Essay:
Singer argues that animals deserve moral consideration and do have moral rights somewhat comparable to humans because they are
sentient
(i.e., have the capacity to experience pain and pleasure). By contrast, Cohen argues that animals do not have moral rights comparable to humans because they do not belong to the
moral community
(Note: pay careful attention to the characteristics Cohen lists as requirements to belong to the moral community). In this essay, I ask you to discuss
ONE
of the topics listed below:
(A) First, develop a criterion other than Singer's or Cohen's that will determine whether animals do or do not deserve moral consideration. Secondly, determine if animals do or do not have (at least some) moral rights comparable to humans. Make sure you defend your position with cogent arguments. Then, compare your position to either Singer's or Cohen's.
Or, if you cannot develop your own criterion:
(B) State whether you agree with Singer's position or Cohen's position, expressing the reasons for your choice. Then, defend your position with cogent arguments.
Assignment Direction:
Short writing assignments must be
no less
than two hundred (200)
of
your own words
. This means that
quotations do not count against the two hundred words
. I will not even read assignments shorter than the required minimum of 200 words (I use a program to monitor word-count) and you will automatically receive zero (0) points for any such assignments. I expect a professionally written essay that is well formulated, without spelling and grammatical errors. I will deduct points for sloppily written essays (see the rubric below). In your essay you should address the question posed directly and thoroughly. You do not need to waste too much space on background unless the question of the essay specifically demands such background.
Notes From Instructor:
Notes to accompany Singer (2007) and Fox (2007).These notes are not a substitute for reading the text.
1
Singer
Peter Singer probably is one of the most well-knownphilosophers alive today. He has been in the public spotlight anumber of times for taking controversial moral positions basedon an uncompromising utilitarianism. He was one of thepioneers of the animal welfare movement, starting with his 1975book,
Animal
Liberation
. I mention all of this because you aremuch more likely to encounter his name outside this course thanmost of the other authors we will be reading. Article #14represents very early work, apparently published a year beforethe first edition of
Animal
Liberation
.
2
The
argument
Singer’s thesis is that we ought to extend to (non-human)animals the same equality of consideration that we extend tohuman beings.
Here’s how I think the main contours of his argument shapeup:
1. The only criterion of moral importance that succeeds inincluding all humans, and excluding all non-humans, issimple membership in the species
Homo
sapiens
.2. However, using simple m ...
There is no word count, I do not need a title page if you reference .docxOllieShoresna
There is no word count, I do not need a title page if you reference anything please do a reference page.
DISCUSSION 1
Utilitarianism is a school of ethical reasoning based fundamentally on the notion of trying to bring about the greatest good when one makes an ethical choice.
1. Do you take this to require some conception of what “the good” means, such that it can be identified, measured, and/or calculated in a way that is consistent across time, place, and people?
2. Is there any such “good” that has these characteristics, as you see it? If so, how can it be defined?
3. What do you see as the meaning of "good" for Utilitarian ethical calculations?
DISCUSSION 2
Peter Singer argues that there is no ethical justification for denying ethical consideration to animals. Consider his reasoning and the basis of his claim that "all animals are equal." (You need to read and listen to what he has to say in order to comment.)
1. Can you think of a reason why our ethical consideration should include all humans regardless of their level of cognitive ability, yet denied to non-human animals simply because they have lower levels of cognitive abilities (though still higher in some cases than those of human infants and some mentally disabled humans)?
2. What critical questions might be posed regarding your way of drawing the line between the types of beings that should get ethical consideration and those that should not?
.
This collection of articles has been compiled by Animal Rights Advocates Inc. (ARA) to provide an accessible introduction to the philosophy of abolitionist animal rights for activists.
the MirrorThe harvard review of PhilosoPhy vol.XVI 2009.docxarnoldmeredith47041
the Mirror
The harvard review of PhilosoPhy vol.XVI 2009
A Lecture by Christine M. Korsgaard
Christine M. Korsgaard is Arthur Kingsley Porter Professor of Philosophy at
Harvard University, where she previously served as department chair for six years.
the areas of practical reason, agency and normativity. Aside from being a leading
interpreter and defender of Kant’s practical philosophy, Korsgaard has published
original work in ethical theory, including her books Creating the Kingdom of Ends
(Cambridge University Press, 1996), (Cambridge
University Press 1996), (Oxford University Press,
2008), and her recent (Oxford
University Press, 2009). She is currently working on the differences between human
and non-human animals, with a view both to understanding the nature of rationality
and to answering questions about how we should treat the other animals.
ETHICS
This lecture was delivered as part of the Facing Animals Panel Discussion, held at
Harvard University on April 24, 2007.
WhaT does iT mean To Be an animal? aBouT 600 million years ago, CerTain organic life forms on this planet began to wake up, and to become and to be the target of unwelcome interest on the part of others
pain, and of terror. But some of them were also capable of the opposite feelings of
and boredom, of grief and joy, of family attachment and hostility to outsiders.
this strange evolutionary adventure are the animals, and you and I are among
Many of the moral problems that we talk about in philosophy are
intended to illustrate the general features of ethical theories, and do not come up
whether to have an abortion, or to terminate the medical care of a dying loved
one. But few of us, as individuals, will ever have to decide whether to torture
a terrorist who knows the location of a ticking bomb—although we may have
vol.XVI 2009 The harvard review of PhilosoPhy
in this room will ever have to decide whether to push a fat man into the path
the track. But you make decisions about how you are going to interact with the
other animals many times every day.1
which cosmetics to use in the morning, when you put on your shoes and pick up
your handbag or your briefcase, at breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and on many
other occasions that you may not even be aware of. Moral decisions about how
we should treat the other animals are inescapable, and that is why it is essential
that we give the matter some thought.
animals. One is broadly ecological and mainly concerns the relationship of the
problems can overlap: our growing population and the resulting encroachment on
animal habitats is threatening the extinction of many other species, but of course, it
is doing that by causing the premature deaths of many individuals of those other
species. But the solutions to these two kinds of problems can also be tragically
at odds. In order to preserve the ecological balance among various species—a
balance we ourselves have messed up—we may be face.
There is no word count, I do not need a title page if you reference .docxOllieShoresna
There is no word count, I do not need a title page if you reference anything please do a reference page.
DISCUSSION 1
Utilitarianism is a school of ethical reasoning based fundamentally on the notion of trying to bring about the greatest good when one makes an ethical choice.
1. Do you take this to require some conception of what “the good” means, such that it can be identified, measured, and/or calculated in a way that is consistent across time, place, and people?
2. Is there any such “good” that has these characteristics, as you see it? If so, how can it be defined?
3. What do you see as the meaning of "good" for Utilitarian ethical calculations?
DISCUSSION 2
Peter Singer argues that there is no ethical justification for denying ethical consideration to animals. Consider his reasoning and the basis of his claim that "all animals are equal." (You need to read and listen to what he has to say in order to comment.)
1. Can you think of a reason why our ethical consideration should include all humans regardless of their level of cognitive ability, yet denied to non-human animals simply because they have lower levels of cognitive abilities (though still higher in some cases than those of human infants and some mentally disabled humans)?
