ENGLISH AS THE WING OF QUALIFICATION

THIS IS THE PROPERTY OF ETIENNE NZ WITH WHATSAPP TEL NO: 0722055908, DO NOT COPY THIS BOOK.
Page 1
AUTHOR : ETIENNE NZABIRINDA
Contact : 0786933786 / 0722055908
Email:etienne.nzabirinda@yahoo.com
Kigali- Rwanda
SPEAK ENGLISH
WITHOUT HESITATION
CONFIDENTLY
CORRECTLY
CORRECTLY
PARLER L’ANGLAIS DE BASE
Volume II

[ENGLISH SPEAKING] Page 1
THIS IS THE PROPERTY OF ETIENE NZ WITH WHATSAPP TEL:0722055908, DO NOT PHOTOCOPY THIS BOOK
PREFACE
This small book is intended for use by people who want to improve basic daily English speaking
especially for adult who don’t get the chance to learn English in their learning.
At the end of this book there are questions covering the entire lesson.
The last lesson talks about balanced diet which can help to improve our body healthier by combating
malnutrition.
I was preparing this material in order to contribute the one of government of Rwanda vision2020 which
to combat illiteracy.
I hope that this simple English will make English learning more interesting and meaningful.
Suggestions for improvements of this material will be very much appreciated.

Contents
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................................1
ENGLISH SPEAKING PRACTICE SKILLS (ESPS) ICYONGEREZA CYO KUVUGA ...............................5
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................5
UNIT 1 PHONETIC SYMBOLS AND SOUNDS ..............................................................................................5
International Phonetic Alphabet symbols.............................................................................................................5
1.Vowels .............................................................................................................................................................. 5
2. Diphthongs.......................................................................................................................................................6
3. Consonants.......................................................................................................................................................6
4. ALPHABET FROM A TO Z...........................................................................................................................6
UNIT 2 DIALOGUE (IKIGANIRO)...................................................................................................................9
UNITY3: WORD CLASSES.............................................................................................................................10
UNIT4: BASIC USAGE OF :( IKORESHWA RYA :).....................................................................................11
1. BASIC USAGE OF I’M ................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2. VARIATIONS OF I’M IN, AT, ON........................................................................................................... 12
1.2.1. Some examples using I’m in ....................................................................................................................12
1.2.2. Some examples using I’m at ....................................................................................................................12
2. BASIC USAGE OF I’M GOOD AT ............................................................................................................. 12
3. BASIC USAGE OF I’M GETTING ..............................................................................................................13
4. USAGE OF USING I’M TRYING TO..........................................................................................................14
5. BASIC USAGE OF I’M HERE TO +VERB.................................................................................................14
6. BASIC USAGE OF I’M SORRY TO+VERB............................................................................................... 15
7. BASIC USAGE OF IT IS TIME TO ............................................................................................................. 15
8. BASIC USING THANK YOU FOR ............................................................................................................... 15
UNITY 5: ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION (GUSABA NO GUHABWA URUHUSA) ............16
1. ASKING FOR PERMISSION (GUSABA URUHUSA)............................................................................... 16
2. GIVING THE PERMISSION (GUTANGA URUHUSA) ............................................................................ 16
3. REFUSING TO GIVE PERMISSION........................................................................................................... 16
4. DIALOGUE................................................................................................................................................... 16
UNIT6: HOW TO INTRODUCE MY SELF IN FRONT OF AUDIENCE (UKO WAKWIBWIRA ABANTU
) ..........................................................................................................................................................................17

UNIT 7: WHAT ARE YOU/WE DOING NOW, WHERE ARE YOU, HOW DO YOU FELL? PEOPLE’S
APPEARANCE AND PERSONALITY............................................................................................................17
A) What are you/we doing now? (Urigukora /turigukora iki?).......................................................................... 17
B) Where are you?(Urihe?)................................................................................................................................18
C. How do you fell now? (Urumva umeze gute) ...............................................................................................18
UNITY 8: DIRECTION.....................................................................................................................................18
UNITY 9: HOW TO ASK THE QUESTION....................................................................................................19
UNITY 10: QUESTION ....................................................................................................................................19
UNITY 11: HUMAN QUALITIES IN OUR SOCIETYAND 5HS WORDS...................................................22
UNITY 12: SENTENCES..................................................................................................................................23
UNIT 13: VERBS AND TENSES.....................................................................................................................24
A. TENSE ....................................................................................................................................................... 24
D. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN SIMPLE AND PAST PARTICIPLE ..................................................33
Regular and irregular verbs................................................................................................................................34
Irregular verbs....................................................................................................................................................34
Present and past tenses.......................................................................................................................................37
Modal verbs (can/could/will/would etc.)............................................................................................................39
American English...............................................................................................................................................45
B)VERBS...........................................................................................................................................................46
C. CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERBS.......................................................................................................... 48
UNITY14:IF –CONDITIONAL ........................................................................................................................50
UNITY15:DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH.............................................................................................51
UNIT 17: HOW TO JOIN TWO SENTENCES (GUHUZA INTERURO EBYIRI) .......................................54
UNITY18.CLAUSES.........................................................................................................................................55
UNITY 19: GENDER........................................................................................................................................56
UNITY 20: PREPOSITION...............................................................................................................................58
UNITY21: ADVERB.........................................................................................................................................59
UNITY22:ADJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................60
UNITY 23: DETERMINERS ............................................................................................................................62
UNITY24: QUANTIFIERS...............................................................................................................................64
UNIT 25: PRAYER (ISENGESHO)..................................................................................................................68
UNIT 26: TELLING TIME (KUBWIRA IGIHE).............................................................................................69
UNIT 27: DAYS OF THE WEEK AND THE MONTHS OF THE YEAR......................................................69

