A particular essential oil may become more or less important to the flavour and fragrance industry, depending upon these trends.
The current level of technology New technology advances influence the value of existing aromatic materials to the flavour and fragrance industry. The development of new essential oil reconstitutions are aimed at eliminating some of the potential toxicity and solubility problems of existing essential oils. Reconstitutions are generally more stable and cheaper than their more expensive natural counterparts. As better and more cost effective reconstitutions are developed in the future, the use of some essential oils will decline. Since the advent of more sophisticated analytical techniques, like GC-MS, headspace analysis, electronic noses, aroma chemical and specialty product manufacturers have been better able to isolate powerful aromatic molecules from essential oils and synthesise these compounds. The discovery of new aroma chemicals in essential oils due to increased equipment sensitivity is more likely to lead to synthesis rather than cultivation.
The novelty of a new essential oil The potential uses & applications of the new essential oil The closeness of any substitutes The stability of the essential oil in applications The cost/performance ratio The Toxicity The general consistency of quality and supply The prevailing market/product trends The current level of technology Low Novelty High Novelty Low Potential High Potential Close Substitutes No Close Substitutes Poor Stability Good Stability Poor Ratio Good Ratio High Toxicity Low Toxicity Low Consistency High Consistency Low Trend Match High Trend Match High likelihood of synthesis Low Likelihood of Synthesis A B D C A Grid showing the characteristics of a new essential oil
Potential essential oil crop idea Bio-prospecting Screening Protocols o Anti inflammatory o Anti microbial o UV absorbing o Anti ageing actives o Flavour & fragrance application o Aromatherapy o Anti cancer Desktop study Knowledge Required o Essential oil applications o International market (Flavour & fragrance, cosmetics, personal care, agro-chemical, aromatherapy, etc.) o International regulations Need to collaborate with industry parties Ethno- botany Other literature (Journals, etc.) Study of same latitude Crops What has value to industry? o Chemical constituents o Odour/flavour profile o Potential applications Match chemical constituents with possible market uses Evaluate application potential of essential oil Evaluate theoretical yields, cost of production Evaluate time and cost of development Value Determination (Preliminary study due to volume of possibilities) Choice and Access to Market Jurisdiction Regulatory Framework
Regulatory Screening • United States - GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe) • RIFM – Collections of Monographs • Food and Drug Administration • Europe – REACH, BPD, SCP More Later on this subject
Second Stage: Development Process Environmental Analysis Evaluation of Capabilities Market Analysis Technical Development Opportunities & Threats Finance, Knowledge, Land Tenure, etc Market, Customers, Options Project Development in the Field Commercialisation Strategies Market Development
Development Process
Production Processes Farm size & layout Organisation & methods Propagation Cultivation Processing Marketing Climate Weather Rainfall Wind Sunshine UV radiation Temperature Humidity Conducive weather Or Floods, droughts, etc Physical Environment Soil Topography Atmosphere Natural flora & fauna habitat Urbanisation Suitability of conditions Pollution (air, land & water) Labour sources Water resources (create hinterland where farm part of) Human Habituation Knowledge Suppliers & contractors Pollution Attitudes and concerns Resource inputs, fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, machinery, research capabilities Positive Inputs Water Sunshine Nitrogen Agricultural inputs Fertilizers etc Knowledge Labour Negative Inputs Adverse physical conditions Pests & diseases Pollution Heavy metals Business Environment Markets Finance Trade environment Customers Financing & various kinds of capital Competition Low prices Changing demand patterns Government Infrastructure Regulation Taxes & subsidies Trade environment Research Negative Outputs Runoffs, wastes, carbon Some recycling back to system Positive Outputs Products Revenue flow back to system An Agricultural Enterprise as a System
Evaluation of Resources & Capabilities • Resources - Funding - Time - Facilities & Infrastructure - Equipment - Literature • Capabilities - Available Skills (Research Team) - Experience
Research into genetic material and propagation methods Ongoing genetic material improvement research Leads onto Acceptable genetic material for commercial production and a set of propagation practices Leads onto Research into planting, spacings densities, best environmental conditions, nutrient and moisture levels Acceptable field practices for the crop Leads onto Research into harvesting methods, harvest timeframes, pre-extraction handling methods Acceptable harvest and pre-extraction practices for the crop Ongoing agronomic research aimed towards better yields and chemical composition Leads onto Research into various extraction methods and techniques Acceptable extraction practices Research into post extraction handling methods Acceptable post extraction handling practices Ongoing research into post extraction handling Leads onto Leads onto Leads onto Leads onto The set of optimum enterprise site specific agronomic and extraction practices An Operational Farm Research and Management Plan
Understand factors and issues Identify research opportunities. Understand the phenomena and prioritize them. Find methods and techniques to solve problems and exploit research opportunities. Utilise knowledge and technology through specific trials under field conditions to make improvements in yields and obtain specified oil constituents. Evaluate results, develop practices for field and processing tasks. Experiment on relevant Issues & Factors Identification and Evaluation of Research Opportunities Survey Priorities Procedure in Selecting Critical Research Issues (Develop a body of knowledge and specific technologies climate, soil and site specific) Develop potential practices Principal operational methods Growth, propagation, planting, maintenance, harvesting & processing
Carbon dioxide Glycolysis Glucose 2 Acetyl CoA Fatty acid Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase Acetocetyl CoA HMGS-CoA syntesis 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) HMGL-CoA lyase HMGR-CoA reductase Mevalonate Mevalonate pyrophosphate IPP isomerase Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) DMAPP (C5) Monoterpene synthases and cyclase Geranyl pyrophosphate (C10) prenyltransferase Farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) (C15) Sesquiterpene Synthesis & Cyclase Diterpene synthase & Cyclase Squalene syntase Geranyl geranylpyrophosphate (C20) Squalene (C30) Cytokinins Isopentyl adenine rubber Monoterpenes s Sesquiterpenes Polyprenols Farnesylated proteins Sterols Saponins Hormones Lipoproteins Diterpenes Carotenoids Abscisic acid Chlorophyll Vitamin K Pare and Tumlinsen (1997), Chappel (1995), Weissenborn et al (1995), van der Heijden et al, 1994, and van Kush (1994).
Farming set up
Essential Oil Technical Development • Project Preparation and Early Work - Stakeholders - Team - Objectives - Funding - Plan
Essential Oil Technical Development • Land Selection - Suitable (Soil, Rainfall, drainage, access) - Climate - Location - Tenure - Future Expansion
Constituent Variations
Yield Variations
Tansy Tanacetum vulgare L (Asteraceae) Genotype Chemotypes Camphor Type 1,8-Cineole Type Artemisia ketone Type Thujone Type Myrtenol Type Chemotype Variances Other Chemotype Compound C1 C2 C3 1,8-Cineole 16.0 27.2 14.5 Borneol 1.8 0.1 0.8 Camphor 16.2 9.8 0.5 Terpenin-4-ol 2.4 13.8 1.9 Myrtenol 24.9 10.6 15.8 E-Nerolidol Tr. 1.7 0.6 a-pinene 5.5 4.9 0.5 ß-pinene 2.2 2.3 Tr. Spathulenol 1.3 1.7 1.8 a-thujene Tr. 0.1 Tr. a-Terpinene 0.5 3.1 0.5 Ў-Terpinene 0.9 5.6 0.3 o-Cymene 0.7 3.4 0.3 Sabinene 1.7 1.7 Tr. Camphene 1.5 0.8 1.1 Adapted from Mockute & Judzentiene (2003), (2004) and Steiner, et.al., (2005).
Sample Linalool Methylchavical Olfactory Profile India 14.2% 77.5% A grassy herbaceous and mildly spicy predominating note, with a herbaceous subsidiary note; back notes slightly fruity. French 55.3% 10.9% A smmoth fresh and diffusive herbaceous note with harmonized cool anisic and slightly balsamic subsidiary notes and warm woody back notes. Australian 34.3% 34.7% A clean vegetableptype note with a cool herbaceous menthol-like subsidiary note; a green and grassy back note. Seychelles 27.7% 40.2% A sharp diffusive clean grassy herbaceous note, with a fruity anisic subsidiary note and a very slightly camphoraceous back note. Reunion (Australian grown) 3.4% 75.7% A sharp, if not somewhat dry, anisic note; the subsidiary notes were herbaceous with a slight sweet camphoraceous floral back note. Lachowicz, K., J., Jones, G., P., Briggs, D., R., Bienvenu, F., E., Palmer, M., V., Ting, S., T., and Hunter, M., Characteristics of Essential Oil from Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Grown in Australia, Journal of Agriculture and Food Technology, Vol. 44, No. 3., 1996, pp. 877-881. Different Major Chemical and Olfactory Profiles of Five Basil Oils
Topographic Variations Mentha piperata Mint
Texture Layer Depth Organic Material Moisture Content pH Drainage & Evaporation, etc
Genetic Material Habitat & Topography Suitability Soil Type, Texture & Drainage Suitability Temperature Range Suitability Rainfall Suitability Access to Irrigation Diurnal Radiation Crop Maintenance Cycle Pest, Disease & Weed Control Issues Easily Available Need to Develop Very Suitable Not Suitable or Need to Develop Very Suitable Not Suitable Very Suitable Out of Range Very Suitable Deficient or Excessive Yes No Very Suitable Out of Range Common & Generic Require Specialized Processes Common & Generic Require Specialized Processes Harvest & Extraction Processes Common & Generic Require Specialized Processes The Agronomic Characteristics Required for the New Essential Oil
Essential Oil Technical Development • Development of Propagation Material - Easy to Domesticate? - Seed Collection (genetic variance) - Other Propagation Methods
Require Uniformity In Product
Genetic material Chemotype Variances for Melaleuca cajuputi Principal Oil Constituents Variant 1 Variant 2 Variant 3 Variant 4 Variant 5 Variant 6 a-pinene 2.1 2.5 3.1 2.1 19.5 3.8 a-thujene 0.3 0.9 1.2 0.2 - 0.8 b-pinene 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.4 8.6 2.5 Limonene 5.6 4.9 4.8 5.2 17.4 6.9 1.8-cineole 62.8 41.6 34.0 66.5 21.5 50.7 g-terpinene 1.2 7.4 5.0 0.9 8.7 3.1 g-cymene 1.3 3.5 5.7 0.5 3.0 1.4 Terpinelene 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.3 4.1 1.5 b- caryophyellene 3.7 6.9 7.4 3.3 2.8 4.9 Aromadendrene 0.9 1.4 1.7 0.7 1.2 0.9 Humulene 1.8 3.9 0.3 1.9 0.1 2.3 Vindifflorene 4.5 3.1 2.5 3.8 1.7 3.7 a-terpineol 4.5 3.0 2.4 3.8 1.9 3.8 Geographic Variances within a single chemotype
Constituent Variations Slee, M., U., 1995
Yield Variations
Sample Linalool Methylcha vical Olfactory Profile India 14.2% 77.5% A grassy herbaceous and mildly spicy predominating note, with a herbaceous subsidiary note; back notes slightly fruity. French 55.3% 10.9% A smmoth fresh and diffusive herbaceous note with harmonized cool anisic and slightly balsamic subsidiary notes and warm woody back notes. Australian 34.3% 34.7% A clean vegetableptype note with a cool herbaceous menthol-like subsidiary note; a green and grassy back note. Seychelles 27.7% 40.2% A sharp diffusive clean grassy herbaceous note, with a fruity anisic subsidiary note and a very slightly camphoraceous back note. Reunion (Australian grown) 3.4% 75.7% A sharp, if not somewhat dry, anisic note; the subsidiary notes were herbaceous with a slight sweet camphoraceous floral back note. Different Major Chemical and Olfactory Profiles of Five Basil Oils Hunter et al, 1996
Preparation & Transfer Area Composting & Media Mixing Area Seed Sowing Area Seedling Standing Area Perimeter Drain Recycling Tank Seedling Standing Area
Land Preparation Leveling and contouring Drainage
Objective of Trials to Develop Agronomy Plan Peppermint Management
Wind drift Farm/Plantation Soil Floor Sub-Soil Fertilisers, herbicides, insecticides Leaf & organic decompositions Sub-terrainium water Sun Climate & Weather Cultivation Propagation Processing Products Runoffs Surface water Wastes Chemical residuals Some wastes recycled Watershed runoffs onto farm/plantation Atmosphere Nitrogen, gasses, etc Lakes Rivers Canals Oceans Daylight hours UV radiation Temperature Humidity Rainfall Conducive weather, or floods, droughts, etc Regional Eco-System A Farm/Plantation as a System Other Farms
o Location Topography Slope & drainage o Climate – Sunshine hours Season Rainfall Humidity Temperature UV Radiation (Micro-climate variation) o Soil Soil Type pH Water holding qualities Humus Compactness Prior use Mineral residuals o Genetic Material Plant physiology Propagation characteristics o Agronomic Practices Fertiliser/nutrients Irrigation Weed & pest control (also time intervals) Plant density o Harvest & Extraction Practices Time & method of harvest Pre-harvest handling & preparation Method of Extraction Time of Extraction Length of Extraction Factors Effecting Essential Oil Yield & Composition
Yield and Chemical Constituents of the Essential Oil Location Topography Slope & drainage Climate Sunshine hours Seasons Rainfall Humidity Temperature UV radiation Genetic Material Collection Purchase Plant physiology Propagation characteristics Soil Nutrients pH Drainage & water holding qualities Humus Compactness Mineral residuals Agronomic Practices Soil type Irrigation Pest & weed control Plant densities Harvest & Extraction Practices Time & method of harvest Pre-harvest handling & preparation Method of extraction Extraction time
Essential Oil Development Research Project Gantt & Milestone Chart Activity/Research Objectives Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Genetic Material/Propagation 1. Selection Initial selections 2. Propagation trials Seed/vegetative 3. Index selection Continuing Prog Land Preparation 1. Clearing & Initial Preparation 10 Ha. Plot 2. Level & slope 3. Irrigation infrastructure Sprinkler system Planting/Maintenance Trials 1. Trial row planting/spacings/plots Var. densities 2. Nutrient trials NPK x 3levels 3. Weeding trials Manual vs. chem. Harvesting Trials 1. Harvest trials Manual 2. Post harvest handling variations Packing density 3. Mechanisation trials Mod. Harvester Extraction Trials 1. Distillation trial (part maturity) Stage sampling 2. Distillation trial (full maturity) Ea. Rep. plots 3. Large scale field distillation compare lab samp 4. Variances of distillation times Yield/constituents 5. Charge packing variance trials Yield variance Economic Appraisal Full castings M1: Propagation Methodolgy M2: Optimum spacing/density M3: Optimum Nutrient levels M4: Optimum weed control techniques M5: Knowledge Yields & Biomass M6: Knowledge composition/ Var. conditions M7: Optimum Distil parameters M8: Full economic study
Trials Response of Major Constituents to Nitrogen Ovens Valley, Victoria, Australia, 1991/92 Response of Major Constituents to Nitrogen (P. odoratum) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nitrogen Level % 1-decanol 1-dodecanol decanal dodecanal
Response of Yield to Nitrogen Level Persicaria odoratum Ovens Valley, Victoria, Austalia (91,92) Response of Yield to Nitrogen Application 0 5 10 15 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nitrogen Level Kg. per Ha.