2. What critical questions might be posed regarding your way of drawing the line between the types of beings that should get ethical consideration and those that should not?
.
This collection of articles has been compiled by Animal Rights Advocates Inc. (ARA) to provide an accessible introduction to the philosophy of abolitionist animal rights for activists.
the MirrorThe harvard review of PhilosoPhy vol.XVI 2009.docxarnoldmeredith47041
the Mirror
The harvard review of PhilosoPhy vol.XVI 2009
A Lecture by Christine M. Korsgaard
Christine M. Korsgaard is Arthur Kingsley Porter Professor of Philosophy at
Harvard University, where she previously served as department chair for six years.
the areas of practical reason, agency and normativity. Aside from being a leading
interpreter and defender of Kant’s practical philosophy, Korsgaard has published
original work in ethical theory, including her books Creating the Kingdom of Ends
(Cambridge University Press, 1996), (Cambridge
University Press 1996), (Oxford University Press,
2008), and her recent (Oxford
University Press, 2009). She is currently working on the differences between human
and non-human animals, with a view both to understanding the nature of rationality
and to answering questions about how we should treat the other animals.
ETHICS
This lecture was delivered as part of the Facing Animals Panel Discussion, held at
Harvard University on April 24, 2007.
WhaT does iT mean To Be an animal? aBouT 600 million years ago, CerTain organic life forms on this planet began to wake up, and to become and to be the target of unwelcome interest on the part of others
pain, and of terror. But some of them were also capable of the opposite feelings of
and boredom, of grief and joy, of family attachment and hostility to outsiders.
this strange evolutionary adventure are the animals, and you and I are among
Many of the moral problems that we talk about in philosophy are
intended to illustrate the general features of ethical theories, and do not come up
whether to have an abortion, or to terminate the medical care of a dying loved
one. But few of us, as individuals, will ever have to decide whether to torture
a terrorist who knows the location of a ticking bomb—although we may have
vol.XVI 2009 The harvard review of PhilosoPhy
in this room will ever have to decide whether to push a fat man into the path
the track. But you make decisions about how you are going to interact with the
other animals many times every day.1
which cosmetics to use in the morning, when you put on your shoes and pick up
your handbag or your briefcase, at breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and on many
other occasions that you may not even be aware of. Moral decisions about how
we should treat the other animals are inescapable, and that is why it is essential
that we give the matter some thought.
animals. One is broadly ecological and mainly concerns the relationship of the
problems can overlap: our growing population and the resulting encroachment on
animal habitats is threatening the extinction of many other species, but of course, it
is doing that by causing the premature deaths of many individuals of those other
species. But the solutions to these two kinds of problems can also be tragically
at odds. In order to preserve the ecological balance among various species—a
balance we ourselves have messed up—we may be face.
Assignment 3 Animal Rights Kant and SingerRead the introductio.docxannrodgerson
Assignment 3: Animal Rights: Kant and Singer
Read the introduction to Chapter 3 on Animal Rights. Textbook
: Louis Pojman and Paul Pojman,
Environmental Ethics: Readings in Theory and Application.
Seventh Edition
. Cengage Learning.
and the 2 readings below.
Textbook
: Louis Pojman and Paul Pojman,
Environmental Ethics: Readings in Theory and Application.
Seventh Edition
. Cengage Learning.
Answer the questions below for each of the readings. You can write as much as you want.
(A) Holly L. Wilson, The Green Kant: Kant’s Treatment of Animals (There is a selection in this chapter by Kant that you should read. But it may be too difficult, so there are no questions for it.) Kant believes that animals have no rights at all in part because they don't have reason and aren't "ends in themselves."
(B) Peter Singer, A Utilitarian Defense of Animal Liberation. Peter Singer is a utilitarian (which holds that one is morally required to do what promotes the greatest good for everyone who is affected by the action, including animals. On this utilitarian ethical theory,
the good is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain
. So we must maximize pleasure over pain. The utilitarian approach to morality is very different from Kant's approach. (But notice that Tom Regan, another animal rights supporter, takes a Kantian view. We'll look at Regan in the next assignment.) Singer holds that animals have a right to equal moral consideration, because they feel pleasure and pain, too.
Singer is NOT saying that animals should have all rights equal to humans -- like the right to a fair trial
. That's obviously absurd. He is saying that animals should have
a right to equal moral consideration of their pain and pleasure
. In other words, their pleasure and pain should count morally, and their pain counts just as much as our pain. So we need to give their pleasure and pain equal moral consideration when we act. If you disagree with Singer’s idea about what gives animals moral status, then you should explain why it is that the pain we feel counts morally while the pain animals feel does not — or is it that you don’t think that the ability to feel pleasure and pain is what gives something moral status?
_______________________________________________________________
(A) Answer the following questions on Wilson’s discussion of the important 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant.
1. As Wilson explains Kant, why does having a soul distinguish animals from things?
__________________________________________________
Answer 1:
__________________________________________________
2. Kant says that animals (and plants) are also distinguishable from things because animals are “organized beings.” Organized beings are both intrinsically and extrinsically purposive. Explain these two important concepts.
_________________________________________________
(i) Intrinsically purposive
_________________________________________________
(ii) Extrinsically purposive ...
summarize Wayne C. Booths What Is an Idea (reprinted below) and .docxjonghollingberry
summarize Wayne C. Booth's "What Is an Idea?" (reprinted below) and then answer the following question for evaluation: Do you agree or disagree with Booth's explanation of the phenomenon commonly described as "writer's block"?
**********************************************************************************
"What Is an Idea?"
Wayne C. Booth
"I've got an idea; let's go get a hamburger." "All right, now, as sales representatives we must brainstorm for ideas to increase profits." "The way Ray flatters the boss gives you the idea he's bucking for a promotion, doesn't it?" "Hey, listen to this; I've just had an idea for attaching the boat to the top of the car without having to buy a carrier." "The idea of good defense is to keep pressure on the other team without committing errors ourselves." "What did you say that set of books was called?
The Great Ideas?
What does that mean?"
The word
idea,
as you can see, is used in a great many ways. In most of the examples above it means something like "intention," "opinion," or "mental image." The "idea" of going for a hamburger is really a mental picture of a possible action, just as the "idea" of a boat carrier is a mental image of a mechanical device. The "ideas" of good defense and Ray the flatterer are really opinions held by the speakers, while the appeal for "ideas" about how to increase profits is really an appeal for opinions (which may also involve mental images) from fellow workers. None of these examples, however, encompasses the meaning of "idea" as it has always been used by those who engage in serious discussions of politics, history, intellectual movements, and social affairs. Even the last example, an allusion to the famous set of books edited by Robert Maynard Hutchins and Mortimer Adler at the University of Chicago, does not yet express an idea; it only directs us toward a source where ideas may be encountered.
These uses of "idea" are entirely appropriate in their contexts. Words play different roles at different times. One can "fish" for either trout or compliments, and a scalp, an executive, and a toilet (in the Navy) are all "heads." Usually, these different uses have overlapping, not opposed, meanings. For example, we wouldn't know what fishing for compliments meant unless we already knew what fishing for trout meant; and the "heads" we just referred to are all indications of position or place. In the same way, the different uses of the word
idea
overlap. Even the most enduring ideas may appear to some as "mere opinion." What, then, does
idea
mean in the context of serious talk, and what keeps some opinions and mental images from being ideas in our sense?