UNIT 28: COUNTING (KUBARA)..................................................................................................................70
UNITY 29: NOUN.............................................................................................................................................70
It is a word used as name of the person, place, or the thing...............................................................................70
UNITY 30: ANTONYM....................................................................................................................................70
UNIT 31: DIFFERENT COLORS (AMABARA ATANDUKANYE) .............................................................71
UNITY 32: HOMONYMS.................................................................................................................................71
UNITY 33: THE FAMILY ................................................................................................................................72
UNITY34 : HUMAN BODY.............................................................................................................................73
UNIT 36: CONVERSACTIONS (IBIGANIRO)...............................................................................................74
1. CUSTOMER CARE (KWAKIRANA URUGWIRO)................................................................................... 74
2. AT AIRPORT (KU KIBUGA CY’INDEGE)................................................................................................ 75
3. AT THE MARKET (KU ISOKO) .................................................................................................................75
UNIT 37:.DOMESTIC MATERIALS (IBIKORESHO BYO MURUGO) .......................................................75
UNITY38:PRURALS ........................................................................................................................................76
UNITY39: FIGURE OF SPEECH.....................................................................................................................78
UNIT 40: BALANCED DIET (INDYO YUZUYE...........................................................................................82
41.A)CURRICULUM VITAE...........................................................................................................................83
I. PERSONAL SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................83
II. IDENTIFICATION............................................................................................................................................84
Name : KEZA Doreen .......................................................................................................................84
III. EDUCATION BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................84
1998 -2004 : Groupe Scolaire du bon Pasteur Rwesero ............................................................................84
IV. PROFESSIONALS EXPERIENCE.......................................................................................................................84
V. LANGUAGES...................................................................................................................................................85
VI. COMPUTER SKILLS .......................................................................................................................................85
VII. CURRENT REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................85
B)FORMAL APPLICATION LETTER ............................................................................................................86
UNITY 42: BRITISH PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE.....................................................................................87
ENGLISH SPEAKING TEST ...........................................................................................................................90
REFERENCE.....................................................................................................................................................93

ENGLISH SPEAKING PRACTICE SKILLS (ESPS) ICYONGEREZA CYO KUVUGA
They are 4 communication skills that can help you to know English effectively which are:
Uburyo 4 bwagufasha kumenya icyongereza ni:
1. Speaking skills (kuvuga) 3. Reading skills(gusoma)
2. Listening skills (kumva) 4. Writing skills (kwandika)
ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION
[ˈ ɪŋglɪʃ prənʌnsɪˈeɪʃn]
INTRODUCTION
English is not a phonetic language which is the principle reason why it is difficult to write and
pronounce English words. Although there are 26 letters in the English alphabet, the sounds that may be
produced are almost double that number. This text is a short introduction to the phonetic transcription
of English phonemes (vowel and consonant sounds) to increase the Rwandan student’s understanding
of English pronunciation, improve speech and reading, and help students consult a dictionary. The
phonemic transcriptions in dictionaries are based on the Standard English accent known as „Received
Pronunciation‟ (RP for short) and other regional and international English accents will not be
considered here. The text will focus particularly on sounds that are difficult to pronounce for Rwandan
students and those that may be easily confused.
Another common problem is the stress placed on the pronunciation of words and phrases, as English is
stress-timed, unlike Rwandan which is syllable-timed. Attention is paid to strong and weak stress in
words and phrases, taking into consideration function words, contracted forms, compound nouns and
adjectives, prefixes and suffixes. The problem of English spelling is explored through a brief study of
homophones, homographs and silent letters.
In conclusion, there is a brief section on English words used in Rwanda that are often mispronounced.
UNIT 1 PHONETIC SYMBOLS AND SOUNDS
International Phonetic Alphabet symbols
1.Vowels
/ɪ/ pin, English, business
/e/ bed, head, bury, exit
/æ/ cat, bag, apple, black
/ə/ the, a, woman, banana
/ʊ/ look, put, could, cushion
/ɒ/ clock, what, because
/ʌ/ cut, come, mother
/ɜː/ girl, burn, word, heard
/ɑː/ car, art, heart, half
/ɔː/ or, board, door, small
/ɪː/ sea, bee, people, receive
/uː/ too, blue, fruit, fool

2. Diphthongs
/eɪ/ take, pay, wait, ballet
/ɑɪ/ five, sigh, height, buy
/ɔɪ/ noise, boy, lawyer
/əʊ/ no, road, sew, broken
/ɑʊ/ round, renown, doubt
/ɪə/ here, deer, dear, fierce
/eə/ care, air, mayor, prayer
/ʊə/ poor, insure, tour, moor
3. Consonants
/p/ play, stop, speak, power
/b/ bad, baby, big, object
/t/ ten, later, little, pot
/d/ day, advice, bed
/k/ character, quick, taxi
/g/ got, exam, ignore, finger
/f/ food, laugh, telephone
/v/ vain, over, Stephen
/θ/ thin, earth, method, both
/ð/ they, father, breathe, with
/s/ small, since, scene, psalm
/z/ zoo, goes, xenophobe
/ʃ/ shell, nation, machine
/ʒ/ genre, measure, vision
/h/ hot, hair, whole, whose
/m/ moon, lamp, lamb
/n/ can, snow, pneumonia
/ŋ/ string, singer, tongue
/tʃ/ chair, match, future
/dʒ/ just, general, age, soldier
/l/ look, small, bottle, isle
/r/ real, train, wrong, write
/j/ yes, Europe, university
/w/ window, twin, quick, why
4. ALPHABET FROM A TO Z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V X W Y Z
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v x w y z
Exercises 1. Spell the following acronyms
1. MTN
2. RDB
3. ICC
4. RRA
5. UN
6. HCR
7. USA

8. EAC
9. DRC
10. REB
Exercises 2. Spell the following words
1. HUMANITY
2. TEACHER
3. STUDENTS
4. WORLD
5. RWANDA
6. UR-CE
7. COMPTUTER
8. AMERICA
9. BURUNDI
10. PRESIDENT