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 0.12 0.2 0.6 1.2 1.2 0.3 0.5 1.6 3.2 3.2 Diagram 2: Production yield of leaves per tree basis Yieldof Dry Leaves (Kg) Yieldof Fresh Leaves (Kg) Biomass Production – Lemon Myrtle
Essential Oil Technical Development Planting Harvesting Techniques Extraction Techniques
Technology Required Level of Mechanization Required Research & Development Time-frame Capital Requirements Crop Cycle Timeframe (Additional) Infrastructure Required Regulatory Issues Skills, Competencies & Capabilities Required Networks, Market, Potential Competitors, etc. Low & Generic High & Specialized Low and/or Generic High and/or specialized Short & straight forward Long & Complex Low High Short Long Low High Low Need of Consideration High Need of Consideration Common & Generic Rare & Specialized Available Networks, Wide Market & high competition Need Network, Specialized Market, Few Competitors Potential Revenue High Low The Project Characteristics.
A Simple Competency Audit Example (Hunter 2009, P. 299). Competency Present Not Present Comments Technical 1. Botany 2. Plant Physiology 3. Chemistry/Analytical 4. Micro-propagation 5. Nursery Management 6. Environmental Engineering 7. Chemical engineering/thermodynamics/etc 8. Soil Management 9. Agronomy/plant nutrition/field management 10. Entomology 11. Irrigation engineering 12. Agricultural Engineering 13. Regulation knowledge 14. Cosmetic chemistry/food etc 15. Perfume/flavours 16. Packaging & design 17. Consumer product manufacturing Basic Basic Experience Experience Experience Basic Basic Basic Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Need guidance Need assistance Need guidance Assistance Available Can design Need appraisal Use contractor Use institute Replicated experiments With Environment Use contractor Can develop Need assistance Learn from experience Use contractor
Competency Present Not Present Comments Opportunity/Entrepreneurial/Commitment 1. Able to screen environment for opportunities 2. Able to evaluate opportunities 3. Commitment level Yes Yes Passionate Need to see realistically Relationship 1. Have relationships in target industries 2. Have relationships in research area 3. Have relationships in finance industry A few A few Some Organising/Management 1. Able to project manage 2. Able to administrate 3. Able to financially manage operation 4. Able to undertake research 5. Able to keep key people motivated Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Strategic 1. Understand dynamics of market and industry environment 2. Able to plan for a business within this environment 3. Able to implement, evaluate and adjust plans in this environment Yes Yes Yes Believe so but not tested
Planting & Maintenance Post harvest practices Irrigation Methods Planting & Harvesting Methods
Green/Biological/Natural Minimum interventionalist Linear/Industrial/Chemical Wild Harvest Biodynamic Farming Organic Farming Chemical Free Reduced Pesticide Low Input Sustainable Minimum Till Conventional High Input Chemical Intensive Natural Farming Traditional Farming Biological Farming
THE OPERATION OF ORGANIC PHILOSOPHY (Fundamental Principals and Practices) Objectives Soil Health & Fertility Pest & Disease Management Weed Management Eco-system Biodiversity Sustainability Crop Rotation Green Manure Animal Manure Cover Crops Intercropping Farmscape Composting Mulching Buffers Crop Rotation Green Manure Animal Manure Cover Crops Intercropping Bio-control Farmscape Buffers Crop Rotation Green Manure Animal Manure Cover Crops Mineral supplements Natural Fertilizers Mulching Composting Tillage Intercropping Bio-control Farmscape Buffers Crop Rotation Green Manure Cover Crops Composting Intercropping Crop Diversity Bio-control Natural Pesticides Sanitation Tillage Farmscape Fire Buffers Crop Rotation Cover Crops Intercropping Mulching Flame Control Natural Herbicide Integrity Buffers Records Certification Improvement Practices Foundations Site Selection Conversion Habitat Creation Planning
Farmscapping Barriers Crops Boundaries Sanitation Crop Diversity Forecasting and Monitoring Climate & Weather Forecast, Pest Mapping, Setting Thresholds, Monitoring, Record Keeping. Evaluation and Decision Making Cultural Controls Soil Health Crop Genetic Diversity Planting times Harvest times Crop Rotations Intercropping Mulches Biological Controls Natural enemies (predators & parasites) Mechanical Controls Tillage Pest Traps Flaming or Controlled Fire Flooding Soil Solarization Clipping Vacuuming Steam Sterilization Genetic Controls Phonemes Release of beneficial/ Predator Insects Microorganisms Biological and Organic Pesticides Insecticidal soaps, Horticultural oils, Biorational Pesticides, Particle Film , Botanical Pesticides Curative Methods Preventative methods Organic Pest Control (Bio-Intensive Integrated Pest Management)
Overhead Sprinklers Drip Irrigation Capillary Sand Beds Installation cost Moderate Moderate/High High Maintenance Low High High Durability Excellent Low Moderate Labour Low Moderate Low Water Distribution Fair Good Good Water Use Efficiency Poor, wasteful Good Good Pump Requirement Large, high pressure Small, low pressure Small, low pressure Water Volume Requirement Large Small Small Wind Influence Serious None None
Climate Scenario  Temperature  Solar Radiation  Wind  Humidity  Rainfall Topography and Soil Characteristics  Water holding capacity  Drainage  General topography Physical System  Type of System  Manpower requirements & availability  Economics  Efficiency (i.e., delivery, run- off) Windbreaks & other protective measures Plant & Crop Requirements  Crop factor  Stage of growth  Basic physiology Irrigation Practices Procedures and Timetables Influenced by plant spacing & density and life span Rainfall Reliability
X = 0.6 m • • • • • Y = 1.0 m • • • • • • • • • • Plant Populations • Regular plant spacings maximise biomass • Climate, weather, soil fertility and Plant physiology influence Plant spacings • Selected plant spacings influence Biomass, leaf size, fruit & rhizome Size, stem growth.
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EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt
EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt

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EssentialOilspresentationupdatedversionOct2011.ppt

  • 1. Flavours, Fragrances & Essential Oils Art, Agriculture,Science, Industry & Entrepreneurship Presentation by Murray Hunter © Murray Hunter 2007
  • 2. 1. Introduction 2. Definitions 3. The Nature of the Industry 4. The Olfactory System and Classification of Fragrances 5. Uses and Markets 6. Natural Product Chemistry 7. Extraction Theory and Practice 8. Aroma Chemicals 9. The Essential Oil Development Process 10. Screening Process 11. Development Process 12. Problems in Developing New Essential Oils 13. Regulatory Requirements 14. Flavour & Fragrance Operations 15. Organic Farming 16. Some Essential Oils Economics 17. Some Fine Fragrance Profiles 18. Formulary of Finished Products 19. The Trends of Fine Fragrance 20. Essential Oils in Thailand 21. Potential Research Projects 22. Potential Careers in the Industry 23. References
  • 4. CO2 Emissions Resource Depletion Global Warming Changed Weather Patterns Decline of Arable Land Temp. Increase Sea Levels Rise Decline of eco-system, biodiversity and sustainability Pests & Diseases Droughts Floods Food Crisis Declining Productivity Alternative Land Use Rising Costs Urbanisation Unstable Production Lack of finance for production Population Growth Production Growing unemployment Consumption Loss of Confidence And consumption Bank Liquidity Global Warming, The Food and Economic Crisis
  • 6. Average age of farmers in Malaysia
  • 7.
  • 8. Templating of Natural Aromatic Molecules
  • 9. Templating of Natural Aromatic Molecules Plants Animals Food Objects Analysis Modeling Synthesis Product Biotechnology Organic Odour plus Stability Threshold Efficient Value synthesis Added Benefits Applications Perfumery Cosmetics Stable in formulations Cost effective Efficacy (i.e., antimicrobial) Botany/ethnobotany Bio-prospecting Head-space Chromatography Separation Extraction Screening Antimicrobial Anti-fungal Anti-tumor Anti-aging Flavour & Fragrance Botany Biochemistry Computational Chemistry
  • 11. Production Processes Farm size & layout Organisation & methods Propagation Cultivation Processing Marketing Climate Weather Rainfall Wind Sunshine UV radiation Temperature Humidity Conducive weather Or Floods, droughts, etc Physical Environment Soil Topography Atmosphere Natural flora & fauna habitat Urbanisation Suitability of conditions Pollution (air, land & water) Labour sources Water resources (create hinterland where farm part of) Human Habitisation Knowledge Suppliers & contractors Pollution Attitudes and concerns Resource inputs, fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, machinery, research capabilities Positive Inputs Water Sunshine Nitrogen Agricultural inputs Fertilizers etc Knowledge Labour Negative Inputs Adverse physical conditions Pests & diseases Pollution Heavy metals Business Environment Markets Finance Trade environment Customers Financing & various kinds of capital Competition Low prices Changing demand patterns Government Infrastructure Regulation Taxes & subsidies Trade environment Research Negative Outputs Runoffs, wastes, carbon Some recycling back to system Positive Outputs Products Revenue flow back to system An Agricultural Enterprise as a System
  • 12. Wind drift Farm/Plantation Soil Floor Sub-Soil Fertilisers, herbicides, insecticides Leaf & organic decompositions Sub-terrainium water Sun Climate & Weather Cultivation Propagation Processing Economic Products Runoffs Surface water Wastes Chemical residuals Some wastes recycled Watershed runoffs onto farm/plantation Atmosphere Nitrogen, gasses, etc Lakes Rivers Canals Oceans Daylight hours UV radiation Temperature Humidity Rainfall Conducive weather, or floods, droughts, etc Regional Eco-System A Farm/Plantation as a System Other Farms Insects and pests Genetic Biodiversity
  • 13. Soil Surface Rainfall (Moisture Source) Organic Materials Phosphorous (P) Sulfur (S) Nitrogen (N) Nitrogen fixing bacteria In root system Water (H2O) Mineral Based Materials (Amphibole & Feldspar) Calcium (Ca) Potassium (K) Magnesium (Mg) Iron (Fe) Carbon (C) Oxygen (O2) Hydrogen (H) Through air in pores
  • 15. Idea from Research Institute, University faculty or individual within them Undertake study with objectives interesting to researchers Primarily single discipline approach Objectives based on discipline thinking Project results and conclusion Publish Paper at Conference Add to CV Little commercial interest: Private sector unaware No or limited economic study or little consideration to scale up potential NB: to bioprocess engineer has this as a fundamental consideration (difference between scientist and engineer) Typical Research Model
  • 17. Planning Phase R&D Phase Commercial Phase Start-up Growth Maturity Information seeking and Planning orientation Seeking of information, looking for ideas, screening for opportunities, setting of a vision and planning out the project Test hypothesis, review market, confirm viability, develop applications, increase knowledge, learn how to operate commercial operation. Collaborate with customer & R&D Institutions Research and collaborative orientation Begin with an entrepreneurial management style, then move to marketing orientated style and eventually corporate management style Start-up Develop company, production and early customer base, usually very personal & hands on. Growth Develop value-added products, new market, customers, expand production, move to more formal management Maturity Corporate orientation with well defined depts. Formalised marketing & production roles in organization, take strategic outlook for business.
  • 22. Low Crop Diversity in Malaysia
  • 23. Limited number of students interested in natural product chemistry & agro- entrepreneurship Very few world class professors
  • 25. Essential Oil A volatile oil obtained from a wide variety of plant, scrub, and tree species and from various parts of the plant anatomy, such as the roots, rhizomes, wood bark, leaves, stems, fruit, flowers and seeds. Usually extracted by hydro or steam distillation, expression or effleurage - Hunter 1996
  • 26. Concretes and Absolutes Volatiles and waxes extracted from plant material with hydrocarbon solvents (usually benzene and hexane) through washing and removal of the volatile solvent with distillation. A waxy aromatic substance remaining is called a concrete. The concrete is washed with alcohol to remove the volatile materials and ethanol removed through vacuum distillation to leave an absolute.