Three central features distinguish an idea From other kinds of mental products:
1. An idea is always connected to other ideas that lead to it, follow from it, or somehow support it. Like a family member, an idea always exists amid a network of ancestors, parents, brothers, sisters, and cousins. An idea could no more sprin.
Answer questions on the attached doc each answer must be minimum 250.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer questions on the attached doc each answer must be minimum 250 words original due time is (GMT -6) US CST
The book being used is here
Gomez-Mejia, L. R., Balkin, D. B., & Cardy, R. L. (2010).
Managing human resources
(6th ed.)
.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
.
Answer QuestionCompare and contrast the two types of totalitaria.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer Question
Compare and contrast the two types of totalitarian governments that arose after 1917, that is, communism and fascism. What were the origins of these governments, their accomplishments, and their failures? What accounts for the fact that the masses mobilized to support these movements? Elaborate.
Answer Question
What were reasons that led to the ultimate failure of the Treaty of Versailles? What were the challenges facing the newly-formed League of Nations, and why was it so difficult to form a lasting agreement that would prevent another war? Elaborate.
.
Answer question in 8 or more sentences.1. In the colonial world,.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer question in 8 or more sentences.
1. In the colonial world, there was patriarchy. What are examples of colonial patriarchy? Do we have patriarchy today?
2.
What do you think of the idea of America as a "city upon a hill?" How does this relate to the reading, "Wickedness Breaks Forth?"
3.
What do the readings from the recent study guide show us about homosexuality and sexual orientation in the colonial period?
.
Answer T for True or F for False (write clearly!)16._____.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer
T
for True or
F
for False (write clearly!)
16._____
Romantic music is characterized by order, objectivity, and harmonious proportion.
17._____ Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, were members of the Parisian school
18._____ The Classical melody is singable and lyrical
19._____All Classical music-making revolved around public ticket sales
20._____During the Classical period, women did not hold court positions as musicians and teachers
21._____The Romantic Period is the golden age of chamber music
22._____The string quartet consists of 2 violins, viola, cello and basso continuo
23._____Beethoven worked under the patronage of the Esterházy court.
24._____Mozart was a child prodigy who started to write music before the age of five.
25._____The French
Revolution destroyed
the
middle- class
26._____The Industrial Revolution spurred many technical advances in musical instruments
27._____ Classical composers used nationalistic, folkloric, and exotic subjects.
28._____ Romantic composers used richly expressive harmony, and broad, expanded forms.
29._____During the Romantic Period, women musicians excelled as performers, teachers, composers, music patrons
30._____The Lied is French
for solo voice and piano
31._____Absolute instrumental music depicts a literary or pictorial association
32._____Political unrest throughout Europe stimulated schools of nationalistic composers
33._____Dates for the Classical Period are 450-1450
34._____Dates for the Romantic Period are 1750-1820
35._____The
idée fixe
was used by Berlioz
.
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sourcesI agr.docxcullenrjzsme
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sources:
I agree/disagree the Second Great Awakening had a negative impact on women, African-Americans, and Indians for the following reasons:
First, (50 words or more)
source:
Second, (50 words or more)
Source:
Third, (50 words or more)
Source:
Fourth, (50 words or more)
Source:
.
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sourcesI a.docxcullenrjzsme
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sources:
I agree/disagree the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a good idea for the following reasons:
First, (50 words or more)
source:
Second, (50 words or more)
Source:
Third, (50 words or more)
Source:
Fourth, (50 words or more)
Source:
.
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sourcesI.docxcullenrjzsme
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sources:
I agree/disagree Andrew Jackson was a villain and that his image should be removed from the $20 bill for the following reasons:
First, (50 words or more)
source:
Second, (50 words or more)
Source:
Third, (50 words or more)
Source:
Fourth, (50 words or more)
Source:
.
Answer follow question1. Explain what sociologists mean by t.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer follow question
1. Explain what sociologists mean by the social construction of reality. How has the social construction of reality affected you? How does social interaction shape who we are and how we see ourselves?
2.
What are some of the various groups discussed in our readings for this week? What groups have you been a part of? What is a bureaucracy and why do they often get labeled as inefficient?
3.
How much of who we are as people do you think comes from our expectations and roles in society and how much do we decide? What would happen if we didn't try to conform at all?
4.
what are bureaucracies? How are these related to groups? What type of group are they? Formal or informal? Why are they classified as inefficient by some and why have they become so important in our society today?
.
Answer each question with a high quality response. Please provide an.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each question with a high quality response. Please provide any reference that you use.
1.
What is the Statement of Cash Flows and what information does it present?
Also, what is the relationship between the statement of cash flows and the balance sheet?
2.
Why is financial statement important and who could it benefit?
.
Answer each question fully. The finance department of a large co.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each question fully.
The finance department of a large corporation has evaluated a possible capital project using the NPV method, the Payback Method, and the IRR method. The analysts are puzzled, since the NPV indicated rejection, but the IRR and Payback methods both indicated acceptance. Explain why this conflicting situation might occur and what conclusions the analyst should accept, indicating the shortcomings and the advantages of each method. Assuming the data is correct, which method will most likely provide the most accurate decisions and why?
.
Answer each part in essay format.Explain rights and procedures of .docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each part in essay format.
Explain rights and procedures of accused persons from initial court appearance to verdict.
Discuss the exclusionary rule and the Fourth Amendment ban on unreasonable searches and seizures.
Discuss the exclusionary rule in regard to the Fifth Amendment protection against self-incrimination.
Discuss the exclusionary rule and the Sixth Amendment right to counsel.
Discuss lawsuits against federal and state government.
Describe civil rights actions under Title 42 of the Civil Rights Act.
Prepare a case brief of the landmark case in Chapter 10 of your textbook,
Mapp v. Ohio
, including facts, procedural history, issue, rule, analysis, and conclusion.
Label each component of the brief
.
Answer each part in essay format.
Define the exclusionary rule. There are three justifications for the exclusionary rule. What are they? Explain the rationale behind each one. Which justification does the US Supreme Court use today?
List five exceptions to the exclusionary rule. Define and explain each one.
Reference
Samaha, Joel. (2015). Criminal Procedure, 9th, Ed. Boston, MA: Cengage.
.
ANSWER QUESTIONCompare and contrast the personalities and polici.docxcullenrjzsme
ANSWER QUESTION
Compare and contrast the personalities and policies of Hitler and Stalin. How and why was Hitler able to become a dictator in Germany? Elaborate.
ANSWER QUESTION
The following statement is taken from a contemporary account of Germany in 1939:
“…Though the Fuehrer’s anti-Semitic program furnished the National Socialist party in the first instance with a nucleus and rallying-cry, it was swept into office by two things with which the 'Jewish Problem' did not have the slightest connection. One the one side was economic distress and the revulsion against Versailles; on the other, chicanery and intrigue…Hitler and his party had promised the unhappy Germans a new heaven and a new earth, coupled with the persecution of the Jews. Unfortunately, a new heaven and earth cannot be manufactured to order. But a persecution of the Jews can…”
How do you interpret this contemporary account of the persecution of people who are Jewish? Elaborate.