Exercise 3 Match the phonetic transcriptions with the words.
1. /ʃʌt/ a. later
2. /hɑːt/ b. joke
3. /θɪŋk/ c. heart
4. /wɜːk/ d. there
5. /leɪtə e. doubt
6. /bɔːt/ f. work
7. /puːl/ g. shut
8. /dɑʊt/ h. think
9. /dʒəʊk/ i. pool
10. /ðeə/ j. bought
Exercise 4 Listen to the following words and circle the sound that you hear.
1. /æ/ /ʌ/
2. /æ/ /e/
3. /ʊ/ /ɒ/
4. /ɪː/ /ɪ/
5. /ɜː/ /ɔː/
6. /eɪ/ /ɑɪ/
7. /ʊ/ /uː/
8. /ɪə/ /eə/
9. /θ/ /ð/
10. /ʃ/ /ʒ/
Exercise 5 Complete the transcriptions with one of the following diphthongs:
/eɪ/ /ɑɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /ɑʊ/ /ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/
1. make /m _ _ k/
2. sure /ʃ _ _/
3. bear /b _ _/
4. island /- - lənd/
5. employ /ɪmpl _ _/
6. hear /h _ _/
7. town /t _ _ n/
8. home /h _ _ m/
9. sight /s _ _ t/
.
Exercise 6. Write in the following table the word corresponds the correct phonetic sound.
/θ/ /ð/

UNIT 2 DIALOGUE (IKIGANIRO)
Dialogue between Mary and Peter, where Mary ask peter if he speaks English
Ikiganiro hagati ya Mariya na Petero aho Mariya yabazaga niba Petero azi icyongereza
MARY Greeting s:hi, hello ,good, morning ,afternoon ,evening(indamukanyo)
PETER replies greetings :hi ,hello, good morning ,afternoon, evening(akamusubiza)
MARY how are you?(umeze ute?)
PETER I’m good, and you?(neza nawe)
MARY Yes I’m good, do you speak English?(yego meze neza,uvuga icyongereza?)
PETER a little. are you Rwandan?[buke,urumunyarwanda?)
MARY Yes(yego)
PETER where are you from?(uturuka he)
MARY I’m from Butare(I Butare)
PETER nice to meet you(ni byiza ko guhura)
MARY nice to meet you too( yego tuzasubira)

UNITY3: WORD CLASSES
Look at the different kinds of word in this sentence.
I have an important conference at work tomorrow so I am rather busy.
Pronoun I
Verb Have
Determiner An
Adjective Important
Noun Conference
Preposition At
Noun Work
Adverb Tomorrow
Linking word So
Pronoun I
Verb Am
Adverb Rather
Adjective Busy
What kind of the word?
They are 8 different kinds of the word in English. They are called ‘word classes’ or parts of
speech. the table above shows such examples.
The table above shows such examples.
Some words can belong to different classes depending on how they are used in a sentence.
Examples:
Verbs
1.can I look at your photos?

2.we work on Saturday morning
Nouns
1.l like the look of that coat
2.i will be at work tomorrow
UNIT4: BASIC USAGE OF :( IKORESHWA RYA :)
1. BASIC USAGE OF I’M
I’m an abbreviation for the word I am it is used in combination with other words to tell someone about
yourself or to describe something you are doing.
Here are some examples:
I’m so tired
I’m confused
I’m happy
I’m 24 years’ old
I’m hungry
I’m nervous
I’m excited
I’m leaving work
I’m thirsty
You can also add descriptive words with I’m such:
I’m extremely tired
I’m very happy
I’m terribly hungry
I’m super excited
I’m very nervous

1.2. VARIATIONS OF I’M IN, AT, ON
Describe an action you are doing
1.2.1. Some examples using I’m in
I’m in the car
I’m in the house
I’m in a school
I’m in shower
I’m in Kigali city
1.2.2. Some examples using I’m at
I’m at the park
I’m at the airport
I’m at the doctor’s office
I’m at Kimironko
1.2.3. Some examples using I’m on
I’m on the phone
I’m on the computer
I’m on a bus
2. BASIC USAGE OF I’M GOOD AT
Again, I’m used here as I’m good at informs someone what you excel at and are comfortable doing.
Here are examples:
I’m good at drawing
I’m good at video games
I’m good at swimming

I’m good at reading
I’m good at sports
I’m good at writing
I’m good at math
I’m good at dancing
3. BASIC USAGE OF I’M GETTING
It is used when you are telling the possession, being affected by or have plans to seek out and obtain a
particular thing.
I’m getting you better
I’m getting ready for bed
I’m getting a cold
I’m getting a tooth ache
I’m getting married
I’m getting tired
I’m getting a new car
I’m getting a job

4. USAGE OF USING I’M TRYING TO
I’m trying informs someone that you are attempting to accomplish something using bodily mental or
spiritual strength. By adding verb to I’m trying you are point our exactly what it is you are attempting
to do.
Here are examples:
I’m trying to get a job
I’m trying to call my family
I’m trying to enjoy my dinner
I’m trying to educate myself
I’m trying to explain myself
I’m trying to eat healthy
I’m trying to understand
5. BASIC USAGE OF I’M HERE TO +VERB
You are informing someone that you are at particular place to accomplish something.
I’m here to apply for the job
I’m here to take attest
I’m here to receive my gift
I’m here to support all your decisions
I’m here to watch a movie
I’m here to work on your computer
I’m here to welcome you to the neighbor
I’m here to raise awareness on the cancer
I’m here to receive the reward

6. BASIC USAGE OF I’M SORRY TO+VERB
Saying you are sorry to express a feeling of sympathy or regret.
I’m sorry to be so late
I’m sorry to hear about your sick mother
I’m sorry to waste your time
I’m sorry to make you feel so sad
I’m sorry to disagree with your decision
I’m sorry to call so late
I’m sorry to end this relationship
7. BASIC USAGE OF IT IS TIME TO
You are letting someone know that something is required to be done at the present time.
Here some are examples:
It is time to say good bye
It is time to ask for a raise
It is time to collect our money
It is time to decide what to do
8. BASIC USING THANK YOU FOR
Saying ‘thank you for ‘is telling someone you appreciate what they have done.
Thank for inviting me
Thank you for helping me
Thank you for informing me about the job
Thank you for working so hard
Thank you for replying my email