  • 27. Plant Material Expressed Oil Cold expression of citrus fruits Terpeneless Oil Terpene Tails Essential Oil Water, water & steam and steam Distillation Absolute Concrete Solvent Extraction Washing with ethanol and vacuum distilling ethanol away Pomade Enfleurage Vacuum distill away the ethanol Oleoresin CO2 Extract CO2 Extraction The Natural Aromatic Product Family
  • 28. Raw Herbs Fresh Consumption Dried Fermented Extracts Medicinal Powders Medicinal Beverages Essential Oils & Other Volatiles Flavour & Fragrance Personal Care & Cosmetics Standardised Extracts Phytopharmaceutical Products Fractions & Isolates Bioactive Compounds Prescription & OTC Drugs Figure 1: The Family Tree of Herb Derivatives Agricultural Application Traditional Herbal Medicines Aromatherapy Enzymes
  • 30. The Nature of the Industry
  • 32. Trader Manufacturers Wholesalers Retailers Consumers Usually bulk oils to traders who do all distribution. Lowest price and little control over market, but wide distribution With differentiated product some flexibility to sell to manufacturers, costs higher but increased margin maybe compensate. This part of supply chain for smaller packs and end products. Can be local, national or international. Value added method like branding in use. Usually branded item small packs, end product. Either selective (region or retailer type), or general distribution. High value, low volume with added distribution costs. Usually direct to consumers through internet and/or direct marketing organisation. Usually specialised end products with high profit Need high volume due to low margin unless specialised product Need differentiated product. Above average returns, higher marketing costs Need branded specialised product, high margins volume depends on coverage Business focus towards consumer marketing away from agricultural production Supply Chain/Product Focus Bi-products to Other Supply Chains Essential Oil Producer
  • 33. Characteristics of the Flavour & Fragrance Industry The flavour and fragrance ingredients trade has its own culture and business strategies, which can be summarised as follows: a) Flavour and fragrance ingredients are subject to derived demand, where demand originates from final flavoured and fragranced end product demand, b) Demand for flavour and fragrance ingredients is relatively inelastic in the short term, c) Flavour and fragrance ingredients are subject to fluctuating and cyclic demand, d) Purchasing and use of flavour and fragrance ingredients is based on artistic and technical complexity, and e) The world market is geographically concentrated. Unger (1987)
  • 34. World Geographical Distribution of Flavour & Fragrance Compound Sales 28% 14% 11% 10% 37% USA Europe Japan Asia Other
  • 35. Cosmetics, USD 90 M, 6% Agrochemicals, USD 150 M, 10% Intermediates, USD 120 M, 8% Pharmaceuticals, USD 220 M 15% Aromatherapy USD 250 M 17% Flavour & Fragrance, USD 650 M, 44% The Size of the Essential Oil Market
  • 36. The market size for Natural Raw Material for the Flavor and Fragrance Market is USD650 M Essential Oil Production USD 650 million Fragrance & Flavour Production USD 20 Billion
  • 37. Ratio of Natural to Synthetic Materials Used in the Flavour & Fragrance Industry Essential Oils & Natural Aromatic Materials 13% Synthetic Raw Materials 87%
  • 38. Growth of Flavour & Fragance Industry 0 5 10 15 20 2002 2003 2004 USD Billion $
  • 40. 326 252 196 192 80 72 54 50 30 800 650 Various Food Products Processed Meat Beverages Dairy Products Animal Feed Processed Food & Vegetables Flour & Starch Products Oils and Fats Fish Products Cosmetics Household Products World Wide Market Size Estimate 2003 (USD Billion)
  • 41. EssentialOil Production Trading Flavour& Fragrance Compounding EndProduct Manufacture Wholesaler Retailer Consumer 1.0 1.6 2-3.0 (6-9) 2-2.5 (18-24) Relative and (Absolute) Value Added Through Chain 1.1-1.2 (19.8-28.8) 1.2-1.4 (23.76- 40.32) The Essential Oil Value Chain (Flavour & Fragrance Industry)
  • 43. Indonesia • USD 85 Million Cajuput Cananga Cassia Citronella Clove Clove Leaf Ginger Gurjun Balsam Nutmeg Palmarosa Patchouli Sandalwood Vetiver Vanilla Massoia Malaysia Tea Tree 200Ha Pepper Oil Nutmeg Oil Lime Oil Lemongrass Tangerine Ginger Tuberose Tumeric Vetivert Grapefruit Sweet Basil Clove Citronella Galabga Jasmine Kaffir Lime Champaka Plai Oil Coffee Bean Extract Rose Absolute Laos Benzoin Resin (100 Tonnes) Sassafras Oil Agarwood Cambodia Cajuput Oil (100 Tonnes) Sassafras Oil (1-200 Tonnes) Lemongrass Tea Tree Oil Vietnam Old Established Industry Cornmint Oil Basil (40 Tonnes) Citronella (2-500 Tonnes) Cajuput Oil (150 Tonnes) Sassafras Oil Star Anise Litsea Cubeba Cassia Patchouli Palmarosa Tea Tree Eucalyptus Citriodora Ginger Agarwood
  • 44. Top Twenty Essential Oils Produced in the World Essential Oil Botanical Name Volume (Tonnes) Under Threat Cosmetics Under Threat Biocides Under threat Fragrance Orange Citrus sinensis 26000 X X Cornmint Mentha Arvensis 4300 Eucalyptus Euc. globulus 3728 X X X Citronella Cym winterianus 2830 X X X Peppermint Mentha piperita 2367 Lemon Citrus limon 2158 X X Euc. Citriodora Eucalyptus citriodora 2092 X X X Clove Leaf Syzygium aromaticum 1915 X X X Cedarwood (US) Juniperus virginiana 1640 Litsea cubeba Litsea cubeba 1005 X X Sassafras (Brazil) Ocotea pretiosa 1000 X X Lime Citrus aurantifolia 973 X X Spearmint Mentha spicata 851 Cedarwood (China) Chamaecyparis funebris 800 Lavandin Lavandula intermedia 768 X X Sassafras (China) Cinnamomum micranthum 750 X X Camphor Cinnamomum camphora 725 Coriander Coriandrum sativum 710 Grapefruit Citrus paradisi 694 X X Patchouli Pogostemom cablin 563 X X
  • 45. Potential Models of Essential Oil Production • Wild Collection • Co-operative or Contract growing (community organisation) • Small Scale Plantation (boutique/niche/agro tourism /vertical integration – manufacture consumer products) • Large Scale Plantation (competitive cost advantage required to enter market) • Production of Essential Oil as a Bi-product (focus on other industry, timber, etc)
  • 46. Wild Collection & Distillation Tea Tree Australia
  • 53.
  • 55. Aromatic Products from Citrus Fruits Harvested Oranges Extractor Cold Press Process Press Liquor & di-limonene Vacuum Distillation Technical Grade di-limonene Peel Heat Evaporator Molasses Ferment to Alcohol Cattle Feed Orange Juice Centrifuge Cold Pressed Orange Oil Distillation Terpeneless Folded Oil Food Grade di-limonene
  • 58. Business Positioning – The Value Chain USD 1.2 Billion Industry – poor man’s industry Through Product Development Through Seeing Production as a Means to Another Business Agro tourism FMCG Various Products Ind. Products
  • 61. Price Price Quantity Quantity Demand Demand Current Supply Current Supply Forecast Supply (FS) Actual Future Supply (AFS) Forecast Supply (FS) Actual Future Supply (AFS) P1 P3 P2 Aggregate Decrease in Production P1 P2 P3 b) Upward Trend in Pricing Leading to Greater Supply a) Downward Trend in Pricing Leading to Decreased Supply A forecast is accepted that supply will decrease in the coming year and traders buy up stocks leading to higher prices (P2). Producers see good returns and increase production leading to a glut of supply, thus decreasing prices (P3). This fluctuation is on a time lag depending upon the time frame from extra planting to harvests. Aggregate Increase in Production A forecast is accepted that supply will increase in the coming year and traders don’t buy up stocks leading to lower prices (P2). Producers see poor returns and switch to alternative crops, leading to a shortage of supply, thus increasing prices (P3). This fluctuation is on a time lag depending upon the time frame from extra planting to harvests.
  • 63.
  • 65. ? The Olfactory System & Odour Classification
  • 66. The Human Olfactory System Odour molecules pass through the olfactory organ
  • 67. 15-25% 30-40% 45-55% Top Notes Middle Notes Base Notes The Structure of a Fragrance Bergamot oil, Rosewood oil (linalool), Linalyl acetate, Neroli oil, Ciste Oil Rose Oil 5%, Jasmin absolute 4%, Ylang Ylang Oil, Aldehyde C11, C12, Methyl ionone 8%, hydroxycitronellal 10%, Cinamic Alcohol, Styrax. Phenol ethyl alcohol, Phenylacetaldehyde Vetiveryl acetate, Sandalwood, Isoeugenol, Vanillin 1.5%, Coumarin 15%, Nitromusks 10% “First Impression” in Perfume. High Volatile Citrus, Fresh, Green notes….. “ Heart of fragrance”. Intermediate Volale Floral, Aldehydic notes….. Basic of fragrance”. (Bottom) Low Volatile Woody, Powdery, Musky …..
  • 69. Floral Family Broom Sweet, Floral, Herbaecious Carnation Delicate, Floral, Clove Cassie Floral, Orange flower, Violet Clover Sweet, Honey, Herbaecious, Floral Cyclamen Floral, Lily, Lilac, Violet, green Gardenia Floral, Tuberose, Jasmin, Orange flowr, Green Hawthorn Floral, Bitter almond, Bitter, Diffusive Heliotrope Floral, Almond, Balsamic, Fruity Honeysuckle Swet, Floral, Heavy, Orange Flower, Tuberose, Honey, Rose Hyacinth Fresh, Green, Floral, Jasmin, Balsamic Jasmin Sweet, Floral, Heavy, Fruity, Herbaecious Jonquil Fresh, Floral, Sweet, Heavy, Honey, Green Lilac Fresh, Meadow-Floral, Jasmin, Green Lily Sweet, Heavy, Floral Lily of the Valley Floral, Rose, Green, Slightly citrus Lime Blossom Floral, Fresh, Lily, Lilac, Orange Flower Magnolia Floral, Lily, Ylang Ylang Mimosa Sweet, Floral, Hawthorn, Orange flower, Green Narcissus Delicate, Fresh, Green, Floral, Sweet Orange Flower Floral, Heavy, Animalic, Fresh, Rich, Bitter Orris Delicate, Dry, Woody, Somewhat Violet Reseda Floral, Green, Anisic, Herbaceous Rose Sweet, Floral, Honey, Waxy, Slightly spicy, Fruity Sweet Pea Sweet, Delicte, Floral, Orange Flower, Hyacinth, Lily Tuberose Heavy, Floral, Orange Flower, Ylang Ylang, Caramel, Green Violet Floral, Powdery, Green Wallflower Floral, somewhat liliacy, bitter almond Ylang Ylang Rich, Sweet, Medicated, Floral, Fruity, Clove Floral Family Descriptions
  • 70. Woody Family Cedarwood Woody and slightly earthy, with smoky notes Hibawood Like cedarwood, but more intensely woody, Dry, Pungent Rosewood Woody, Floral, Sweet, Spicy, Delicately Fatty Sandalwood Soft, Sweet, Woody, Slightly Balsamic Woody Family Descriptions Animalic Family Amine Fishy notes, Ammonia Castoreum Warm, Phenolic, Sweet, Somewhat herbaceous, clean smelling Catty Feline odour Civet Warm, Slightly faecal, Musky Equine Horse like Faecal Indolic, skatolic Indolic Lilac, Heavy, Animalic, Naphthalenic Musky Blackberry like Leather Phenolic, Cresylic, Animalic, Castoreum, Balsamic Animalic Family Descriptions
  • 71. Balsamic Family Cistus Rich, Balsamic, Ambergris, Herbaceous Labdanum Rich, Balsamic, Ambergris Myrrh Rich, Warm, Balsamic, Spicy Opopanax Warm, Vegetable note, Rich, Balsamic, Spicy Peru Balsam Sweet, Balsamic, Rich, Soft, Vanilla, Cinnamate, Benzoate Styrax Sweet, Balsamic, Cinnamate Tolu Balsam Sweet, Balsamic, Cinnamate, Vanilla Vanilla Soft, Sweet, Powdery, Balsamic Balsamic Family Descriptions Herbaceous Family Lavender Fruity, Floral, Herbaceous, Woody, Balsamic Rosemary Herbaceous, Resinous, Woody, Balsamic Sage Herbaceous, Slightlycamphoraceous Herbaceous Family Descriptions Agrestic Family Earthy Fresh, Woody, Vegetable Forest Moist, Fresh, Vegatable, Woody Fungal Mushroom like Galbanum Sharp, Agrestic, Green, Earthy, Coniferous Hay Sweet, Warm, Agrestic, Herbaceous Agrestic Family Descriptions
  • 72. Green Family Cress Hyacinth like, Green Cucumber Green like sliced green vegetable pods Fresh and Clean Grassy Fresh, Green, Fruity Leafy Light, Green Green Family Descriptions Minty Family Peppermint Fresh, Cool, Mentholitic, Minty, Slightly Green Spearmint Sweet, Warm, Minty, Herbaceous, Green Mossy Notes Forest, Woody, Phenolic, Green, Somewhat marine Minty Family Descriptions Coniferous Family Description Coniferous Family Pine Resinous, Balsamic, Terpenitic Resinous Forest, Woody, Terpenite, Balsamic
  • 73. Marine Family Ambergris Marine, Seaweed, Mossy, Dry Beach Ozonic Fresh, Marine, SlightlySweet Seaweed Marine, Mossy, Amine Marine Family Descriptions Aldehydic Family Fatty, Waxy (pleasant in dilution) Aldehydic Family Descriptions Medicated Family Camphorous Camphor Cineolic Eucalyptus, Cresylic Cresolic, Phenolic Ethereol alcoholic Mentholic Menthol Phenolic Phenol Terpenic monoterpenes Thymolic Thymol Wintergreen Methyl salicylate Medicated Family Descriptions
  • 74. Fruity Family Bergamot Fresh, Lemon, Sweet Orange, Herbaceous, (Citrus Sub-Class) Pepper, Floral Grapfruit Lemon Lime Mandarin Orange Sweet Orange Bitter Pithy Orange Peel Tangerine Fruity Family Apple Apricot Banana Blackberry Blackcurrent Pear Peach Pineapple Prune Rasberry Strawberry Vinous Cognac like Watermellon Fruity Family Descriptions Sub-Class (Citrus)
  • 75. Spicy Family Celery Cinnamom Clove Coriander Cumin Fenugreek Ginger Nutmeg Pepper Spicy Family Description Miscellanious Bitter Almond Notes Anisic Benzoate Burnt Caramel Cinnamate Coconut Fatty Geranium Honey Metallic Naphthenic Nondescript Oily Patchouli Salicylate Smoky Sulphorous Tobacco Waxy Miscellaneous Notes
  • 76. Light Heavy Sweet Dry Fresh Stale Warm Cool Soft Hard Smooth Harsh Rich Thin Delicate Coarse Odour Characteristics Bitter Difussive Powdery Pungent Sharp Tropical Additional Characteristics