.
answer questions attached.. 21). Give the name, date, location o.docxcullenrjzsme
answer questions attached..
21). Give the name, date, location of this statue. Write a short essay (a paragraph or two) explaining the significance of this statue in the development of Greek statues.
22). Give the name, date, location of this statue. Write a short essay (a paragraph or two) explaining how this statue goes beyond naturalism.
23). Give a brief summary of the Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Mean (the number
φ
)
, and briefly explain its role in the architecture of the Parthenon.
.
Answer each of the following questions in regards to the two pieces .docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each of the following questions in regards to the two pieces of writing you’ve chosen to analyze in essay #2:
What are the key features that define each genre you have chosen?
What are the assumed audiences for each genre?
Are there any specific conventions used in one genre that aren't found in the other?
How are the two genres similar?
What are the reasons for what is conveyed visually? For what is conveyed via text? How do the visual and verbal texts in the ad interact?
.
answer each with at least 100 words.PromptTopic Anton grew u.docxcullenrjzsme
answer each with at least 100 words.
Prompt/Topic
: Anton grew up in France and has come to America for college. He lived with an French family during his freshman year, but then he moved into an apartment with two other students, all from different countries. They all study very hard and do not want to take time to cook, so he eats mostly fast or convenience food. He has found some French convenience foods; they are not as great as home cooking, but he does enjoy the familiar taste of his native country. Anton is acquiring a taste for American food and pizza, and he often eats fast food for lunch because it is inexpensive and quick to eat.
What concerns would you have about Anton’s eating habits?
What practical changes could Anton make to make his eating habits more consistent with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans?
.
More Related Content
Similar to EssaySinger argues that animals deserve moral consideration and
Assignment 3 Animal Rights Kant and SingerRead the introductio.docxannrodgerson
Assignment 3: Animal Rights: Kant and Singer
Read the introduction to Chapter 3 on Animal Rights. Textbook
: Louis Pojman and Paul Pojman,
Environmental Ethics: Readings in Theory and Application.
Seventh Edition
. Cengage Learning.
and the 2 readings below.
Textbook
: Louis Pojman and Paul Pojman,
Environmental Ethics: Readings in Theory and Application.
Seventh Edition
. Cengage Learning.
Answer the questions below for each of the readings. You can write as much as you want.
(A) Holly L. Wilson, The Green Kant: Kant’s Treatment of Animals (There is a selection in this chapter by Kant that you should read. But it may be too difficult, so there are no questions for it.) Kant believes that animals have no rights at all in part because they don't have reason and aren't "ends in themselves."
(B) Peter Singer, A Utilitarian Defense of Animal Liberation. Peter Singer is a utilitarian (which holds that one is morally required to do what promotes the greatest good for everyone who is affected by the action, including animals. On this utilitarian ethical theory,
the good is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain
. So we must maximize pleasure over pain. The utilitarian approach to morality is very different from Kant's approach. (But notice that Tom Regan, another animal rights supporter, takes a Kantian view. We'll look at Regan in the next assignment.) Singer holds that animals have a right to equal moral consideration, because they feel pleasure and pain, too.
Singer is NOT saying that animals should have all rights equal to humans -- like the right to a fair trial
. That's obviously absurd. He is saying that animals should have
a right to equal moral consideration of their pain and pleasure
. In other words, their pleasure and pain should count morally, and their pain counts just as much as our pain. So we need to give their pleasure and pain equal moral consideration when we act. If you disagree with Singer’s idea about what gives animals moral status, then you should explain why it is that the pain we feel counts morally while the pain animals feel does not — or is it that you don’t think that the ability to feel pleasure and pain is what gives something moral status?
_______________________________________________________________
(A) Answer the following questions on Wilson’s discussion of the important 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant.
1. As Wilson explains Kant, why does having a soul distinguish animals from things?
__________________________________________________
Answer 1:
__________________________________________________
2. Kant says that animals (and plants) are also distinguishable from things because animals are “organized beings.” Organized beings are both intrinsically and extrinsically purposive. Explain these two important concepts.
_________________________________________________
(i) Intrinsically purposive
_________________________________________________
(ii) Extrinsically purposive ...
summarize Wayne C. Booths What Is an Idea (reprinted below) and .docxjonghollingberry
summarize Wayne C. Booth's "What Is an Idea?" (reprinted below) and then answer the following question for evaluation: Do you agree or disagree with Booth's explanation of the phenomenon commonly described as "writer's block"?
**********************************************************************************
"What Is an Idea?"
Wayne C. Booth
"I've got an idea; let's go get a hamburger." "All right, now, as sales representatives we must brainstorm for ideas to increase profits." "The way Ray flatters the boss gives you the idea he's bucking for a promotion, doesn't it?" "Hey, listen to this; I've just had an idea for attaching the boat to the top of the car without having to buy a carrier." "The idea of good defense is to keep pressure on the other team without committing errors ourselves." "What did you say that set of books was called?
The Great Ideas?
What does that mean?"
The word
idea,
as you can see, is used in a great many ways. In most of the examples above it means something like "intention," "opinion," or "mental image." The "idea" of going for a hamburger is really a mental picture of a possible action, just as the "idea" of a boat carrier is a mental image of a mechanical device. The "ideas" of good defense and Ray the flatterer are really opinions held by the speakers, while the appeal for "ideas" about how to increase profits is really an appeal for opinions (which may also involve mental images) from fellow workers. None of these examples, however, encompasses the meaning of "idea" as it has always been used by those who engage in serious discussions of politics, history, intellectual movements, and social affairs. Even the last example, an allusion to the famous set of books edited by Robert Maynard Hutchins and Mortimer Adler at the University of Chicago, does not yet express an idea; it only directs us toward a source where ideas may be encountered.
These uses of "idea" are entirely appropriate in their contexts. Words play different roles at different times. One can "fish" for either trout or compliments, and a scalp, an executive, and a toilet (in the Navy) are all "heads." Usually, these different uses have overlapping, not opposed, meanings. For example, we wouldn't know what fishing for compliments meant unless we already knew what fishing for trout meant; and the "heads" we just referred to are all indications of position or place. In the same way, the different uses of the word
idea
overlap. Even the most enduring ideas may appear to some as "mere opinion." What, then, does
idea
mean in the context of serious talk, and what keeps some opinions and mental images from being ideas in our sense?
Three central features distinguish an idea From other kinds of mental products:
1. An idea is always connected to other ideas that lead to it, follow from it, or somehow support it. Like a family member, an idea always exists amid a network of ancestors, parents, brothers, sisters, and cousins. An idea could no more sprin.
Answer questions on the attached doc each answer must be minimum 250.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer questions on the attached doc each answer must be minimum 250 words original due time is (GMT -6) US CST
The book being used is here
Gomez-Mejia, L. R., Balkin, D. B., & Cardy, R. L. (2010).
Managing human resources
(6th ed.)
.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
.