UNITY 5: ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION (GUSABA NO GUHABWA URUHUSA)
When you ask for permission to use something that belongs to someone else you have to do your best to
be polite. It is desirable to use the words please
1. ASKING FOR PERMISSION (GUSABA URUHUSA)
Can I go out please?
May I open the window, please?
Please, can I have a look at your photo album?
Do you mind if I smoke?
Is it okay if I sit here?
Would it be all right if I borrowed your mobile phone?
2. GIVING THE PERMISSION (GUTANGA URUHUSA)
Yes, please do
Sure, go ahead
No problem
Please feel free
3. REFUSING TO GIVE PERMISSION
No, please don’t
I’m sorry but that’s not possible
I’m afraid but you can’t
4. DIALOGUE
Herbert 8 years old is asking her mother for permission to use the computer
Herbert Please mum, can I use the computer?
Her mother No, dear you can’t .it is time to go to sleep
Herbert May I read a story before I sleep?
Her mother Sure! but try to sleep early.
Herbert Thanks a lot mummy

UNIT6: HOW TO INTRODUCE MY SELF IN FRONT OF AUDIENCE (UKO WAKWIBWIRA ABANTU )
1. Greetings (INSUHUZANYO)
Good morning
Good evening
Good evening
Hi
Hello
2. Let me introduce myself (Kwirondora)
1. My name is (izina ryanjye ni) ……………….
2.I live in /at (ntuye i) ……………...
3. I am single/married with … children (ni ingaragu, ndashatse n’abana ba)
4. I work at (nkora ku) ……….
5. My church is (nsengera muri) ……….
6. My favorite food is (nkunda kurya i) …...
7. My favorite drink is (nkunda kunywa) …….
8. My favorite game is (nkunda gukina) ……….
9. I hate laziness (nanga ubunebwe)
10. I hate drugs (nanga ibiyobywabwenge)
11. I love GOD (nkunda IMANA)
3. Farewells (noneho ugasezera)
Bye -bye-bye -see you –good night – see you –cheerio, nice to meet you …...
UNIT 7: WHAT ARE YOU/WE DOING NOW, WHERE ARE YOU, HOW DO YOU FELL? PEOPLE’S
APPEARANCE AND PERSONALITY
A) What are you/we doing now? (Urigukora /turigukora iki?)
Structure
Subject +am/are+verb+ing form +object
I am cooking the food (ndi guteka ibiryo)
we are watching the TV (turi kureba televiziyo)
We are eating the food (turi kurya ibiryo)
I am cleaning the house (ndi gusukura inzu)
I am washing my body (ndi gukaraba umubiri)
I am brushing my teeth (ndi koza/gusukura amenyo)
I am preparing the bed (ndi gusasa uburiri)

B) Where are you?(Urihe?)
I am (ndi) …………
-At a restaurant (mu ruriro) - in the office (mu biro)
-At hotel (kuri hoteri) -at home (mu rugo)
-At supermarket (mu Isoko) - in bathroom (muri bwogero)
-At bank -on bed (ku gitanda)
-At church (ku rusengero) -at parking station (muri gare) etc.
C. How do you fell now? (Urumva umeze gute)
I am/feel (ndiyumva)………...
Happy (ndishimye) -tired (naniwe) -cold (nkonje) -hot (nshyushye) –bored (narambiwe) –
hungry(shonje) –ill(ndwaye) – dirty(nanduye) –thirsty(nyotewe)
E.g. I am very hungry (ndashonje cyane)
I am not at all thirsty (simfite inyota cyane)
D) People’s appearance and personality (Uko umuntu ateye)
You look (Umeze nku) …………
-Shy (Ukonje) – Impatient (utihangana) -pessimist –kind (witonda)- talkative (uvugavuga)- optimist –
calm (ucecetse) friendly (ugira urukundo)– patient (uwihangana)- quiet (utuje) -nervy –sensitive
E.g. - Jeanne is talkative but also she is friendly (Jane aravugavuga ariko agira urukundo)
Francoise is extremely self-confidence (Fransoise afite ikizere kirenze)
UNITY 8: DIRECTION
I am going leftward to Nyarugenge
I am returning rightward to Kigali
I am jumping upward to the table
I am falling downward to the hall
I am returning backward to home
I am going straightforward to town
I am coming from north province
I am going in south
I am coming east province
I am going in west province

UNITY 9: HOW TO ASK THE QUESTION
1. What?
What are you doing now?
What is your name?
What time is it?
2. Where?
Where are you going now?
Where are you coming from?
3. When
When will you come?
When do you come to school?
4. How
How are you?
How do you feel?
How do you do?
5. Why
Why are you here?
Why can I eat the food?
6. Who
Who are you?
7. Which
Which one can you choose?
UNITY 10: QUESTION
they are 3 kind of question in English
1.yes or no question
2.wh question

3.tag question
1. yes or no question
they are questions whose expect answer is ‘yes’ or no
how to form yes or non-questions
1.if the main verb of the sentences is to be and to have, simply invert the subject and the verb to be and
to have
affirmative yes or no question answer
they are American are they American? Yes or no
She is nice Is she nice? Yes or no
She has done the homework Has she done the homework? Yes or no
He has a cow Has he a cow? Yes or no
2.if the sentence includes a verb which is not the verb to be and does not include a helping auxiliary
verb, the transformation is more complex
I like an apple, do you like an apple? yes or no
They go at UR-CE, do they go at UR-CE? yes or no
She discovered the truth, did she discover the truth? Yes or no
He will read the book, will he read the book? Yes or no
2.WH QUESTION
It is called WH question because they include the letters’ w and “h’
WH QUESTION MEANING EXAMPLES answer
Who Person Who is that? That is Nancy
Where Place Where do you live? I live in Kigali
city
Why Reason Why do you sleep early? Because I want to wake up
early
When Time When do you go to work At 7am30
How Manner How do you go? car
What Object, idea, action What do you do? I am manager