  • 78. Fragrance Description Worksheet Light Heavy Sweet Dry Fresh Stale Cool Warm Soft Hard Smooth Harsh Thin Rich Coarse Delicate
  • 79. 0 Bitter 10 0 Diffusive 10 0 Powdery 10 0 Pungent 10 0 Sharp 10 0 Tropical 10
  • 80. GC-MS Performance Test A Fragrance Development Lab A trained human more accurate than a GC-MS
  • 81. Sample of a Flavour Chart
  • 94. A Green Factory UV Input Enzymes
  • 95. Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Glycolysis Glycose Nitrates & Mineral Salts Isoprenoids (terpenoids) 6-Deoxyxylulose Polysacccharidess Disaccharides Phosphoenol pyruate Pyruvate KREBS CYCLE Acetyl-CoA Mevalonic Acid Malonyl-CoA Complex Isoprenoids (terpenoids) Aliphatic Amino Acids Polyketides Complex Alkaloids Alkaloids Pentose Phosphate Pathway Erythrose 4- phosphate Shikimate Pathway Aromatic Amino Acids Phenylpropan oids Hydroxy- Benzoic Acid Flavonoids Complex Flavonoids Secondary Metabolites Primary Metabolites Primary Metabolites
  • 96. Volatiles from an attacked plant Parasitoids Predators Plant Insect Gene Activation Signal Indirect Responses Direct Responses Volatiles Leaf shape Plant architecture Secondary metabolites Volatiles Physical Barriers Secondary metabolites and proteins Nutritional hurdle Inhibitors Increased activity Heterogeneous set High specificity bifunctionality High complexity Wound Insect Elicitors SIGNAL Gene Activation Herbivory Avoidance New metabolites Temporal/ spatial avoidance Sequestration of the poisons Utilization of alternative hosts Increase the consumption rate Modify the nutritive quality of the host plant tissue Establish associations with microorganisms Improved digestive enzymes High activity Modified spectrum Low sensitivity to PIs Proteinases to destroy PIs
  • 97. Acetyl CoA 3-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA) Mevalonate Isoprenyldiphosphate (IPP) and Dimethyllallyldiphosphate (DMAPP) Geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) Geranyl geranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) Other Terpenes (Triterpenes & Tetraterpenes) C30+ (6 Isoprene Units +) Monoterpenes Glyceraldehyde phosphate Pyruvate Mevalonate Pathway Deoxyxylulose Phosphate Pathway Farnesylpyrophosphate (FPP) Sesquiterpenes C5 (1 Isoprene Unit) C10 (2 Isoprene Units) C15 (3 Isoprene Units) Diterpenes & Carotenoids C20 (4 Isoprene Units) Ionones (from degraded carotenoids)
  • 98. Terpenes • Unsaturated hydrocarbons •Found mostly in plants •Usually monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes used in flavours and fragrances •Generally weak odours not fully represented from the essential oils they come from •Sometimes poorly soluble in weak ethanolic solutions •Primarily used as extenders •Can oxidate or polymerise easily changing odour and lessening volatility Cis-3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-1-ol Colourless to pale liquid Stable Application: Magnolia, Neroli, Jasmin, Lilac and other floral perfumes Origin: Rose, Neroli, Petitgrain, Lavender, Lemongrass, Palmarosa and citrus oils
  • 99. Geraniol Trans-3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-dien-ol Colourless liquid Stable Applications: Floral and most other perfumes Origin: Rose, Citronella, Geranium and Palmarosa Linalool 3,7-Dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol Colourless Liquid Stable Applications: Almost universal application in fragrances, especially floral Origin: Rose, rosewood, Lavender, minor constituent of others
  • 101. The biosynthesis and isomerisation process is undertaken by enzyme from the oil glands of plants in nonoterpene producing species
  • 103. Alcohols •Hydroxy compunds consisting of hydrocarbon chains •Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols (i.e., no. carbon atoms), also aliphatic alcohols •Terpenoid alcohols very important chemicals found in many plants •Polyhydric alcohols (2 or more hydroxy groups) odourless, but solvents •Acyclic alcohols faint odours (close to phenols) Phenylethyl Alcohol 2-Phenylethanol Colourless liquid Stable Sweet rosy like odour Applications: widely used in synthetic form From floral to aldehydic, chypre and fougere Fragrances Origins: Rose, Neroli, Geranium and Ylang Ylang
  • 104. Octenol OH Oct-1-en-3-ol Colourless liquid Stable Strong, fatty, orange like, balsamic Applications: In the reconstruction of lavender and lavindin oils Origin: in some mushrooms and savory oil Citronellol 3,7-Dimethyloct-6-en-1-ol Colourless liquid Stable Applications: used extensively in florals Origin: Rose, citronella oils
  • 105. Islam & Alcohol Ethanol (alcohol) is a ‘spirit’ odour substance It is a different chemical composition to alcohols used in flavour & fragrance Dodecan-1-ol Benzyl Alcohol Spirit alcohol forbidden in Islam for consumption (An-Nahl 16:67), but allowed in medicine.Many Islamic scholars allow it for use on the skin.
  • 106. Amines •Compound with one or more hydrogen atoms of ammonia, replaced with hydrogen radical •3 types, primary, secondary and tertiary •Most foul smelling “animalic” Methyl Anthranilate (Methyl 2- aminobenzoate) Colourless liquid Discolouration From many flowers such as orange and ylang ylang
  • 107. The Esters • Derived from alcohols in reverseable reactions • Fruity notes •Not very pH stable Colourless liquid Stable Applications: Versitile in many fragrances, especially jasmin and gardenia Origin: Jasmin, Tuberose, neroli, Ylang Ylang Benzyl Acetate
  • 108. The Aldehydes • Fatty aldehydes have pungent odours •Aliphatices used in perfumery and flavours mainly from synthetic sources •Usually used in very diluted forms •Aldehydes are very reactive (oxidisation, polymerisation and acetal formations) Benzaldehyde Colourless liquid Can oxidize to benzoic acid Applications: In traceable amounts in sweet florals Origin: Bitter almond oil, cassia
  • 109. Lactones • Naturally ocuring in many fruits •Most often hydroxy group of alcohols which reacte with carboxylic acids •Contain ester functional group in the cyclic part of the molecule •Important fruit flavours & fragrances Y-butyrolactone & a- caprolactone
  • 110. Carboxylic Acids • Organic acids with a carbonyl and hydroxy group •Usually derived from aliphatic alcohols or aliphatic aldehydes through oxidisation •Odours usually resemble precursers Colourless crystaline solid Slightly pungent odour Benzoic Acid
  • 112. Phenols •Compounds with 1 or 2 hydroxy groups, similar to benzyl alcohols •Tend to be toxic and caustic •Prone to oxidisation •Basically clean type odours Eugenol 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol Stable Colourless liquid Applications: Carnation, spicy fragrances, rose and oriental perfumes Origin: Clove, cinnamom leaf oil, patchouli, Ylang Ylang
  • 113. Sulfate ATP Sulphurlyase Adenylation Adenosin 5’- phosphosulphate (APS) Phosphorised APS reductase Sulfite Sulfide O-acetylserine (thiol)lyase Ferrodoxin- dependent sulphite reductase Cysteine O-acetylserine 3’-phosphate 5- phosphosulphate (PAPS) APS Kinase PAPS Reductase Primary Sulphur Reduction Pathway Minor Sulphur Reduction Pathway Adapted from Kopriva and Koprivova, 2004
  • 115. Principals: Latent Heat • Molecule speed and energy dependent upon temperature •Change from liquid to gas state requires energy •Due to motion of molecules, all compounds with determinable boiling points will emit vapours from their surafaces, if area closed this will insert pressure upon the molecule, termed vapour pressure •These vapours will saturate the molecule and take up additional molecules •This saturated vapour will carry other molecules Amount of heat required to vapourise a unit mass of liquid, without raising the temperature of the vapour above that of the liquid is called LATENT HEAT of vapourisation Heat and relative pressures are important in distillation
  • 116. The Gas Laws Energy can neither be created nor destroyed in any system of constant mass and that heat is energy First Law of Themodynamics Mechanical Equivalent of heat Energy exerts a force to move a mass against the forces of friction i.e., 540 kilocalies of latent heat required to vapourise 1 kilogram of water in one second requires 2268 watts of power Second Law of Thermodynamics Heat cannot be transferred from cooler to hotter body
  • 117. The Gas Laws Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction Heat will be conducted from one plane surface to another at a rate proportional to the area of contact and at the magnitude of differential temperatures Boyle’s Law At constant temperatures, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely Proportional to the pressure on the gas Charles’ Law Under constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas is proportional To its absolute temperature
  • 118. The Gas Laws Avogadro’s Law Equal volumes of ideal gases under equal conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules All the above laws also apply to mixed vapours
  • 119. Mixed Vapours If two immiscible liquids are in equilibrium with a common vapur space, each will contribute equally to any unit volume of that space. Thus, a mixture of two mutually insoluble liquids will boil when the temperature attains the point where the sum of the two characteristic vapour pressures becomes equal to the surrounding pressure. This is how distillation vapourises relatively high boiling materials under normal atmospheric pressure, without approaching the corresponding boiling temperatures of the essential oil;s constituents.
  • 120. Mixed Vapours Molecules of water vapour a Molecules of water vapour b Liquid water a Liquid oil b Liquid water a Liquid oil b Molecules of water and gas vapour The composition of mixed vapours from immiscible liquids Eg. Water 99.6c Eg linalyl acetate 226c Together at 99.6c
  • 121. The Principal of Essential oil Hydro Distillation The principal of all hydro distillation for the recovery of essential oils consists In bringing together two mutually insoluble liquids, water and oil, at a temperature close To the boiling point of the more volatile of the two, the water, so that the addition Of a small extra vapour pressure from the oil, will cause the mixture’s total pressure To equalise to the surrounding pressure. Dalton’s Law
  • 122. Releasing Oil from Plant Materials In steam distillation water condenses of plant surfaces and latent heat surrounds the material and raises volatile materials to boiling point
  • 123. Releasing Oil from Plant Materials Herb surface Water liquid mixed liquids oil liquids water liquids Vapour phase 98c saturated mixed vapour General vapour space 99c Region of oil vapour elution Method of Oil Release through Putative Impression from Leaves
  • 124. Steam in Mixed Vapour Out Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-condensation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation Re-vapourisation
  • 125. Oil Produced (%) 20 40 60 80 100 Time (hours) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Litres Water Passed The Time-Steam-Yield Rate Relationship for a Distillation
  • 126. Eugenol 1,8 Cineole Methyl Chavicol Linalool Percentage of the Distillate Progressive Total of Constituent in Quantity Stage One Stage Two Stage Three . The Distinct Stages of Distillation and During the Second Phase for Sweet Basil Oil
  • 127. Slightly Soluble (<500ppm) Moderately Soluble (501-1999ppm) Very Soluble (>2000ppm) Aldehyde C11 Aldehyde C12 (lauric) Aldehyde C12 MNA Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Amyl salicylate Benzyl salicylate Cedrol Citronellol Citronellyl butyrate Citronellyl formate Eudesmol Geranyl formate Limonene Linalyl acetate a-Pinene Calamene 1,8-Cineole Nerol Neryl acetate Rose oxide Benzlaldehyde Benzyl acetate Cinnamic alcohol Citronellyl acetate a-copanene Eugenol Geranial Geraniol Limonene Linalool Mentone Myrcene (E)-β-ocimene Phenylethylacetate Phenylethylalcohol Sabinene Terpinen-4-ol a-Terpineol Terpinolene
  • 128. Practice of Distillation Different methods of distillation will be used according to: a) Structure of leaves and other plant materials b) “potential modification” of plant’s chemical constituents to heat c) Some resinous materials not volatile and wont react to distillation
  • 129. Due to material distillation times with differ for various essential oils Lavender Mint
  • 130. H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
  • 131. Steam Distillation Still Steam Inlet from boiler Still Drain Valve Welded Wire Mesh Floor Still chamber for plant material (loaded by cartridge or directly) Vapour outlet to condenser Vapour Condenser Condenser cooling water inlet Condenser cooling water outlet Separator Flask Steam Outlet
  • 132. Steam Inlet Downward Steam Flow Plant Material Condenser Array Grated Base Side opens so cartridge with Plant material can be slide in and out of still. Water & Oil Collector Collector vessel Schematic View of a Hydro-diffusion Distillation System
  • 133. H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
  • 134. H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
  • 135. H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
  • 136. H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
  • 137. H&R Guide to Fragrance Ingredients
  • 140. Aroma Chemicals Derived from Terpenes
  • 141.