Answer QuestionCompare and contrast the two types of totalitaria.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer Question
Compare and contrast the two types of totalitarian governments that arose after 1917, that is, communism and fascism. What were the origins of these governments, their accomplishments, and their failures? What accounts for the fact that the masses mobilized to support these movements? Elaborate.
Answer Question
What were reasons that led to the ultimate failure of the Treaty of Versailles? What were the challenges facing the newly-formed League of Nations, and why was it so difficult to form a lasting agreement that would prevent another war? Elaborate.
.
Answer question in 8 or more sentences.1. In the colonial world,.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer question in 8 or more sentences.
1. In the colonial world, there was patriarchy. What are examples of colonial patriarchy? Do we have patriarchy today?
2.
What do you think of the idea of America as a "city upon a hill?" How does this relate to the reading, "Wickedness Breaks Forth?"
3.
What do the readings from the recent study guide show us about homosexuality and sexual orientation in the colonial period?
.
Answer T for True or F for False (write clearly!)16._____.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer
T
for True or
F
for False (write clearly!)
16._____
Romantic music is characterized by order, objectivity, and harmonious proportion.
17._____ Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, were members of the Parisian school
18._____ The Classical melody is singable and lyrical
19._____All Classical music-making revolved around public ticket sales
20._____During the Classical period, women did not hold court positions as musicians and teachers
21._____The Romantic Period is the golden age of chamber music
22._____The string quartet consists of 2 violins, viola, cello and basso continuo
23._____Beethoven worked under the patronage of the Esterházy court.
24._____Mozart was a child prodigy who started to write music before the age of five.
25._____The French
Revolution destroyed
the
middle- class
26._____The Industrial Revolution spurred many technical advances in musical instruments
27._____ Classical composers used nationalistic, folkloric, and exotic subjects.
28._____ Romantic composers used richly expressive harmony, and broad, expanded forms.
29._____During the Romantic Period, women musicians excelled as performers, teachers, composers, music patrons
30._____The Lied is French
for solo voice and piano
31._____Absolute instrumental music depicts a literary or pictorial association
32._____Political unrest throughout Europe stimulated schools of nationalistic composers
33._____Dates for the Classical Period are 450-1450
34._____Dates for the Romantic Period are 1750-1820
35._____The
idée fixe
was used by Berlioz
.
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sourcesI agr.docxcullenrjzsme
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sources:
I agree/disagree the Second Great Awakening had a negative impact on women, African-Americans, and Indians for the following reasons:
First, (50 words or more)
source:
Second, (50 words or more)
Source:
Third, (50 words or more)
Source:
Fourth, (50 words or more)
Source:
.
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sourcesI a.docxcullenrjzsme
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sources:
I agree/disagree the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a good idea for the following reasons:
First, (50 words or more)
source:
Second, (50 words or more)
Source:
Third, (50 words or more)
Source:
Fourth, (50 words or more)
Source:
.
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sourcesI.docxcullenrjzsme
answer must begin as follows and have 4 points and 4 sources:
I agree/disagree Andrew Jackson was a villain and that his image should be removed from the $20 bill for the following reasons:
First, (50 words or more)
source:
Second, (50 words or more)
Source:
Third, (50 words or more)
Source:
Fourth, (50 words or more)
Source:
.
Answer follow question1. Explain what sociologists mean by t.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer follow question
1. Explain what sociologists mean by the social construction of reality. How has the social construction of reality affected you? How does social interaction shape who we are and how we see ourselves?
2.
What are some of the various groups discussed in our readings for this week? What groups have you been a part of? What is a bureaucracy and why do they often get labeled as inefficient?
3.
How much of who we are as people do you think comes from our expectations and roles in society and how much do we decide? What would happen if we didn't try to conform at all?
4.
what are bureaucracies? How are these related to groups? What type of group are they? Formal or informal? Why are they classified as inefficient by some and why have they become so important in our society today?
.
Answer each question with a high quality response. Please provide an.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each question with a high quality response. Please provide any reference that you use.
1.
What is the Statement of Cash Flows and what information does it present?
Also, what is the relationship between the statement of cash flows and the balance sheet?
2.
Why is financial statement important and who could it benefit?
.
Answer each question fully. The finance department of a large co.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each question fully.
The finance department of a large corporation has evaluated a possible capital project using the NPV method, the Payback Method, and the IRR method. The analysts are puzzled, since the NPV indicated rejection, but the IRR and Payback methods both indicated acceptance. Explain why this conflicting situation might occur and what conclusions the analyst should accept, indicating the shortcomings and the advantages of each method. Assuming the data is correct, which method will most likely provide the most accurate decisions and why?
.
Answer each part in essay format.Explain rights and procedures of .docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each part in essay format.
Explain rights and procedures of accused persons from initial court appearance to verdict.
Discuss the exclusionary rule and the Fourth Amendment ban on unreasonable searches and seizures.
Discuss the exclusionary rule in regard to the Fifth Amendment protection against self-incrimination.
Discuss the exclusionary rule and the Sixth Amendment right to counsel.
Discuss lawsuits against federal and state government.
Describe civil rights actions under Title 42 of the Civil Rights Act.
Prepare a case brief of the landmark case in Chapter 10 of your textbook,
Mapp v. Ohio
, including facts, procedural history, issue, rule, analysis, and conclusion.
Label each component of the brief
.
Answer each part in essay format.
Define the exclusionary rule. There are three justifications for the exclusionary rule. What are they? Explain the rationale behind each one. Which justification does the US Supreme Court use today?
List five exceptions to the exclusionary rule. Define and explain each one.
Reference
Samaha, Joel. (2015). Criminal Procedure, 9th, Ed. Boston, MA: Cengage.
.
ANSWER QUESTIONCompare and contrast the personalities and polici.docxcullenrjzsme
ANSWER QUESTION
Compare and contrast the personalities and policies of Hitler and Stalin. How and why was Hitler able to become a dictator in Germany? Elaborate.
ANSWER QUESTION
The following statement is taken from a contemporary account of Germany in 1939:
“…Though the Fuehrer’s anti-Semitic program furnished the National Socialist party in the first instance with a nucleus and rallying-cry, it was swept into office by two things with which the 'Jewish Problem' did not have the slightest connection. One the one side was economic distress and the revulsion against Versailles; on the other, chicanery and intrigue…Hitler and his party had promised the unhappy Germans a new heaven and a new earth, coupled with the persecution of the Jews. Unfortunately, a new heaven and earth cannot be manufactured to order. But a persecution of the Jews can…”
How do you interpret this contemporary account of the persecution of people who are Jewish? Elaborate.
.
answer questions attached.. 21). Give the name, date, location o.docxcullenrjzsme
answer questions attached..
21). Give the name, date, location of this statue. Write a short essay (a paragraph or two) explaining the significance of this statue in the development of Greek statues.
22). Give the name, date, location of this statue. Write a short essay (a paragraph or two) explaining how this statue goes beyond naturalism.
23). Give a brief summary of the Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Mean (the number
φ
)
, and briefly explain its role in the architecture of the Parthenon.
.
Answer each of the following questions in regards to the two pieces .docxcullenrjzsme
Answer each of the following questions in regards to the two pieces of writing you’ve chosen to analyze in essay #2:
What are the key features that define each genre you have chosen?