Which Choice Which one do you prefer? I prefer red pen
Whose Possession Whose book is this? It is for Alain
Whom Object of the verb Whom do you meet? I meet with child
What kind Description What kind of music do you like? I like quiet song
What time Time What time do you come home? At 8pm
How many Quantity(countable) How many students are there? We are 40 students
How much Amount, price(uncountable) How much money do you have? I have 4o$
How long Duration, length How long will you stay at hotel? 3
weeks
how often Frequency How often do you go to the gym? Twice a
week
How old Age How old are you? I am 24
years old
How come reason How come I don’t see you at the party? I come by car
How far distance How far is your school? It is 2
km
3.TAG QUESTION
It is grammatical structure; it is referring to declarative statement or an imperative that are modified to
become a question by adding an interrogative fragment.
Tag questions:
• Can be considered as an indicator of politeness, emphasis or irony
• They may suggest confidence or lack of confidence
• They may be conformational or tentative.
FORM
Tag questions vary according to different factors such as the choice of auxiliary, the negotiation.
The structure is generally as follows:

Affirmative statement Negative tag
He likes him Doesn’t he?
Negative statement Affirmative tag
She doesn’t care about him Does she?
Affirmative statement Negative tag
He is excellent at languages Isn’t he?
You were late Weren’t you?
we have work hard to earn this money Haven’t we?
He can drive the car Can’t he
You will help us Won’t you?
She writes good poems Doesn’t she
Negative statement Affirmative tag
He isn’t manager Is he?
He hasn’t found the solution Has he?
He didn’t visit me Did you?
Imperative Tag
Keep quiet 1.won’t you?
2.will you?
3.would you?
4.could you?
UNITY 11: HUMAN QUALITIES IN OUR SOCIETYAND 5HS WORDS
Human qualities in our society are (imico iranga umuntu muri sosiyete ni):
-Respect (kwiyubaha - love (urukundo)—assertiveness(kumvikana) –humble (kwicisha bugufi) –
diligent (umurava) –dignity (ubupfura)- kindness (ubwitonzi) –obedience (kumvira) –honest (kuba
inyanga mugayo –creativity (kuba umunyadushya) -commitment –compassion (kugira impuhwe) –
teamwork (gukorana n’abandi) etc.

The reason why we eat can be summarize in 5Hs words (H5 zisobanura impamvu turya)
Hunger (kubera inzara)
Habit (Kubera akamenyero)
Health (kugirabgo tugire ubuzima)
Happiness (kugirango twishimwe)
Hospitality (kwakira)
UNITY 12: SENTENCES
Grammar Is science that deals with correct use of language both in conversation and writing.
Sentence is the group of the word which makes a complete sentence.
Examples:
The earth goes around the sin.
Where do you come from?
TYPES OF THE SENTENCES
1.Affirmative Statement
It sentences that make a statement
Example:
The sun rises in the east
The cow eats grass.
2.Interrogative sentence
It is sentence that asks a question.
Examples
Why did you go there?
How old are you?
3. Imperative sentence
It is a sentiment which express a command, a requestor or wish.
Examples
Get out of the class
Sit down
4.exclamatory sentence
It is a sentence with express a sudden, strong feeling.
Examples
How beautiful the sky is!
What a fine morning!
5.phrase
Phrase is the group of the words which makes sense but not complete sense, they have no subject or
predicate of their own.
Examples:
In search of

As soon as possible.
6.clause
Clouse is the group of words which forms part of a sentence and contains a subject and a predicate.
Examples:
The man whom I hate.
While it is raining
UNIT 13: VERBS AND TENSES
A. TENSE
The concept of time can be split into:
1.present tense: what you are currently doing.
examples: i eat the food
it is ed to talk about an action which happens on a regular basis.
positive statements
subject verb rest of the sentence
i study in ur-ce
you study in ur-ce
he/she/it studies in ur-ce
we study in ur-ce
you study in ur-ce
they study in ur-ce
negative statement
subject don’t (do not)/doesn’t (does not) verb the rest of the sentence(complement)
i don’t play football
you don’t play football
he/she/it doesn’t play football
we don’t play football

they don’t play football
interrogative statement/question
do/does subject verb rest of the sentence
do i sleep in the evening?
do you sleep in the evening?
does he/she/it sleep in the evening
do we sleep in the evening?
do they sleep in the evening?
2.past tense: what have taken place in the past.
positive statement
subject verb (in past form) rest of the sentence
i played the game yesterday
you played the game yesterday
he/she/it played the game yesterday
we played the game yesterday
you played the game yesterday
they played the game yesterday
negative statement
subject didn’t (did not) verb (in past form) rest of the sentence
i didn’t talk to my friend
you didn’t talk to my friend
he/she/it didn’t talk to my friend
we didn’t talk to my friend
you didn’t talk to my friend

they didn’t talk to my friend
interrogative statements/question
did subject verb (in base form) rest of the sentence
did i complete the work?
did you complete the work?
did he/she/it complete the work?
did we complete the work?
did you complete the work?
did they complete the work?
eg1.I ate the food
2.Iwas eating the food
3.future tense: what you will do later.
It is used when we plan or we make decision to do something
positive statement
subject will verb the rest of the sentence
I will read the story book
you will read the story book
he/she/it will read the story book
we will read the story book
you will read the story book
they will read the story book
negative statement
subject will not verb the rest of the sentence
I will not play football next week
you will not play football next week
He/she/it will not play football next week
we will not play football next week

you will not play football next week
they will not play football next week
Interrogative statements/question
will subject verb rest of the sentence?
will I go to the America next month?
will you go to the America next month?
will he/she/it go to the America next month?
will we go to the America next month?
will you go to the America next month?
will they go to the America next month?
eg1.I will eat the food
Types of tenses
In the English language, tenses play an important role in sentence formation.
The tense of the verb shows the time of an event or action
. there are 4types of tense:
1.simple
2.continuous
3.perfect
4.present perfect
Each of these has a present, past and future form.
1.present tense
1.simple present
In simple present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being aside about its
completeness.
e.g. 1.I eat the food
2.I play the football
3.she goes to the market

It is used to talk about an action which happens on a regular basis.
1.positive statements
subject verb rest of the sentence
I study in UR-CE
you study in UR-CE
He/she/it studies in UR-CE
we study in UR-CE
you study in UR-CE
they study in UR-CE
2.negative statement
subject don’t (do not)/doesn’t (does not) verb the rest of the sentence
i don’t play football
he/she/it doesn’t play
football
we don’t play
football
they don’t play
football
3.interrogative statement/question
do/does subject verb rest of the sentence
do i sleep in the evening
does he/she/it sleep in the evening?
do we sleep in the evening?
do they sleep in the evening?