  • 142.
  • 143.
  • 144.
  • 145.
  • 146.
  • 148. Aldehyde C16 (strawberry) Ethyl methyl phenyl glycidate (the methyl ester of methyl phenyl glycidic acid) Odourless liquid Used at low dosage levels for fruity notes in jasmines, lilac, rose and orange flower and as a sweetening agent Not reported in nature
  • 149. Anisaldehyde 4-Methyoxybenzaldehyde Colourless liquid Used in lilac, gardenia, honeysuckle and other florals and to produce powdery notes A minor constituent of vanilla
  • 150. Benzaldehyde Colourless Liquid Used in traces for floral fragrances and in higher quantities for industrial fragrances Found in bitter almond, peach, apricot, ylang ylang, cinnamon bark, cassia.
  • 151. Benzyl Salicylate Colourless liquid Used as a solvent for crystaline, musk smelling aroma chemicals, as a blender and fixative for florals Naturally occurs in ylang ylang
  • 152. Cedrol Colourless crystals Powerful odour used as a fixative in soap perfumes and household products Naturally occurs in cedarwood and cypress oils
  • 153. Cinnamyl Alcohol 3-Phenylprop-2-1-ol White crystalline mass or pale yellow liquid Modifier and fixative in rose, hyacinth, lilac, muguet and other florals, particularly for soaps Found in cinnamon leaf oil
  • 154. Coumarin 2-Hydroxycinnamic acid lactone Colourless crystals Used in chypre and fougere fragrances, lavenders and other herbal florals, usally as a fixative Found in Tonka bean absolutes, lavender oils
  • 155. Dihydromyrcenol 2,6-Dimethyloct-7-en-2-ol Slightly coloured yellow liquid Major ingredient in base of citrus fragrances, as a refresher in lilac, lily of the valley and distinction in rose fragrances. Not reported in nature
  • 156. Exaltolide (Firmenich) Colourless crystaline powder or clear liquid Used at very low dosages as a fixative and intensifier of other fragrance notes in fine fragrances Occurs in traces in angelica root oil cyclopentadecanolide 15-Hydroxypentadecanoic acid ketone
  • 157. Hedione (Firmenich) Methyl dihydrojasmonate Colourless liquid Used extensively in floral fragrances to create radiance and diffusive power. Not reproted in nature
  • 158. Cis-3-Hexenol Cis-Hex-3-en-1-ol (Leaf alcohol) Colourless to slightly green liquid In trace amounts for natral green foliage notes in florals Occurs widely in green leaves and many essential oils
  • 159. Indole Colourless crystals Very lightly in solution as a floral enhancer in jasmines and heavy florals, together with some aldehydic fragrances Occurs in orange flower, jasmine
  • 160. Alpha-Ionone 4-(2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohex-2-enyl)-but-3-en-2- one Pale yellow liquid In violet compositions, also rose, as a floraliser. Used to contribute to non- florals to enhance the powdery notes in heliotropes, and vanilla In boronia and cassie absolutes and other essential oils
  • 161. Liliial (Givaudan-Roure) p-tert-Butyl alpha-methylhydrocinnamic aldehyde Colourless to pale yellow liquid Very widely used in florals as a floral fortifier Not reported in nature
  • 162. Methyl Salicylate Methyl 2-hydroxybenzoate Colourless liquid In synthetic floral compositions, especially Ylang ylang and tuberose. Heavy florals. In trace amounts in light florals. In wintergreen oil, ylang ylang.
  • 163. Phenyl ethyl alcohol 2-Phenylethylethanol Colourless liquid Widely used in florals, especially rose and with aldehydes. In rose oil, neroli, geranium and ylang ylang
  • 164. Vertenex (IFF) P-tert-Butyl cyclohexyl acetate Colourless liquid Modifier, blender and sweetening agent for most perfumes. Not reported in nature
  • 165. Vetiveryl acetate A mixture of bicyclo- and tricyclo- vetiveryl acetates Colourless liquid Effective in chypre, aldehydic and oriental fragrances for lifting and freshening. Also as a fixative. Not reported in nature
  • 167. Biological Screening Bio-prospecting Literature Review Consider Crop Reintroduction Consider New Crop Introduction Identify Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil Screening for Development Potential o Match chemical constituents of essential oil with possible market uses o Evaluate application potential of essential oil o Evaluate theoretical yields, cost of production o Evaluate time and cost of development Value Determination (Use Criteria) Preliminary study due to volume of possibilities Screening Process Market Development Policy (Product & Enterprise) o Identify Opportunities o Develop Evaluation Criteria o Identify Customer Industry o Determine Required Quality and Monitor Development o Consider Market Entry Strategies o Determine Scope, Resources and Limitations Scaling Up of the Project Environmental Analysis Evaluation of Capabilities Resources, skills, knowledge, Technology, Financial Market Analysis Field Development o Project preparation & early work o Land Selection o Development of planting, cultivation and harvesting techniques o Development of oil extraction techniques Development Process Regulatory Screening (FDAs, REACH, SCCP, BPD, etc) Market Entry Enterprise & Business Evaluation
  • 169.
  • 170. Value
  • 171. Availability Increases Usefulness Increases Media Reports Ideas Data Information Knowledge Wisdom The Continuum from media reports to wisdom in relation to availability and usefulness
  • 172.
  • 173.
  • 174. Value today known and action taken on the basis of today’s value Many people take this action Over supply Into the future
  • 175. Market Requirements of an Essential Oil Required Oil Yield, Quality for production/market Viability Propagation and Planting Costs Crop Management Harvesting & Extraction Costs Volume and Market Acceptance Laboratory Research Field Research Weather Land Suitability Knowledge and Skills De-stabilising Event – competitor, regulation, new substitute Market Contacts & Network Actual Yields and Oil Quality Other unforseen external factors – politics, disaster, war, regulation, etc Assumptions & Patience Validity based on information & Judgement Risk Environment in Essential Oil Development Evaluation & selection of suitable planting materials Knowledge of specific crop management techniques Knowledge of harvesting, handling & extraction techniques Economies of scale & correct business model, Market strategy Plant physiology & propagation protocols All factors effect on yield & quality
  • 176. $ Cost $ Return Degree of Processing Final Product Form Selection of Crop Trials Propagation Land Preparation Planting, Maintenance & Irrigation Harvesting & Extraction Product Development Final Product Crop & Project Failure No Return Compost & Mulch Biofuel Animal Feed Crude Essential Oil Organic Agro- product Cosmetic & Aromatherapy Nutriceutical Pharmaceutical Conceptual Value Added Processing Options with Revenue and Cost Implications
  • 177. Consumers Wholesalers & retailers Manufacturers Flavour & Fragrance Houses Traders & Brokers Primary Producer Essential oil as primary Product. Focus on market demand & supply and meeting standard Essential oil as an ingredient in a product. Focus on uses and applications research Manufacture of end products. Focus on formulation and end product development  Technical Focus  General or Niche Customers Vertical Integration Along the Supply Chain  Application Focus  Technology Focus  IP Focus (?)  Specific Customer  Branding  Theme  Consumer Marketing  Reaching Mass or selected Markets  New Product Development Agro Industrial Consumer Orientation Orientation Orientation Consumer Trends Important Technical Trends Important Demand & Supply, Buying Criteria Important Venture Focus Along Different Parts of the Supply Chain
  • 178. Essential oil as primary Product. Focus on market demand & supply and meeting standard Essential oil as an ingredient in a product. Focus on uses and applications research Manufacture of end products. Focus on formulation and end product development Vertical Integration Along the Supply Chain Focus Along the Supply Chain Production Orientation Application Orientation Market Orientation
  • 179. Essential Oil Other Aromatic Extract Aromatic Chemical (bio-route) Aromatic Chemical (physical route) Agro-Tourism Agricultural By-Products The set of opportunities for an essential oil producer Flavour & Fragrance Commodity Oil Specialty Oil Aroma Chemical Aromatherapy & Cosmetic Production & marketing of products Pharmaceutical Agro-chemical Business through select supply chains Single Crop Portfolio of Crops Higher differentiation and value adding Builds brand image and support. Complements other activities. General Trading (marketing)  Region’s production  Specialised single oil marketing  General multi-oil marketing Diversification of activities Mulches Bio-fuel Cattle feeds Paper Utilisation of wastes Production of herbs and spices Other diversification Research Should be Focused Here
  • 180. Natural Feed-Stocks Physical Extraction Essential Oils Solvent Extraction Aromatic Extracts Selective Extractions Aroma Chemicals Enzyme Precursors Microorganism synthesis Specialty Chemicals Mostly Imitation Here The Areas of Growth are Here
  • 181. Other Potential Economic Products Lemon Myrtle Dried leaf Spice extract Essential Oils Herbal Tea, Food Flavouring, Spices Antibacterial, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant Dietary Supplement, Energy Drinks, Toiletries (soap, shampoo) , Aromatherapy and Fragrances Pharmaceutical Functional Food Nutraceutical Body Care Semi - Finished Finished Product Potential Product Development
  • 182. Discovery: 2-10 years The extraction or synthesis of a new clinical or biological substance Preclinical Testing: 4 years Laboratory and animal testing Clinical trials: 7 years Phase 1 20-80 health volunteers used to determine safety, pharmacological and dosage. Clinical trials: Phase 2 100-300 patient volunteers used to determine safety and efficacy Clinical Trials: Phase 3 1000-5000 volunteer patients used to determine clinical health benefit and incidence of adverse reactions TGA Registration 1.5-2 years 35-40K pages of data submitted for evidence on average Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme: 8 months Determination of cost effectiveness Product Promoted to the Medical Profession Post Marketing Monitoring: monitor safety and efficacy when used in wider population, with other diseases and taking other medicines.
  • 183. Opportunity JV, partnerships, strategic alliances, etc Underlying Knowledge Unexploited or idle resources Sustainability of the venture for long-term survival Cost and performance benefits of product Impact on and from local community Access to capital R&D Economies of scale or competitive advantage through differentiation Access to market/network Market driven selection of crops and product Customer driven management Govt./institutional support Some Success factors
  • 184. An Existing Crop – Product Already Traded This can be seen as an improvement on existing production or setting up new production in an area already producing the crop.  Improving cultivation and harvesting methods to improve productivity  Finding new customers and channels to increase sales An Existing Crop – Leading to a New Product This may involve moving along the value chain to a new market based on an essential oil already produced or producing an essential oil for some type of value added product.  Improving cultivation and harvesting methods to improve productivity  Finding out what products potential customers want In a new product  Producing a new product according to identified consumer needs  Organising the supply chain for the new product to get to market  Making the product available to more consumers who are likely to want it A New Crop to a New Geographic Area This involves producing an essential oil already in trade in a new geographical area.  Establishing the most efficient way to cultivate, harvest and process the essential oil  Matching the newly produced essential oil with customer expectations and requirements  Organising the supply chain so the essential oil reaches the market  Making the essential oil available to new customers who are likely to require it A New Crop and New Product This involves producing a product higher up the value chain, differentiating it and producing the essential oil.  Making informed decisions about new crop choices  Establishing the most efficient way to cultivate, harvest and process the essential oil  Finding out from potential customers what they want in the new oil  Making sure the oil meets the customers needs as closely as possible  Organising the supply chain so the essential oil reaches the market The Essential Oil Strategic Matrix
  • 185. Market Analysis • Knowledge of Industry • Knowledge of Potential Applications • Knowledge of Customers • Understanding of Derived Demand • Understanding of Trends • Understanding of Other Developments & Improving Technology and Knowledge
  • 186. Competitive Rivalries Lemongrass quick yield and straightforward to cultivate and distil – expect high elasticity of supply from both existing and new producers. Producers of substitutes very aggressive Bargaining Power of Suppliers Collecting the most suitable planting material require effort. Extraction and harvest .technology needs to be acquired or developed Analytical equipment or service maybe expensive/remote. Substitutes Citral (main constituents) can be produced from a number of chemical feed stocks. Alternative oils (litsea cubeba) cost much less to produce. Lemon myrtle oil much smoother and acceptable to end users Many alternatives to lemongrass in product formulations. Trends & Technology Alternative technologies to steam distillation (CO2) can make much smoother oil but will increase capital needs greatly. Natural, exotic, organic, FAIRTRADE could increase oils popularity (?) if seen as exotic. Substitutes Trends & Technology Bargaining power of buyers Bargaining power of suppliers Competitive Rivalries Regulation Regulation SCCP placed lemongrass oil under scrutiny as a cosmetic ingredient in EU. Industry Competitors Intensity of Rivalry Bargaining Power of Buyers Currently small item of trade in flavour industry, strong relationships with established producers.