What are the assumed audiences for each genre?
Are there any specific conventions used in one genre that aren't found in the other?
How are the two genres similar?
What are the reasons for what is conveyed visually? For what is conveyed via text? How do the visual and verbal texts in the ad interact?
.
answer each with at least 100 words.PromptTopic Anton grew u.docxcullenrjzsme
answer each with at least 100 words.
Prompt/Topic
: Anton grew up in France and has come to America for college. He lived with an French family during his freshman year, but then he moved into an apartment with two other students, all from different countries. They all study very hard and do not want to take time to cook, so he eats mostly fast or convenience food. He has found some French convenience foods; they are not as great as home cooking, but he does enjoy the familiar taste of his native country. Anton is acquiring a taste for American food and pizza, and he often eats fast food for lunch because it is inexpensive and quick to eat.
What concerns would you have about Anton’s eating habits?
What practical changes could Anton make to make his eating habits more consistent with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans?
.
Answer each of the following 4 questions with a 3-5 sentence.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer
each of the following 4 questions
with a 3-5 sentence paragraph. Write legibly and in full sentences. You may write on the back of the sheet.
What philosopher used the idea of
Tetrapharmakon
? What does this word mean? What is the purpose of this teaching?List and describe the different parts of this idea.
answer :
Epicurus
2. Who argued that a healthy state must be built on a “noble lie”? What is this lie? Why is it necessary?
3.
What are the main differences between the pre-Socratics and the Sophists? Name
one philosopher from each group, and describe how they demonstrate the main features of pre-Socratic and sophistic philosophy.
.
Answer questions1. Describe various forms of internal and ext.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer questions:
1
. Describe various forms of internal and external threats to an organization.
2.
Describe methods to detect internal and external threats to the organization.
3.
Evaluate methods to protect the organization from internal and external threats.
4.
Develop a proactive plan of environmental scanning to evaluate any existing threats to AGC.
.
Answer 5 question2 pagessingle space 12 font1.How do.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer 5 question
2 pages
single space 12 font
1.
How do you define the term family?
2.
What causes inequality among families?
3.
Do you think there are benefits to living together with someone before getting married? Give two reasons for your response.
4.
Do you think persons are predisposed to commit crimes (born to commit crimes)? Give two reasons for your response.
5.
What do you think are two possible explanations for the racial disparities in criminal arrests?
.
Answer all three questions. Write 3 pages for each answer. 1.B.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer all three questions. Write 3 pages for each answer.
1.
Briefly outline some of the basic components that define the Cognitive Revolution.
2.
Describe some of the studies and findings in the beginning of the 20
th
century that call into question the basic tenants of Behaviorism and Learning Theory.
3.
For Aristotle, the problem of representation (in memory) was similar to the impression of a signet ring making an impression in a tablet of wax. How do the findings of contemporary studies match up to Aristotle’s ideas about representation in memory?
NO OUTSIDE SOURCES ALLOWED! I WILL ATTACH THE ARTICLES AS RESOURCES TO USE.
.
Answer both of the questions below 1.Discuss two differences i.docxcullenrjzsme
Answer both of the questions below
1.
Discuss two differences in cultural values between Americans and Thai people as observed by the author in the article
,( I attack in the file)
2.
Briefly explain how
applied anthropology
is used to create a program to improve child nutrition in Malawi in Chapter 38 of
C
onformity & Conflict
("Medical Anthropology: Improving Nutrition in Malawi").
.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdf
EssaySinger argues that animals deserve moral consideration and
1. Essay:
Singer argues that animals deserve moral consideration and do
have moral rights somewhat comparable to humans because they
are
sentient
(i.e., have the capacity to experience pain and pleasure). By
contrast, Cohen argues that animals do not have moral rights
comparable to humans because they do not belong to the
moral community
(Note: pay careful attention to the characteristics Cohen lists as
requirements to belong to the moral community). In this essay,
I ask you to discuss
ONE
of the topics listed below:
(A) First, develop a criterion other than Singer's or Cohen's
that will determine whether animals do or do not deserve moral
consideration. Secondly, determine if animals do or do not
have (at least some) moral rights comparable to humans. Make
sure you defend your position with cogent arguments. Then,
compare your position to either Singer's or Cohen's.
Or, if you cannot develop your own criterion:
(B) State whether you agree with Singer's position or Cohen's
position, expressing the reasons for your choice. Then, defend
your position with cogent arguments.
Assignment Direction:
2. Short writing assignments must be
no less
than two hundred (200)
of
your own words
. This means that
quotations do not count against the two hundred words
. I will not even read assignments shorter than the required
minimum of 200 words (I use a program to monitor word-count)
and you will automatically receive zero (0) points for any such
assignments. I expect a professionally written essay that is well
formulated, without spelling and grammatical errors. I will
deduct points for sloppily written essays (see the rubric below).
In your essay you should address the question posed directly
and thoroughly. You do not need to waste too much space on
background unless the question of the essay specifically
demands such background.
Notes From Instructor:
Notes to accompany Singer (2007) and Fox (2007).These notes
are not a substitute for reading the text.
1
Singer
Peter Singer probably is one of the most well-
knownphilosophers alive today. He has been in the public
spotlight anumber of times for taking controversial moral
positions basedon an uncompromising utilitarianism. He was
one of thepioneers of the animal welfare movement, starting
with his 1975book,
Animal
3. Liberation
. I mention all of this because you aremuch more likely to
encounter his name outside this course thanmost of the other
authors we will be reading. Article #14represents very early
work, apparently published a year beforethe first edition of
Animal
Liberation
.
2
The
argument
Singer’s thesis is that we ought to extend to (non-
human)animals the same equality of consideration that we
extend tohuman beings.
Here’s how I think the main contours of his argument shapeup:
1. The only criterion of moral importance that succeeds
inincluding all humans, and excluding all non-humans, issimple
membership in the species
Homo
sapiens
.2. However, using simple membership in the species
Homosapiens
as a criterion of moral importance is completelyarbitrary.3. Of
the remaining criteria we might consider, onlySENTIENCE—
the capacity to ex- perience things likepleasure and pain—is a
plausible criterion of moralimportance.4. Using sentience as a
criterion of moral importance entailsthat we extend to other
4. sentient creatures the same basicmoral consideration (i.e. ”basic
principle of equal- ity”) thatwe extend to (typical, sentient)
human beings.5. Therefore, we ought to extend to animals the
same equalityof consideration that we extend to human
beings.6.
2
3
Details3.1
The
only
criterion
of
moral
importance
thatsucceeds
in
including
all
humans,
and
5. excludingall
non-humans,
is
simple
membership
in
thespecies
Homo
sapiens
.
Singer argues for this simply by pointing to variation
amonghumans. If we examine the usual chracteristics that
people sayall humans, and only humans, share, we always find
that thereare human beings who lack those characteristics:
Like it or not, we must face the fact that humans comein
different shapes and sizes; they come with differingmoral
capacities, differing intellectual abilities, differingamounts of
benevolent feeling and sensitivity to theneeds of others,
differing abilities to communicateeffectively, and differing
capacities to expe- riencepleasure and pain. In short, if the
demand for equalitywere based on the actual equality of all
human beings,we would have to stop demanding equality.