2.present continuous tense
in present continuous, the action is on still going on and hence continuous.
1.i am eating the food
2.i am playing the football
3.she is going to the market
3.present perfect tense
In present perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed perfect.
1.have eaten the food
2.I have played the football
3.she has gone to the market
4.present perfect continuous tense
In present perfect continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is still ongoing.
1.Ihave been eating the food
2.I have been playing the football
3.she has been going to the market
2.past tense
1.simple past tense
In simple past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place in the past.
1. I ate the food
2. I played the football
3. she went to the market
2.past continuous tense
in the past continuous, the action was ongoing still a certain time in the past.
1.I had eaten the food
2.I had played the football
3.she had gone to the market
3.past perfect continuous tense

It is used to express something that started in the past and continued until another time in the past
1.I had been eating the food
2.I had been playing the football
3.I had been going to the market
3.future tenses
1.simple future tense
it is used when we plan or make decision to do something.
nothing is said about the time in the future.
1.I will eat the food
2.I will play the foot ball
3.she will go to the market
2.future continuous tense
It is used to express action at a particular moment in the future. however, the action will not have
finished at the moment.
1.I will be eating at 9pm
2.I will be playing the football
3.she will be going to the market
3.future perfect tense
It expresses action that will occur in the future before anothr action in the future.
1.I will have eaten before 10pm
2.I will have played the football
3.she will have gone to the market
4.future perfect continuous tense
It is used to talk about an ongoing action before some point in the future.
1.I will have been eaten the food
2.I will have been played the football
3.she will have gone to the market

D.TENSE STUCTURE MODEL
TO DO THE BUSINESS IN ALL TENSE
PR :1. S: - P: I do the business
-N: I don’t do the business?
-I: Do you do the business
2. C: -P : I am doing the business
-N: I am not doing the business
-I: Are you doing the business?
3. P : -P: I have done the business
- N:I have not done the business
4.PP: -P: I have done a business
-N: I have not been doing the business
-I: have you been doing the business?
PA : 1. S: -P: I did the business
-N: I didn’t do the business
-I: Did you do the business ?
2.C: -P: I was doing the business
-N: I was not doing the business
-I: Were you doing the business?
3.P: -P: I had done the business
-N: I had not done the business
-I: Had you done the business?
4.PC: -P: I had been doing the business
-N: I had not been doing the business
-I: Had you been doing the business?
FU: 1. S: -P: I will do the business
-N: I will not do the business

-I: Will you do the business?
2. C: -P: I will be doing the business
-N: I will not be doing the business
- I: Will you be doing the business?
3.P: -P: I will have done the business
-N: I will not have done the business
- I: Will you have done the business?
4.PC: - P: I will have been doing the business
-N: I will not have been doing the business
-I: Will you have been doing the business
5.NF: -P : I am going to do the business
N:I am not going to do the business
I:Are you going to do the business?
ABREVIATION USED
PR: Present S: Simple tense P:Positive statement
PA: Past C: Continuous tense N:Negative statement
FU: Future P: Perfect tense I:
Interrogative statement
PC: perfect continuous tense
NF:Near future
SOME WORD USED IN:
1. PAST TENSE;Yesterday,last time, previous week,last year……..
2. PRESEN TTENSE: Today,now ,always,upnow,……
3. FUTURE TENSE:Tomorrow,next week,month,year,aftertoday,…..

D. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN SIMPLE AND PAST PARTICIPLE

E.Regular and irregular verbs
Regular verbs
If a verb is regular, the past simple and past participle end in -ed. For example:
infinitive clean finish use paint stop carry
past simple ⎫ past participle ⎬⎭
cleaned fi niched
For spelling rules, see Appendix 6.
used painted stopped carry
For the past simple (I cleaned / they finished / she carried etc.)
We use the past participle to make the perfect tenses and all the passive forms.
Perfect tenses (have/has/had cleaned):
I have cleaned the windows. (Present perfect
They were still working. They hadn’t finished. (past perfect )
Passive (is cleaned / was cleaned etc.):
He was carried out of the room. (past simple passive) ⎫
This gate has just been painted. (Present perfect passive)
Irregular verbs
When the past simple and past participle do not end in - ed (for example, I saw / I have seen),
the verb is irregular.
With some irregular verbs, all three forms (infinitive, past simple and past participle) are the
same. For example, hit:
Don’t hit me. (infinitive)
Somebody hit me as I came into the room. (past simple)
I’ve never hit anybody in my life. (past participle – present perfect)
George was hit on the head by a stone. (past participle – passive)
With other irregular verbs, the past simple is the same as the past participle (but different from
the infinitive). For example, tell → told:
1.1
1.2

Can you tell me what to do? (infinitive)
She told me to come back the next day. (past simple)
Have you told anybody about your new job? (past participle – present perfect)
I was told to come back the next day. (past participle – passive)
With other irregular verbs, all three forms are different. For example, wake →
woke/woken: I’ll wake you up. (infinitive)
I woke up in the middle of the night. (past simple)
The baby has woken up. (past participle – present
perfect) I was woken up by a loud noise. (past participle –
passive) The following verbs can be regular or irregular:
So you can say:
I leant out of the window. or I leaned out of the window.
The dinner has been spoiled. or The dinner has been spoilt.
In British English the irregular form (burnt/learnt etc.) is more usual.
List of irregular verbs
Infinitive past
simple
past
participle(had/have)
infinitive past
simple
past
participle(had/have)
Be was/were Been light Lit lit
Beat Beat Beaten lose Lost lost
Become Became Become make Made made
Begin Began Begun mean Meant meant
Bend Bent Bent meet Met met
Bet Bet Bet pay Paid paid
Bite Bit Bitten put Put put
Blow Blew Blown read read [red]* read [red]*
burn → burned or burnt dream
→ dreamed or dreamt [dremt]*
lean → leaned or leant [lent]*
learn → learned or learnt
smell
spell
spill
spoil
→
smelled
→ spelled
→ spilled
→
spoiled
or
smelt
or
spelt or
spilt or
spoilt
1.4
1.3