  • 187. Opportunities Threats Cognitive Bias Strengths Weaknesses  Competitors identifying the same opportunities and enacting upon them  The regulatory environment and potential changes within it  Inability to penetrate the existing supply chain and make alternative strategies  Dependence on survival from a single or very few customers  Depending on a single product for total revenue  Adverse acts of God, bad weather, drought, etc. Opportunities Threats Cognitive Bias Strengths Weaknesses  Competitors identifying the same opportunities and enacting upon them  The regulatory environment and potential changes within it  Inability to penetrate the existing supply chain and make alternative strategies  Dependence on survival from a single or very few customers  Depending on a single product for total Any factor or group of factors that may potentially hinder enterprise growth in a sustainable manner without any contingencies verse acts of God, bad weather, drought, etc.  An identified market where enterprise resources and competencies will be able to exploit  The potential opportunity will have a large enough market size to sustain the enterprise  The enterprise will be able to take advantage of this opportunity better than any other competitors  Outside elements in the supply chain will support the enterprise Any factor or group of factors that will allow the enterprise to grow in a sustainable manner from the market environment  Personal and enterprise competencies, knowledge & experience that can be utilised for the benefit of the enterprise  Facilities, infrastructure, financial backing & liquidity, long timeframe view  Ability to learn through research and experimentation  Any network connections with industry and access to the supply chain for both information and marketing  Ambition and vision (but not delusional), focus & commitment  Ability to innovate technically, market and organisational wise Any factor or group of factors that can assist the enterprise gain competitive advantage over its competitors  Competency gap  Short term timeframe, no fall back position if positive results delayed or there are technical or market failures  Poor infrastructure that hinders production or marketing  Shortage of funds to undertake project to completion  Qualified or lack of commitment by any key people within organisation  Lack of network, knowledge and access to supply chain Any factor or group of factors that can hinder the enterprise gain competitive advantage over its competitors Opportunities are seen with bias according to knowledge, experience, wisdom, educational background, market knowledge, competencies, etc.
  • 188. High Market Growth Low Strong Weak Relative Competitive Position Crude Essential Oil Steam Distilled Essential Oil under CO2 extraction Cosmetic production for international market Organic Cosmetic production for international market Essential Oil Based Agro- chemical
  • 189. Organisational Capability Creative, Opportunity, conceptual, strategic, Learning, Organisational, financial, Technical, Marketing, Networking and Commitment Competencies How the Business is Currently Performing The base for potential future Development Resources Existing and Available to the Business The Set of Potential Opportunities Time and Company Evolution/Change Enterprise Performance Personal Objectives Strengths and Weaknesses Theme Personal Resources Network Product Management Finance 4 Ps & Skills Facilities Attributes External Influences & Threats Market Economy Regulation Technology Position Social Situation Change & Competition Aspirations Development Key internal influences on the strategic process The process of product/market development Key external influences on the strategic process Competitive Position Cognitive Bias Structural/Support Strategies Interventional Strategies
  • 190. Threat of New Entrants Threat of competition from new technology (in past from petrochemicals) Bargaining Power Of suppliers Restrictions on The supply of beta-pinene The required feedstock Other producers of geraniol Industry competitiveness Intensity of rivalry Threat of substitutes Possible reformulation with other rose materials eg. Phenyl ethyl alcohol Bargaining power of buyers Concentration of usage into few major compounders strengthen buyer power Adapted from Porter, M. E, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York, Free Press, 1985 Porter’s Five Force Analysis for Gernaiol
  • 191. Price Time New producers entering the market Price by determination of value to end users Price by determination of production costs (Most efficient production)
  • 192. Potential with Right Products and Correct Distribution and Branding Depend on Location Potential with Right Products and Correct Distribution and Branding Potential with Right Products and Correct Distribution and Branding Limited Unless a Specific Market Exists Potential Large Market Dispersed Worldwide Very Limited Unless Large Domestic Market Local Market International Market Essential Oil Differentiated Product Specialty/End Product Much Larger Market with Competition Diversification Local or International Market Opportunities
  • 193. Scale and Vision/Mission of the farm/plantation • Vision and mission and objectives
  • 195. The Farm Family Family & Farm History, Current farm Operation, Current Family Status. Strategic Business Analysis Land Labour Capital Business Goals Family Values The Vision “Mission Statement” Family Goals Self Assessment Communication Skills Decision Making Skills Knowledge Personal Goals Business Plan Production & Operations Marketing Personnel Financial Risk Management Retirement Plan Timing of retirement Life after retirement Retirement Income needs Retirement Income sources Farm withdrawals Succession Plan Grooming successors Fairness to all children Transfer strategies Financing the transfer Tax planning Estate Plan Valuing the estate Liquidity needs Planning you will Establishing living powers Tax planning Investment Plan Disposable income Time horizon Investment options Risk management Tax planning Adapted from Manitoba Agriculture
  • 197. Issue Comments Focus Paradigm Requires focus on concept of product application where current focus is on cultivation This requires research This requires an entrepreneurial approach Concepts not readily understood by conventional farmers Basic Research Needs access to Worldwide data Requires availability of suitable germplasms Requires basic R&D to determine where crop technically suitable Requires R&D to determine whether potential crop is economically feasible Very difficult to get R&D assistance Shortage of skills and expertise in many areas Crop Management and Processing Propagation technologies How to plant, cultivate and manage the crop How to harvest, extract, store and handle How to process How to package Transportation and storage Marketing Infrastructure Require coordination of production with demand (important with new essential oil production) Require correct channels of distribution (critical) Requires a marketing strategy (change of paradigm from producing orientation) Economics and Logistics Requires enough volume to economically transport and distribute (especially in low to medium value oils) Requires a solution to inconsistencies of quality and production Organisation Need committed people with strong leadership and trust Government Need to translate support into action Need funding allocations for research & development Need infrastructure Regulation Need to fund infrastructure to meet EPA & HACCP, etc Need to identify and fulfil the requirements of various regulatory bodies Finance Very difficult to obtain funding for these projects Customers & Consumers Need to identify who are the customers in which part of the value chain Need to work closely with selected customers
  • 198. 2. The Screening Process
  • 199. To Development Process First Stage: Theoretical & Biological Screening Biological Screening Screening For Development Potential To Market Development Linked to all stages Regulatory Screening REACH, BPD, SCP, GRAS, etc
  • 200. Biological Screening Bio-prospecting Literature Review Consider Crop Reintroduction Consider New Crop Introduction Identify Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil Screening for Development Potential o Match chemical constituents of essential oil with possible market uses o Evaluate application potential of essential oil o Evaluate theoretical yields, cost of production o Evaluate time and cost of development Value Determination (Use Criteria) Preliminary study due to volume of possibilities The Screening Process Regulatory Screening (FDAs, REACH, SCCP, BPD, etc) Generation of Possibilities Elimination of Possibilities Leads to a number of potential possibilities that can be further studied
  • 201. Potential New Crop Ideas screened through a process that eliminates potential ideas. ? The industrial product ideation process aims to generate ideas from a zero base. Leads to one crop (idea) to be developed Leads to many ideas to be further screened
  • 203. Actual Conditions Range of Possible Growing Conditions for Potential Crop  General climate  Range of micro-climates  Topography that influences micro-climates  Rainfall range (access to irrigation)  Temperature ranges  Daylight hours  Soil types  Soil characteristics (pH, humus profile, soil layers, etc)  Preferred climate(s)  Preferred micro-climates  Preferred topography  Preferred rainfall levels  Preferred temperature ranges  Preferred daylight hours  Preferred soil types  Preferred soil characteristics Comparison Factors between Potential Cultivation Site and Potential Crop Latitudes 44° North & South
  • 204. Actual Conditions Range of Possible Growing Conditions for Potential Crop  General climate  Range of micro-climates  Topography that influences micro- climates  Rainfall range (access to irrigation)  Temperature ranges  Daylight hours  Soil types  Soil characteristics (pH, humus profile, soil layers, etc)  Preferred climate(s)  Preferred micro-climates  Preferred topography  Preferred rainfall levels  Preferred temperature ranges  Preferred daylight hours  Preferred soil types  Preferred soil characteristics Comparison Factors between Potential Cultivation Site and Potential Crop
  • 205. Lemongrass Caraway Tea tree Artemisia Vanilla Rue Perilla Geranium Hyssop Cardamom Dill Aloe (Eaaglewood) Sandalwood Lemon Balm Galanga Cumin Lime Coriander Lemon Ylang Ylang Angelica Lavender Plant Cymbopogon citratus Carum carvi Melaleuca alternifolia Artemisia vulgaris Vanilla planifolia Ruta graveolens Perilla frutescens Pelargonium graveolens Hyssopus officinalis Elettaria cardamomum Anethum graveolens L. Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. Santalum album Melissa officinalis Alpinia galanga Cuminum cyminum Citrus aurantifolia Coriandrum sativum Citrus limon Cananga odorata Angelica archangelica Lavendula angustifolia Botanical Name Grassland s Temperat e Sub- tropical Tem/tropi cal Tropical Mediterra nean Tropical Temp/Sub -Tro Mediterra nean Temp/Tro pical Temperat e Tropical Arid- monsoon Temperat e Tropical Sub- tropical Tropical Coast Versatile Mediterra nean Tropical Temperat e Mediterra nean Habitat 24◦ C 16° C 21° C 21° C 17° C 10° C - 15° C 20° C 22° C 14° C 24° C 17° C 22° C 6°C 15° C - 5°C 15° C 30° C 20° C 30° C 30° C 26° C 24° C - 18° C 22° C 30° C 25° C 30° C 26° C 28° C 17° C 18° C - 19° C 28° C 18° C 7°C 10° C 10° C 4°C 10° C 7°C 10° C 6°C 18° C 10° C 6°C 18° C 9°C 18° C 4°C - 21° C - 7°C 34◦ C 26° C 45° C 33° C 30° C 32° C 36° C 35° C 26° C 32° C 38° C 30° C 34◦ C 26° C 32° C 28° C+ - 32° C - 24° C Temperature Range Optimal Max. 1500 mm 600m m 800m m 1500 mm 500m m 600m m 1500 mm 500m m - 450m m 500m m 1500 mm 800m m 1250 mm 1500 mm 250m m 1500 mm 600m m 500m m 3000 mm 1300 mm 3000 mm 3000 mm 1500 mm 1000 mm 1700 mm 1700 mm - 3000 mm 1300 mm 3000 mm 2700 mm 2500 mm 2500 mm 1250 mm 2000 mm 1300 mm 1000 mm 20° N&S 45- 60°N 0- 32°N&S 0-60°N 20°S- 20°N 30- 45°N 0-50°N 30-50° 25-66° 5- 35°N&S 28- 45°N&S 0- 25°N&S 20° N&S 30- 45°N&S 20° N&S Along 30°N 30°S- 30°N 40°S- 40°N 40°S- 45°N 10- 15°N&S 30- 45°N&S 35- 55°N&S Rainfall Lat. Range (mm) <1400m <700m <700m <1200m <2000m <1400m - <1000m <2500m <1700m lowlands lowlands <2200m <2200m - <400m 700- 1700m <1700m Altitude Direct Sunlight Direct sunlight Direct sunlight Direct sunlight Part shade Direct sunshine Light shade Light shade Direct sunlight Shaded areas Direct sunlight Direct sunlight Direct exposure Direct exposure Partial Shade Direct exposure Direct Sunlight Direct exposure Direct exposure Direct after maturity - Direct Sunlight Diurnal Radiation Hours
  • 206. Worksheet for Rough Calculation of Financial Viability at Initial Screening Stage 1. Costs of Crop Domestication Can they potential crop be domesticated into field production easily? If not, will biomass be wild-collected? What method would be most suitable for propagation, from seed, cuttings, tissue culture, other? Does nursery propagation of the potential crop require any other special care? What staffing will be required? What would be the approximate costs of achieving the above?
  • 207. 2. Field Preparation and Infrastructure What overall infrastructure will be needed?, nursery, road access, fencing, outbuildings, farming equipment, etc. What land preparation is needed, land levelling and contouring, drainage, etc. Does the crop require large amounts of water to thrive during growth? Is there adequate water available through rainfall to satisfy this? Will irrigation be required? If so, what method? Will dams and catchment areas have to be constructed to ensure a plentiful water supply? What will be the approximate costs of this? Are there any other potential costs?
  • 208. 3. Planting and Maintenance Approximately how long will the crop take from field planting to harvest maturity? How will the potential crop be planted?, manually/automated? What will be the costs involved? What would the approximate planting density be? Will nutrients have to be applied? If so, how regularly?, How much? What method will be used to apply them? What will be the approximate costs of this? How often are re-plantings required? After each harvest, after a number of seasons, after how many years, what are the costs involved to prepare for each re-planting?
  • 209. 4. Harvesting, Extraction and Post Extraction Is harvest timing crucial?, ie, a time of day, a very short window in a particular month, etc What are the costs involved in achieving this harvest window? What method of harvest will be utilised? Manual, semi-mechanised, fully mechanised What would be the approximate costs of building the harvest equipment? What method of extraction will be required? Hydro-distillation, steam distillation, destructive distillation, vacuum distillation, solvent extraction, other What power sources will be utilised? What are their costs? How will spent biomass be dealt with? Does it have any economic value or can it be used back in the farming process? Is the technology understood for the above processes? If not, what will be the costs of acquiring it? What will be the fabrication costs to build the above? What regulations (ie., EPA) are relevant to the processes? And how much will development and compliance cost? Will specialist staff be required? What would the approximate cost of energy to oil yield?
  • 210. 5. Estimated (guessed) Project Size and Yields How many hectares do you anticipate to cultivate? How many years will it take to achieve this? What (based on literature and other knowledge) would be the approximate biomass per hectare achievable? (min. and max. est.) Does the biomass have to be wilted, stored or otherwise processed before extraction? What would be the yield as a percentage of biomass after extraction?