(Singer2007, p. 173)
The only characteristic that every single human has incommon,
that no animal1 has, is membership in the humanspecies. If you
6. want to say that every human is morallyimportant, and humans
are the only creatures that are morally important, your criterion
for moral importance must be basedsimply on species
membership.
3.2
However,
using
simple
membership
in
the
species
Homo
sapiens
as
a
criterion
of
moral
importanceis
7. completely
arbitrary.
Singer seems to think this is fairly obvious once it is stated.
Ifthere is, in fact, no relevant difference between your group
andsome other group, there is no rational ground for thinking
thatthose who belong to your group deserve greater
considerationthan those who belong to the other group.
Although it is fairlynatural for people to think of their own
group as more importantthan others, for no other reason than
because it is
their
group,Singer thinks the obvious parallels with racism are so
striking asto invalidate that natural impulse.2
3.3
Of
the
remaining
criteria
we
might
consider,
onlysentience—the
capacity
9. in the colloquial sense, designating all NON-
HUMANANIMALS specifically.
2This is a typically consequentialist way of thinking; youshould
consider how deontologists might look at thisgiven the
allowance for “duties of special relationships.”Is common
species membership an appropriate “specialrelationship”?
Should it be?
2
excluded. For instance, we don’t really think that it would
bepermissible to disregard the well-being of someone who
hasmuch lower
intelligence
than average, so we can’t possibly thinkthat intelligence is a
suitable criterion for moral consideration.
Second, Singer argues that it is only by virtue of beingsentient
that anything can be said to have INTERESTS, so thisplaces
sentience in a different category than the other cri- teria:“The
capacity for suffering and enjoying things is a prerequisitefor
having interests at all, a condition that must be satisfiedbefore
we can speak of interests in any meaningful way” (Singer2007,
p. 175). That is, Singer is trying to establish that if a beingis
not sen- tient, then the idea of extending moral considerationto
it makes no sense. This negative argument is important,because
one common criticism of Singer is that his criterionends up
excluding humans who are no longer sentient (such asthose in
an irreversible coma). Singer is content to accept
thatconsequence, but it is important that he show why the
exclusionof some humans by
his
criterion is not problematic, given that hehas criticized other
criteria for their exclusions3.
10. However, establishing that
non
-sentient creatures do
not
meritmoral consideration, falls short of demonstrating that
sentient
creatures
do
merit moral consideration. Singer doesn’t supplymuch
argument for the latter claim, but probably has the samekind of
rationale in mind as other utilitarians: clearly, each of
usrecognizes our
own
suffering as a bad thing, so there should bean automatic
extension of that to the recognition that
all
suffering is bad. And if all suffering is bad, then it must be
badfor
any
creature to suffer.4 So, if we want to make a radicaldistinction
between our suffering and the suffering of othercreatures, the
burden of proof is on us. Looking again to thearguments above,
it is clear that Singer thinks this burden ofproof cannot be
met—our criterion of moral importance must besentience.
3.4
Using
sentience
as
a
12. of
equality”)that
we
extend
to
(typical,
sentient)
humanbeings.
I need to unpack all of this carefully for you, because
whatSinger means by it often is misunderstood, and he
doesn’texplain himself in enough detail in this article to
preventmisunderstandings. Let’s be clear: Singer is
not
saying that weare required, in practice, to treat humans and
animals identically.Extending to animals the same moral
consideration we extend tohumans means that we count the
interests of animals equallywith
compa-
rable
interests of humans. However, not allinterests necessarily are
comparable. In other words, we cannotgive the interests of
animals less weight just because thecreatures that have them are
animals
, but we can give lessweight to some of the interests they
happen to have if thoseinterests just
do
have less weight.
13. To clarify, it will be helpful to introduce a distinction
Singermakes outside of this arti- cle: that between
persons
and
sentientnon-persons
. Singer defines a
person
(a creature with
3And this is precisely what his negative argument tries todo
4Though not necessarily so bad that we must eliminateall
suffering—remember that Singer is a utilitar- ian.
2
personhood
) as a creature that has awareness of its ownpersistence over
time5. Because of their awareness of theirown existence over
time, persons are opened up to specialforms of suffering that
sentient non-persons cannotexperience. A sentient non-person,
for in- stance, can feelpain while dying, but only a person can
experience the extradread that comes with awareness of its own
mortality. Asentient non-person can experience pain, but only a
personcan feel the hopelessness brought by awareness that his
orher pain will last for weeks, months, or years into the
future.In other words, persons have some interests that
sentientnon-persons do not. As a result, taking into
equalconsideration the comparable interests of all sentient
beings, no matter what their species, does
not
dictate that we must,in practice, treat all sentient beings
equally. If, for instance,you can save either a dog or a human
14. adult from a burningbuilding, Singer would say you must save
the human adult,because the balance of pleasure over pain
will
be greater ifyou save the adult, than if you save the dog.
However, Singer argues, situations in which one is facedwith
that
kind of choice are unusual. There are indeeddifficult cases,
such as animal experimentation, where weneed to sit down and
weigh carefully how much totalsuffering our possible courses of
action will cause; allSinger asks is that we
do
the calculation in those cases,instead of dismissing the
suffering of non-humans from thevery start. Most of our
practices toward animals, however,are very
easy
cases to Singer: in the vast majority of ourpractices toward an-
imals, we sacrifice important animalinterests (such as life and
freedom) for the sake ofabsolutely
trivial
human interests (such as satisfying a tastefor meat). In these
cases, the interests in question are stillnoncomparable, but in
the
other
direction; for instance, thesufferin g inflicted on factory farm
animals vastly outweighsour enjoyment of cheap and convenient
meat. All suchpractices, Singer concludes, quite clearly lack
any moraljustification, and must be eliminated as quickly as
possible.
3.5
Statistics
I am going to close this section on Singer with somestatistics
that I found surprising. The following are theUnited States
15. livestock and poultry slaughter statistics forthe year of 2009
(with a bit of rounding), from the USDANational Agricultural
Statistics Service:6
33 million cattle
1 million calves
114 million hogs
2.5 million sheep
8.5 billion chickens7
5Personhood is not coextensive with humanity—Singer
contends that adult chimpanzees are persons,but human infants
are not.
6Livestock stats:
http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/LiveSlauSu//2010s/20
10/LiveSlauSu-
04-29-2010.pdf Poultry stats:
http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/PoulSlauSu//2010s/20
10/PoulSlauSu-
02-25-2010.pdf
7Yes, with a
b
.
2
240 million turkeys
16. 23 million ducks
If one agrees with Singer’s argument, these statistics offer a
glimpse of a moral prob- lem so immense, that it must
dwarfvirtually any other moral problem imaginable. On the
otherhand, if one disagrees with Singer’s argument, then
perhapsthese statistics rep- resent the pinnacle of human
achievement inefficiency and mastery over the world. I’ll leave
it at that.