Break Broke Broken ride Rode ridden
Bring Brought Brought ring Rang rung
Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast rise Rose risen
Build Built Built run Ran run
Burst Burst Burst say Said said
Buy Bought Bought see Saw seen
Catch Caught Caught seek Sought sought
Choose Chose Chosen sell Sold sold
Come Came Come send Sent sent
Cost Cost Cost set Set set
Creep Crept Crept sew Sewed sewn/sewed
Cut Cut Cut shake Shook shaken
Deal Dealt Dealt shine Shone shone
Dig Dug Dug shoot Shot shot
Do Did Done show Showed shown/showed
Draw Drew Drawn shrink Shrank shrunk
Drink Drank Drunk shut Shut shut
Drive Drove Driven sing Sang sung
Eat Ate Eaten sink Sank sunk
Fall Fell Fallen sit Sat sat
Feed Fed Fed sleep Slept slept
Feel Felt Felt slide Slid slid
Fight Fought Fought speak Spoke spoken
Find Found Found spend Spent spent
Flee fled Fled spit Spat spat
Fly flew Flown split Split Split
Forbid Forbade Forbidden spread Spread Spread
Forget Forgot Forgotten spring Sprang Sprung
Forgive Forgave Forgiven stand Stood Stood
Freeze Froze Frozen steal Stole Stolen
Get Got got/gotten stick Stuck Stuck
Give Gave Given sting Stung Stung
Go Went Gone stink Stank Stunk
Grow Grew Grown strike Struck Struck
Hang Hung Hung swear Swore Sworn
Have Had Had sweep swept Swept
Hear Heard Heard swim swam Swum
Hide Hid Hidden swing swung Swung
Hit Hit Hit take took Taken
Hold Held Held teach taught Taught
Hurt Hurt Hurt tear tore Torn
Keep Kept Kept tell told Told
Kneel Knelt Knelt think thought Thought
Know Knew Known throw threw Thrown

Lay Laid Laid understand understood Understood
Lead Led Led wake woke Woken
Leave Left Left wear wore Worn
Lend Lent Lent weep wept Wept
Let Let Let win won Won
lie lay lain write wrote written
Present and past tenses
simple continuous
present
present
perfect
I do
present simple
Ann often plays tennis.
I work in a bank, but I
don’t enjoy it much.
Do you like parties?
It doesn’t rain so much in
summer.
I am doing
present continuous
 ‘Where’s Ann?’ ‘She’s
playing tennis.’
 Please don’t disturb me
now. I’m working.
 Hello. Are you enjoying
the party?
 It isn’t raining at the
moment.
I have done
present perfect
simple
Ann has played tennis many
times.
I’ve lost my key. Have you
seen it anywhere?
How long have you and
Sam known each other?
A: Is it still raining?
B: No, it has stopped.
The house is dirty. I haven’t
cleaned it for weeks.
I have been doing
present perfect
continuous
Ann is tired. She has been
playing tennis.
You’re out of breath. Have
you been running?
How long have you been
learning English?
It’s still raining. It has
been raining all day.
I haven’t been feeling well
recently.
Perhaps I should go to the doctor.

past
I’m leaving tomorrow.
My train leaves at 9.30.
I’m going to leave
tomorrow.
I’ll leave tomorrow.
I’ll be leaving tomorrow.
I’ll have left by this time
tomorrow.
I hope to see you before I leave
tomorrow.
presentcontinuous
present simple
(be) going to will
future continuous
future perfect
present simple
Future actions
We use the present continuous (I’m doing) for arrangements:
I’m leaving tomorrow. I’ve got my plane ticket. (already planned and arranged)
‘When are they getting married?’ ‘On 24 July.’
We use the present simple (I leave / it leaves etc.) for timetables, programs etc.: My train
leaves at 11.30. (according to the timetable) What time does the fi lm begin?
We use (be) going to ... to say what somebody has already decided to do:
I’ve decided not to stay here any longer. I’m going to leave tomorrow. (or I’m leaving
tomorrow.)
‘Your shoes are dirty.’ ‘Yes, I know. I’m going to clean them.’
We use will (’ll) when we decide or agree to do something at the time of speaking:
I did
past simple
Ann played tennis
yesterday afternoon.
I lost my key a few days ago.
There was a fi lm on TV
last night, but we didn’t watch
it.
What did you do when you
finished work yesterday?
I was doing
past continuous
I saw Ann at the sports
Center yesterday. She was
playing tennis.
I dropped my key when I
was trying to open the door.
The television was on, but
we weren’t watching it.
What were you doing at this time
yesterday?
I had done
past perfect
It wasn’t her first game of
tennis. She had played many
times before.
They couldn’t get into the
house because they had lost
the key.
The house was dirty because I
hadn’t cleaned it for weeks.
I had been doing
past perfect continuous
Ann was tired yesterday evening
because she had been playing
tennis in the afternoon.
James decided to go to the doctor
because he hadn’t been feeling
well.

A: I don’t want you to stay here any longer.
B: OK. I’ll leave tomorrow. (B decides this at the time of speaking) That bag
looks heavy. I’ll help you with it.
I won’t tell anybody what happened. I promise. (won’t = will not)
Future happenings and situations
 Most often we use will to talk about future happenings (‘something will happen’) or situations
(‘something will be’):
I don’t think John is happy at work. I think he’ll leave soon. This time
next year I’ll be in Japan. Where will you be?
 We use (be) going to when the situation now shows what is going to happen in the future:
Look at those black clouds. It’s going to rain. (you can see the clouds now)
Future continuous and future perfect
 Will be (do) ing = will be in the middle of (doing something):
This time next week I’ll be on holiday. I’ll be lying on a beach or swimming in the sea.
 We use will have (done) to say that something will already be complete before a time in the
future:
I won’t be here this time tomorrow. I’ll have already left.
 We use the present (not will) after when/if/while/before etc. (see Unit 25): I hope
to see you before I leave tomorrow. (not before I will leave) When you are in
London again, come and see us. (not When you will be) If we don’t hurry, we’ll
be late.
Modal verbs (can/could/will/would etc.)
This appendix is a summary of modal verbs
Compare can/could etc. for actions:
can
could
 I can go out tonight. (= there is
nothing to stop me) I can’t go out
tonight.
 I could go out tonight, but I’m not very keen.
 I couldn’t go out last night. (= I wasn’t able)
can or
may
Can ⎫
May ⎬⎭ I go out tonight? (= do you allow me?)
4.1
The future
List of future forms:3.1