  • 211. 6. Estimated Financial Viability 1. Research costs = 2. Costs of crop domestication = 3. Field preparation and infrastructure costs = 4. Propagation, planting and maintenance costs = 5. Harvesting, extraction & post extraction costs = Total Capital Costs (1+3) = Total operational costs (2+4+5) = Total amount of oil yielded = Total oil value = Value – total operational costs = Return/total capital costs x 100 = Return on investment
  • 212. Biological Screening • Bio-prospecting • Literature Review • Consider Reintroduction of a Crop • Consider Introduction of New Crop Identify Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil
  • 213. Screening For Development Potential • Match Chemical Constituents of Essential Oil to Possible Market Uses • Evaluate Application Potential of Essential Oil • Evaluate Yields, Cost of production • Evaluate Time and Cost of Development • Value Determination (Use Criteria)
  • 214. Screening • Require Knowledge of Essential Oil Applications • Require knowledge of International Market • Require Knowledge of International Regulations • Need to Collaborate with Industry Parties
  • 215. Screening Protocols • Anti inflammatory • Anti microbial • Skin whitening • UV absorbing • Anti age actives • Flavour & fragrance application • Aromatherapy
  • 216. Group Characteristics Examples Uses Flavour/Odour Profile due to one or more constituents Usually high volume/low to medium value products. Level of chemical constituents very important in trade. Aroma chemicals often good substitutes. Mint Lemongrass Some citrus oils Eucalyptus Clove Perfume and Flavour compounds Flavours where natural status is desired Some citrus oils used for cleaning solvents. Isolation of natural aroma chemicals, eg., eugenol from clove oil. Flavour/Odour Profile due to one or few major constituents that cannot be easily reconstructed Usually medium to high volume, medium priced oils. Olfactory and flavour characteristics more important in purchase decisions. Difficult to reconstitute. Vativert Sandalwood Patchouli Perfumery and flavour compounds (both functional and fine perfumery) Character from main constituents, but richness and complexity from minor constituents Low volume/high priced oils. Olfactory characteristics important in purchase decisions and pricing. In most cases oils can be reconstituted efficiently. Rose oil Jasmine absolute Many herb oils Fine perfumery (mainly reconstitutions used for functional perfumes) Limited flavour use Majority of herb oils used for flavours but beginning to be used in fragrances None of the main constituents contribute decisively to the desired odour/flavour profile Low volume/hogh priced oils. Olfactory characteristics most important in purchase decisions. In most cases good reconstitutions can be produced. Mimosa absolute Fine perfumery (usually too expensive to use for functional products) Classes, Characteristics and Uses of Essential Oils Adapted from Naf (1989) and Petrzilka (1991) in Hunter (1995)
  • 217. A new material must have the following characteristics to have commercial potential a) The novelty of the new essential oil b) The perceived potential uses and applications of the new essential oil c) The closeness of any substitutes to the new essential oil d) The stability of the new essential oil e) The cost/price performance ratio of the new essential oil f) The toxicity aspects of the new essential oil g) The general consistency of supply and quality h) The prevailing market/product trends, and i) The current level of technology Kastner (1991) modified by Hunter (1995)
  • 218. Evaluating the Characteristic Strengths and Weaknesses of Essential Oils The novelty of a new essential oil The major factor determining the novelty is the perceived uniqueness of the essential oil’s organoleptic profile. Thus, the degree of novelty is limited by the closeness of potential substitutes. The concept of novelty extends to essential oils that are more cost effective sources of natural aroma chemicals. New natural sources of aroma chemicals would also fit into this criteria of novelty.
  • 219. The potential uses and applications of a new essential oil Without perfumers and flavourists perceiving applications potential, a new essential oil will remain in the realm of curiosity. Time, effort and imagination on the part of perfumers and flavourists is required to discover useful applications for new essential oils. It is under this criteria that most new essential oils will struggle to find acceptance as a new aromatic material.
  • 220. The closeness of any substitutes It is difficult to find essential oils that cannot be duplicated by reconstitutions. New essential oils with close substitutes are of little value to the flavour and fragrance industry, unless they can offer a significant cost or stability advantage. The only exception is when a new essential oil is a source of a natural aroma material.
  • 221. The Toxicity The cost of proving a new material is safe to use in flavours and fragrances is a major obstacle to the development of new aromatic materials. The industry has an impeccable reputation for self regulation and added EU regulations increases the cost of preparing dossiers on new materials even more. In markets outside the EU, most international flavour and fragrance houses would not consider using a new essential oil unless it meets IFRA safety and toxicity recommendations and is included on the GRAS list.
  • 222. The Cost Price/Performance Ratio of the New Essential Oil Important in the application potential of the new essential oil. New material must offer a perceptible odour/flavour at low concentrations
  • 223. The Stability of the New essential Oil Stability as an essential oil and stability in end products.
  • 224. The general consistency of quality and supply Natural material will vary in quality according to geographic origin, type of soil, level of nutrients in the soil, climate and weather, rainfall, time of harvest, season, method of extraction, altitude and the incidence of pests and diseases. Likewise there are risks with continual supply of natural materials because of adverse weather conditions, changes in climate, floods and other natural disasters, wars, political upheavels and the inexperience of new producers. Launching new consumer products require large investments on the part of the end product manufacturer. Flavour and fragrance houses do not want to be placed in a position of being unable to supply a manufacturer with a flavour or fragrance compound because of the unavailability of a raw material.
  • 225. The prevailing market/product trends Market and product trends slowly evolve. Changes in market trends are the result of complex forces, including technology, which makes new trends possible, advertising, and cultural influences upon consumer tastes and preferences. A particular essential oil may become more or less important to the flavour and fragrance industry, depending upon these trends.
  • 226. The current level of technology New technology advances influence the value of existing aromatic materials to the flavour and fragrance industry. The development of new essential oil reconstitutions are aimed at eliminating some of the potential toxicity and solubility problems of existing essential oils. Reconstitutions are generally more stable and cheaper than their more expensive natural counterparts. As better and more cost effective reconstitutions are developed in the future, the use of some essential oils will decline. Since the advent of more sophisticated analytical techniques, like GC-MS, headspace analysis, electronic noses, aroma chemical and specialty product manufacturers have been better able to isolate powerful aromatic molecules from essential oils and synthesise these compounds. The discovery of new aroma chemicals in essential oils due to increased equipment sensitivity is more likely to lead to synthesis rather than cultivation.
  • 227. The novelty of a new essential oil The potential uses & applications of the new essential oil The closeness of any substitutes The stability of the essential oil in applications The cost/performance ratio The Toxicity The general consistency of quality and supply The prevailing market/product trends The current level of technology Low Novelty High Novelty Low Potential High Potential Close Substitutes No Close Substitutes Poor Stability Good Stability Poor Ratio Good Ratio High Toxicity Low Toxicity Low Consistency High Consistency Low Trend Match High Trend Match High likelihood of synthesis Low Likelihood of Synthesis A B D C A Grid showing the characteristics of a new essential oil
  • 228. Potential essential oil crop idea Bio-prospecting Screening Protocols o Anti inflammatory o Anti microbial o UV absorbing o Anti ageing actives o Flavour & fragrance application o Aromatherapy o Anti cancer Desktop study Knowledge Required o Essential oil applications o International market (Flavour & fragrance, cosmetics, personal care, agro-chemical, aromatherapy, etc.) o International regulations Need to collaborate with industry parties Ethno- botany Other literature (Journals, etc.) Study of same latitude Crops What has value to industry? o Chemical constituents o Odour/flavour profile o Potential applications Match chemical constituents with possible market uses Evaluate application potential of essential oil Evaluate theoretical yields, cost of production Evaluate time and cost of development Value Determination (Preliminary study due to volume of possibilities) Choice and Access to Market Jurisdiction Regulatory Framework
  • 229. Regulatory Screening • United States - GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe) • RIFM – Collections of Monographs • Food and Drug Administration • Europe – REACH, BPD, SCP More Later on this subject
  • 230. Second Stage: Development Process Environmental Analysis Evaluation of Capabilities Market Analysis Technical Development Opportunities & Threats Finance, Knowledge, Land Tenure, etc Market, Customers, Options Project Development in the Field Commercialisation Strategies Market Development
  • 232. Production Processes Farm size & layout Organisation & methods Propagation Cultivation Processing Marketing Climate Weather Rainfall Wind Sunshine UV radiation Temperature Humidity Conducive weather Or Floods, droughts, etc Physical Environment Soil Topography Atmosphere Natural flora & fauna habitat Urbanisation Suitability of conditions Pollution (air, land & water) Labour sources Water resources (create hinterland where farm part of) Human Habituation Knowledge Suppliers & contractors Pollution Attitudes and concerns Resource inputs, fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, machinery, research capabilities Positive Inputs Water Sunshine Nitrogen Agricultural inputs Fertilizers etc Knowledge Labour Negative Inputs Adverse physical conditions Pests & diseases Pollution Heavy metals Business Environment Markets Finance Trade environment Customers Financing & various kinds of capital Competition Low prices Changing demand patterns Government Infrastructure Regulation Taxes & subsidies Trade environment Research Negative Outputs Runoffs, wastes, carbon Some recycling back to system Positive Outputs Products Revenue flow back to system An Agricultural Enterprise as a System
  • 233. Evaluation of Resources & Capabilities • Resources - Funding - Time - Facilities & Infrastructure - Equipment - Literature • Capabilities - Available Skills (Research Team) - Experience
  • 234. Research into genetic material and propagation methods Ongoing genetic material improvement research Leads onto Acceptable genetic material for commercial production and a set of propagation practices Leads onto Research into planting, spacings densities, best environmental conditions, nutrient and moisture levels Acceptable field practices for the crop Leads onto Research into harvesting methods, harvest timeframes, pre-extraction handling methods Acceptable harvest and pre-extraction practices for the crop Ongoing agronomic research aimed towards better yields and chemical composition Leads onto Research into various extraction methods and techniques Acceptable extraction practices Research into post extraction handling methods Acceptable post extraction handling practices Ongoing research into post extraction handling Leads onto Leads onto Leads onto Leads onto The set of optimum enterprise site specific agronomic and extraction practices An Operational Farm Research and Management Plan
  • 235. Understand factors and issues Identify research opportunities. Understand the phenomena and prioritize them. Find methods and techniques to solve problems and exploit research opportunities. Utilise knowledge and technology through specific trials under field conditions to make improvements in yields and obtain specified oil constituents. Evaluate results, develop practices for field and processing tasks. Experiment on relevant Issues & Factors Identification and Evaluation of Research Opportunities Survey Priorities Procedure in Selecting Critical Research Issues (Develop a body of knowledge and specific technologies climate, soil and site specific) Develop potential practices Principal operational methods Growth, propagation, planting, maintenance, harvesting & processing
  • 236. Carbon dioxide Glycolysis Glucose 2 Acetyl CoA Fatty acid Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase Acetocetyl CoA HMGS-CoA syntesis 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) HMGL-CoA lyase HMGR-CoA reductase Mevalonate Mevalonate pyrophosphate IPP isomerase Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) DMAPP (C5) Monoterpene synthases and cyclase Geranyl pyrophosphate (C10) prenyltransferase Farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) (C15) Sesquiterpene Synthesis & Cyclase Diterpene synthase & Cyclase Squalene syntase Geranyl geranylpyrophosphate (C20) Squalene (C30) Cytokinins Isopentyl adenine rubber Monoterpenes s Sesquiterpenes Polyprenols Farnesylated proteins Sterols Saponins Hormones Lipoproteins Diterpenes Carotenoids Abscisic acid Chlorophyll Vitamin K Pare and Tumlinsen (1997), Chappel (1995), Weissenborn et al (1995), van der Heijden et al, 1994, and van Kush (1994).
  • 238. Essential Oil Technical Development • Project Preparation and Early Work - Stakeholders - Team - Objectives - Funding - Plan
  • 239. Essential Oil Technical Development • Land Selection - Suitable (Soil, Rainfall, drainage, access) - Climate - Location - Tenure - Future Expansion
  • 242. Tansy Tanacetum vulgare L (Asteraceae) Genotype Chemotypes Camphor Type 1,8-Cineole Type Artemisia ketone Type Thujone Type Myrtenol Type Chemotype Variances Other Chemotype Compound C1 C2 C3 1,8-Cineole 16.0 27.2 14.5 Borneol 1.8 0.1 0.8 Camphor 16.2 9.8 0.5 Terpenin-4-ol 2.4 13.8 1.9 Myrtenol 24.9 10.6 15.8 E-Nerolidol Tr. 1.7 0.6 a-pinene 5.5 4.9 0.5 ß-pinene 2.2 2.3 Tr. Spathulenol 1.3 1.7 1.8 a-thujene Tr. 0.1 Tr. a-Terpinene 0.5 3.1 0.5 Ў-Terpinene 0.9 5.6 0.3 o-Cymene 0.7 3.4 0.3 Sabinene 1.7 1.7 Tr. Camphene 1.5 0.8 1.1 Adapted from Mockute & Judzentiene (2003), (2004) and Steiner, et.al., (2005).