4
Fox’s
response:
Autonomy
and
the
moralcommunity
Fox believes that of all of the creatures on Earth, only
humanbeings have moral RIGHTS.8 The division between
humans andother creatures is not based strictly on membership
in the species
Homo
sapiens
, but the gap is unlikely to be crossed by anynonhuman form of
life on Earth.
According to Fox, the division rests on participation or lack
17. ofparticipation in a MORAL COMMUNITY. A moral
communityis a collection of individuals who recognize their
moralobligations to one another. Participation in a moral
communityrequires an in- dividual to have an entire
cluster
ofcharacteristics, not an individual characteristic such as the
ones Singer considers (and rejects) one-by-one. The
characteristics inquestion are the ones required for a being to
function as a moralagent, or (what amounts to the same thing,
for Fox) thecharacteristics needed for autonomy:
•
critical self-awareness
•
the ability to manipulate complex concepts
•
the ability to use a sophisticated language
•
the ability to reflectively plan and choose a course of action
•
the ability to accept responsibility for one’s choices
To sum up, for Fox, possession of the above cluster
ofcharacteristics makes one au- tonomous, which means one
canfunction as a moral agent. Autonomy, or moral agency, in
turn,allow one to participate in a moral community. Finally, it
isparticipation in a moral community that gives one rights.
Ascription of rights, and a claim to them for oneself, occursonly
within a moral com- munity. Here are two passages whereFox
makes the point:
8It is worth emphasizing that Singer would agree thatanimals
lack rights. However, he would deny that humanshave rights
18. either. Since the concept of moral rights is adeontological
concept, Singer does not believe there aresuch things as moral
rights at all. But it is not as thoughSinger and Fox are talking
completely past one another:they do disagree about whether
there is any reasonablebasis on which to count the interests of
humans as moreimportant than the comparable interests of
animals.
2
[1] The ascription of rights...is an act signifying therecognition
that others are beings [possessing theprerequisites for
autonomous, rational behavior andhence for moral personhood]
and expresses in symbolicform the resolve that they shall be
related in a mannerappropriate to the autonomy and personhood
thusperceived. (Fox 2007, p. 185)
[2] Assigning rights to others and claiming them foroneself is
tantamount to issuing a declaration ofnonintervention in the
self-governing lives of others, byacknowledging the sort of
being they are, and acquiringmoral guarantees of this type by
tacit agreement. (Fox2007, p. 186)
Why can only
autonomous
beings perform such acts asascribing or claiming rights?
Because being autonomous means that:
•
one has the ability to act freely and responsibly.
•
one recognizes that this ability is of defining importance
tooneself.
•
one recognizes the autonomy of other agents, and thedefining
19. importance of their autonomy to them.
Animals can be trained to obey standards, but not tounderstand
the rationale behind them. They do not possess therequisite
cluster of characteristics, so they are not au- tonomous,and
cannot function as moral agents. Being unable to participatein a
moral community, they, therefore, cannot have rights.
5
“Deficient”
humans
But Singer’s challenge comes back at this point: Fox’s
criterionwould exclude infants, the mentally disabled, people in
comas,and any other human who is deficient in the cluster
ofcharacteristics. Fox is not unaware of this challenge, and
hasseveral things to say in response:
•
Many deficient humans9 are
potentially
members of themoral community, in ways animals are not.
•
Natural feelings of kinship are adequate to make us
includedeficient humans into our moral community.
•
The natural feelings just alluded to are the “cornerstone
ofcivilization,” and erosion of them could lead us down
aslippery slope to the elimination of “undesirables” whoactually
are proper parts of our moral community.
•
Personal prudence counts in favor of ascribing rights
todeficient humans, since we ourselves, individually, may
oneday become deficient.
20. 9Fox’s terminology.
2
•
Medical breakthroughs might remedy supposedly
permanentdeficiencies.
In sum, deficient human beings are “borderline cases”
andshould be seen as part of an “immediately extended
moralcommunity and therefore as deserving of equal moral con-
cern”(Fox 2007, p. 190). Is the introduction of extended
moralcommunities speciesist? Fox thinks not: (i) it is required
bycharity, benevolence, humaneness and prudence, and these
areconsistent with giving central status to autonomy; (ii)
anyanimals that are also borderline cases should likewise
beconsidered in such an expansion.
COMMENT: It is unclear to me exactly how Fox intends theidea
of the “extended moral community” to work. There seem tobe
two possibilities: either (i) Fox thinks the members of
theextended moral community actually
have
rights, or else (ii) Foxthinks the members of the extended
moral community do
not
have rights, but nevertheless should be treated
as
though
theyhad rights. Although Fox seems to me to talk as though
heintends the first option, such a move would invalidate his
entireargument, since it would mean that a living being can
21. have rights
without
having any of the cluster of characteristics he considers.The
second option is easier to square with his overall argument,but
then it leaves one with the question of whether we have
goodreasons to exclude all other animals from the extended
moralcommunity. You will have to judge for yourself whether
Fox hasgiven adequate reasons.
References
Fox, M. A. (2007). The moral community,
in
H. LaFollette (ed.),
Ethics
in
Practice:
Third
Edition
, Blackwell, Malden, MA,chapter 15, pp. 181–191.
Singer, P. (2007). All animals are equal,
in
H. LaFollette (ed.),
Ethics
in
Practice:
Third
22. Edition
, Blackwell, Malden, MA,chapter 14, pp. 171–180.
Sample A Paper From Instructor:
Opinion
Personally, I agree with Singer. I think it is important to take
into consideration that animals can feel pleasure, and especially
pain, because during these animal experimentations, they are
most of the time undergoing a significant amount of pain.
Cohen’s point of view, that animals do not have moral rights as
humans do because they are not part of the moral community,
doesn’t really take into consideration the suffering that the
animals experience, which I think is something that humans
should give more thought to.
Singer’s Argument
In Singer’s essay, he states that we should extend the equality
of humans to other species. He also talks about speciesism,
which is bias against a being because of the species it belongs
to. Humans are a major example, because of the way we treat
animals in experiments and killing them for food. Singer says
that if people argue that since humans have higher intelligence,
making it so humans cannot be used for experimentation
purposes, then how does that entitle humans to take advantage
of animals? Singer also argues that if a being is capable of
suffering, there is no reason for refusing to acknowledge that
suffering and to take it into consideration.
Cohen’s Argument
Cohen argues that animals do not have the same moral
capacities as humans, so animal experimentation isn’t a
23. violation of their rights because they don’t have any rights. He
also says that rights are claims, or potential claims, and can
only be defended by beings who are actually able to make moral
claims against one another. Cohen lists attributes for the moral
capability that human beings have, and mentions that the most
influential one has been the emphasis on the human possession
of a moral will and the autonomy its use entails. He believes
that just because an animal is alive, does not give it a “right” to
its life.
Conclusion
After hearing both points of views, I most agree with Singer
because he believes in thinking of how the animals feel, rather
than disregarding that and only thinking of humans and how it
could possibly be beneficial to them. Cohen’s argument comes
off as though he doesn’t really care about the pain the animals
experience at all. I also don’t agree with him saying that
animals do not have rights at all. If something can feel pain, I
think that humans should realize that it is wrong to be making
them go through that, especially since animal experimentations
are unsuccessful a decent amount of the time.
Notes
N