  • 243. Sample Linalool Methylchavical Olfactory Profile India 14.2% 77.5% A grassy herbaceous and mildly spicy predominating note, with a herbaceous subsidiary note; back notes slightly fruity. French 55.3% 10.9% A smmoth fresh and diffusive herbaceous note with harmonized cool anisic and slightly balsamic subsidiary notes and warm woody back notes. Australian 34.3% 34.7% A clean vegetableptype note with a cool herbaceous menthol-like subsidiary note; a green and grassy back note. Seychelles 27.7% 40.2% A sharp diffusive clean grassy herbaceous note, with a fruity anisic subsidiary note and a very slightly camphoraceous back note. Reunion (Australian grown) 3.4% 75.7% A sharp, if not somewhat dry, anisic note; the subsidiary notes were herbaceous with a slight sweet camphoraceous floral back note. Lachowicz, K., J., Jones, G., P., Briggs, D., R., Bienvenu, F., E., Palmer, M., V., Ting, S., T., and Hunter, M., Characteristics of Essential Oil from Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Grown in Australia, Journal of Agriculture and Food Technology, Vol. 44, No. 3., 1996, pp. 877-881. Different Major Chemical and Olfactory Profiles of Five Basil Oils
  • 245. Texture Layer Depth Organic Material Moisture Content pH Drainage & Evaporation, etc
  • 246.
  • 247.
  • 248. Genetic Material Habitat & Topography Suitability Soil Type, Texture & Drainage Suitability Temperature Range Suitability Rainfall Suitability Access to Irrigation Diurnal Radiation Crop Maintenance Cycle Pest, Disease & Weed Control Issues Easily Available Need to Develop Very Suitable Not Suitable or Need to Develop Very Suitable Not Suitable Very Suitable Out of Range Very Suitable Deficient or Excessive Yes No Very Suitable Out of Range Common & Generic Require Specialized Processes Common & Generic Require Specialized Processes Harvest & Extraction Processes Common & Generic Require Specialized Processes The Agronomic Characteristics Required for the New Essential Oil
  • 249. Essential Oil Technical Development • Development of Propagation Material - Easy to Domesticate? - Seed Collection (genetic variance) - Other Propagation Methods
  • 251. Genetic material Chemotype Variances for Melaleuca cajuputi Principal Oil Constituents Variant 1 Variant 2 Variant 3 Variant 4 Variant 5 Variant 6 a-pinene 2.1 2.5 3.1 2.1 19.5 3.8 a-thujene 0.3 0.9 1.2 0.2 - 0.8 b-pinene 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.4 8.6 2.5 Limonene 5.6 4.9 4.8 5.2 17.4 6.9 1.8-cineole 62.8 41.6 34.0 66.5 21.5 50.7 g-terpinene 1.2 7.4 5.0 0.9 8.7 3.1 g-cymene 1.3 3.5 5.7 0.5 3.0 1.4 Terpinelene 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.3 4.1 1.5 b- caryophyellene 3.7 6.9 7.4 3.3 2.8 4.9 Aromadendrene 0.9 1.4 1.7 0.7 1.2 0.9 Humulene 1.8 3.9 0.3 1.9 0.1 2.3 Vindifflorene 4.5 3.1 2.5 3.8 1.7 3.7 a-terpineol 4.5 3.0 2.4 3.8 1.9 3.8 Geographic Variances within a single chemotype
  • 254. Sample Linalool Methylcha vical Olfactory Profile India 14.2% 77.5% A grassy herbaceous and mildly spicy predominating note, with a herbaceous subsidiary note; back notes slightly fruity. French 55.3% 10.9% A smmoth fresh and diffusive herbaceous note with harmonized cool anisic and slightly balsamic subsidiary notes and warm woody back notes. Australian 34.3% 34.7% A clean vegetableptype note with a cool herbaceous menthol-like subsidiary note; a green and grassy back note. Seychelles 27.7% 40.2% A sharp diffusive clean grassy herbaceous note, with a fruity anisic subsidiary note and a very slightly camphoraceous back note. Reunion (Australian grown) 3.4% 75.7% A sharp, if not somewhat dry, anisic note; the subsidiary notes were herbaceous with a slight sweet camphoraceous floral back note. Different Major Chemical and Olfactory Profiles of Five Basil Oils Hunter et al, 1996
  • 255. Preparation & Transfer Area Composting & Media Mixing Area Seed Sowing Area Seedling Standing Area Perimeter Drain Recycling Tank Seedling Standing Area
  • 256.
  • 257.
  • 258.
  • 259. Land Preparation Leveling and contouring Drainage
  • 260. Objective of Trials to Develop Agronomy Plan Peppermint Management
  • 261. Wind drift Farm/Plantation Soil Floor Sub-Soil Fertilisers, herbicides, insecticides Leaf & organic decompositions Sub-terrainium water Sun Climate & Weather Cultivation Propagation Processing Products Runoffs Surface water Wastes Chemical residuals Some wastes recycled Watershed runoffs onto farm/plantation Atmosphere Nitrogen, gasses, etc Lakes Rivers Canals Oceans Daylight hours UV radiation Temperature Humidity Rainfall Conducive weather, or floods, droughts, etc Regional Eco-System A Farm/Plantation as a System Other Farms
  • 262. o Location Topography Slope & drainage o Climate – Sunshine hours Season Rainfall Humidity Temperature UV Radiation (Micro-climate variation) o Soil Soil Type pH Water holding qualities Humus Compactness Prior use Mineral residuals o Genetic Material Plant physiology Propagation characteristics o Agronomic Practices Fertiliser/nutrients Irrigation Weed & pest control (also time intervals) Plant density o Harvest & Extraction Practices Time & method of harvest Pre-harvest handling & preparation Method of Extraction Time of Extraction Length of Extraction Factors Effecting Essential Oil Yield & Composition
  • 263. Yield and Chemical Constituents of the Essential Oil Location Topography Slope & drainage Climate Sunshine hours Seasons Rainfall Humidity Temperature UV radiation Genetic Material Collection Purchase Plant physiology Propagation characteristics Soil Nutrients pH Drainage & water holding qualities Humus Compactness Mineral residuals Agronomic Practices Soil type Irrigation Pest & weed control Plant densities Harvest & Extraction Practices Time & method of harvest Pre-harvest handling & preparation Method of extraction Extraction time
  • 264. Essential Oil Development Research Project Gantt & Milestone Chart Activity/Research Objectives Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Genetic Material/Propagation 1. Selection Initial selections 2. Propagation trials Seed/vegetative 3. Index selection Continuing Prog Land Preparation 1. Clearing & Initial Preparation 10 Ha. Plot 2. Level & slope 3. Irrigation infrastructure Sprinkler system Planting/Maintenance Trials 1. Trial row planting/spacings/plots Var. densities 2. Nutrient trials NPK x 3levels 3. Weeding trials Manual vs. chem. Harvesting Trials 1. Harvest trials Manual 2. Post harvest handling variations Packing density 3. Mechanisation trials Mod. Harvester Extraction Trials 1. Distillation trial (part maturity) Stage sampling 2. Distillation trial (full maturity) Ea. Rep. plots 3. Large scale field distillation compare lab samp 4. Variances of distillation times Yield/constituents 5. Charge packing variance trials Yield variance Economic Appraisal Full castings M1: Propagation Methodolgy M2: Optimum spacing/density M3: Optimum Nutrient levels M4: Optimum weed control techniques M5: Knowledge Yields & Biomass M6: Knowledge composition/ Var. conditions M7: Optimum Distil parameters M8: Full economic study
  • 265. Trials Response of Major Constituents to Nitrogen Ovens Valley, Victoria, Australia, 1991/92 Response of Major Constituents to Nitrogen (P. odoratum) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nitrogen Level % 1-decanol 1-dodecanol decanal dodecanal
  • 266. Response of Yield to Nitrogen Level Persicaria odoratum Ovens Valley, Victoria, Austalia (91,92) Response of Yield to Nitrogen Application 0 5 10 15 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nitrogen Level Kg. per Ha.
  • 267. Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 0.12 0.2 0.6 1.2 1.2 0.3 0.5 1.6 3.2 3.2 Diagram 2: Production yield of leaves per tree basis Yieldof Dry Leaves (Kg) Yieldof Fresh Leaves (Kg) Biomass Production – Lemon Myrtle
  • 268. Essential Oil Technical Development Planting Harvesting Techniques Extraction Techniques
  • 269. Technology Required Level of Mechanization Required Research & Development Time-frame Capital Requirements Crop Cycle Timeframe (Additional) Infrastructure Required Regulatory Issues Skills, Competencies & Capabilities Required Networks, Market, Potential Competitors, etc. Low & Generic High & Specialized Low and/or Generic High and/or specialized Short & straight forward Long & Complex Low High Short Long Low High Low Need of Consideration High Need of Consideration Common & Generic Rare & Specialized Available Networks, Wide Market & high competition Need Network, Specialized Market, Few Competitors Potential Revenue High Low The Project Characteristics.
  • 270. A Simple Competency Audit Example (Hunter 2009, P. 299). Competency Present Not Present Comments Technical 1. Botany 2. Plant Physiology 3. Chemistry/Analytical 4. Micro-propagation 5. Nursery Management 6. Environmental Engineering 7. Chemical engineering/thermodynamics/etc 8. Soil Management 9. Agronomy/plant nutrition/field management 10. Entomology 11. Irrigation engineering 12. Agricultural Engineering 13. Regulation knowledge 14. Cosmetic chemistry/food etc 15. Perfume/flavours 16. Packaging & design 17. Consumer product manufacturing Basic Basic Experience Experience Experience Basic Basic Basic Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Low Need guidance Need assistance Need guidance Assistance Available Can design Need appraisal Use contractor Use institute Replicated experiments With Environment Use contractor Can develop Need assistance Learn from experience Use contractor
  • 271. Competency Present Not Present Comments Opportunity/Entrepreneurial/Commitment 1. Able to screen environment for opportunities 2. Able to evaluate opportunities 3. Commitment level Yes Yes Passionate Need to see realistically Relationship 1. Have relationships in target industries 2. Have relationships in research area 3. Have relationships in finance industry A few A few Some Organising/Management 1. Able to project manage 2. Able to administrate 3. Able to financially manage operation 4. Able to undertake research 5. Able to keep key people motivated Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Strategic 1. Understand dynamics of market and industry environment 2. Able to plan for a business within this environment 3. Able to implement, evaluate and adjust plans in this environment Yes Yes Yes Believe so but not tested
  • 272. Planting & Maintenance Post harvest practices Irrigation Methods Planting & Harvesting Methods
  • 273. Green/Biological/Natural Minimum interventionalist Linear/Industrial/Chemical Wild Harvest Biodynamic Farming Organic Farming Chemical Free Reduced Pesticide Low Input Sustainable Minimum Till Conventional High Input Chemical Intensive Natural Farming Traditional Farming Biological Farming
  • 274. THE OPERATION OF ORGANIC PHILOSOPHY (Fundamental Principals and Practices) Objectives Soil Health & Fertility Pest & Disease Management Weed Management Eco-system Biodiversity Sustainability Crop Rotation Green Manure Animal Manure Cover Crops Intercropping Farmscape Composting Mulching Buffers Crop Rotation Green Manure Animal Manure Cover Crops Intercropping Bio-control Farmscape Buffers Crop Rotation Green Manure Animal Manure Cover Crops Mineral supplements Natural Fertilizers Mulching Composting Tillage Intercropping Bio-control Farmscape Buffers Crop Rotation Green Manure Cover Crops Composting Intercropping Crop Diversity Bio-control Natural Pesticides Sanitation Tillage Farmscape Fire Buffers Crop Rotation Cover Crops Intercropping Mulching Flame Control Natural Herbicide Integrity Buffers Records Certification Improvement Practices Foundations Site Selection Conversion Habitat Creation Planning
  • 275. Farmscapping Barriers Crops Boundaries Sanitation Crop Diversity Forecasting and Monitoring Climate & Weather Forecast, Pest Mapping, Setting Thresholds, Monitoring, Record Keeping. Evaluation and Decision Making Cultural Controls Soil Health Crop Genetic Diversity Planting times Harvest times Crop Rotations Intercropping Mulches Biological Controls Natural enemies (predators & parasites) Mechanical Controls Tillage Pest Traps Flaming or Controlled Fire Flooding Soil Solarization Clipping Vacuuming Steam Sterilization Genetic Controls Phonemes Release of beneficial/ Predator Insects Microorganisms Biological and Organic Pesticides Insecticidal soaps, Horticultural oils, Biorational Pesticides, Particle Film , Botanical Pesticides Curative Methods Preventative methods Organic Pest Control (Bio-Intensive Integrated Pest Management)
  • 276. Overhead Sprinklers Drip Irrigation Capillary Sand Beds Installation cost Moderate Moderate/High High Maintenance Low High High Durability Excellent Low Moderate Labour Low Moderate Low Water Distribution Fair Good Good Water Use Efficiency Poor, wasteful Good Good Pump Requirement Large, high pressure Small, low pressure Small, low pressure Water Volume Requirement Large Small Small Wind Influence Serious None None
  • 277. Climate Scenario  Temperature  Solar Radiation  Wind  Humidity  Rainfall Topography and Soil Characteristics  Water holding capacity  Drainage  General topography Physical System  Type of System  Manpower requirements & availability  Economics  Efficiency (i.e., delivery, run- off) Windbreaks & other protective measures Plant & Crop Requirements  Crop factor  Stage of growth  Basic physiology Irrigation Practices Procedures and Timetables Influenced by plant spacing & density and life span Rainfall Reliability
  • 278. X = 0.6 m • • • • • Y = 1.0 m • • • • • • • • • • Plant Populations • Regular plant spacings maximise biomass • Climate, weather, soil fertility and Plant physiology influence Plant spacings • Selected plant spacings influence Biomass, leaf size, fruit & rhizome Size, stem growth.