will/won’t
would
 I think I’ll go out tonight.
I promise I won’t go out.
 I would go out tonight, but I have too much to do.
 I promised I wouldn’t go out.
Shall Shall I go out tonight? (do you think it is a good idea?)
should or
ought to I⎧⎨⎩ ought to
should ⎫⎬⎭ go out tonight. (= it would be a good thing
to do)
must
needn’t
I must go out tonight. (= it is necessary)
I mustn’t go out tonight. (= it is necessary that I do
not go out) I needn’t go out tonight. (= it is not
necessary)
Compare could have … / would have … etc.:
could
would
should
or
ought
to
needn’t
I could have gone out last night, but I decided to stay
at home. I would have gone out last night, but I had
too much to do.
I⎧⎨⎩ ought to
should ⎫⎬⎭ have gone out last night. I’m sorry I didn’t.
I needn’t have gone out last night. (= I went out, but it was not
necessary)
4.2 We use will/would/may etc. to say whether something is possible, impossible, probable, certain
etc. Compare:
will
would
‘What time will she be here?’ ‘She’ll be here
soon.’ She would be here now, but she’s been
delayed.
should
or
ought
to
She ⎧⎨⎩
should
ought to
⎫⎬⎭ be here soon. (= I expect she will be
here soon)
may or
might
or
could
⎧ may ⎫
⎪ ⎪
She ⎨ might ⎬ be here now. I’m not sure. (= it’s possible that
she is here)
⎪⎩ could ⎪⎭
must
can’t
She must be here. I saw her come in.
She can’t possibly be here. I know for certain that she’s away on
holiday.
Compare would have … / should have … etc.:
will
would
She will have arrived by now. (= before now)
She would have arrived earlier, but she was delayed.

should
or ought
to
I wonder where she is. She ⎧⎨⎩ ought to
should ⎫⎬⎭
have arrived by now.
may or
might or
could
⎧ may ⎫
⎪ ⎪
She ⎨ might ⎬ have arrived. I’m not sure. (= it’s possible that
she has arrived)
⎪⎩ could ⎪⎭
must
can’t
She must have arrived by now. (= I’m sure – there is no other
possibility) She can’t possibly have arrived yet. It’s much too
early. (= it’s impossible)
In spoken English we usually say I’m / you’ve / didn’t etc. (short forms or contractions) rather
than I am / you have / did not etc. We also use these short forms in informal writing (for
example, a letter or message to a friend).
When we write short forms, we use an apostrophe (’) for the missing letter(s): I’m
= I am you’ve = you have didn’t = did not
5.2 List of short forms:
’m = am
’s = is
or has
’re = are
’ve =
have
’ll = will
’d =
would
or had
I’m
I’ve
I’ll
I’d
he’s
he’ll
he’d
she’s
she’ll
she’d
it’s
you’re
you’ve
you’ll
you’d
we’re
we’ve
we’ll
we’d
they’re
they’ve
they’ll
they’d
’s can be is or has:
She’s ill. (= She is ill.)
She’s gone away. (= She has gone) but let’s =
let us:
Let’s go now. (= Let us go)
’d can be would or had:
I’d see a doctor if I were you. (= I would see)
I’d never seen her before. (= I had never seen)
We use some of these short forms (especially ’s) after question words (who/what etc.) and after
that/there/here:

who’s what’s where’s how’s that’s there’s here’s who’ll there’ll who’d
Who’s that woman over there? (= who is)
What’s happened? (= what has)
Do you think there’ll be many people at the party? (= there will) We
also use short forms (especially ’s) after a noun: Katherine’s going out
tonight. (= Katherine is)
My best friend’s just got married. (= My best friend has)
You cannot use ’m / ’s / ’re / ’ve / ’ll / ’d at the end of a sentence (because the verb is stressed in
this position):
‘Are you tired?’ ‘Yes, I am.’ (not Yes, I’m.)
Do you know where she is? (not Do you know where she’s?)
Negative short forms
isn’t
aren’t
wasn’t
weren’t
(= is not)
(= are not)
(= was
not)
(= were
not)
don’t
doesn’t
didn’t
(= do not)
(= does not)
(= did not)
haven’t
hasn’t
hadn’t
(= have
not)
(= has
not)
(= had
not)
can’t
won’t
shan’t
(= cannot)
(= will
not)
(= shall
not)
couldn’t
wouldn’t
shouldn’t
(= could
not)
(= would
not)
(= should
not)
mustn’t
needn’t
daren’t
(= must
not)
(= need
not)
(= dare
not)
Negative short forms for is and are can be:
he isn’t / she isn’t / it isn’t or he’s not / she’s not / it’s not you aren’t / we
aren’t / they aren’t or you’re not / we’re not / they’re not
Nouns, verbs and adjectives can have the following endings:
6.1
Short forms (I’m / you’ve/ didn’tetc.)
5.1
5.3

noun + -s/-es (plural)
verb + -s/-es (after
he/she/it) verb + -ing
verb + -ed adjective + -
er (comparative)
adjective + -est
(superlative) adjective +
-ly (adverb)
books
works
working
worked
cheaper
cheapest
cheaply
ideas
enjoys
enjoying
enjoyed
quicker
quickest
quickly
matches
washes
washing
washed
brighter
brightest
brightly
When we use these endings, there are sometimes changes in spelling.
These changes are listed below.
6.2 Nouns and verbs + -s/-es
The ending is -es when the word ends in -s/-ss/-sh/-ch/-x:
bus/buses miss/misses wash/washes match/matches search/searches
box/boxes
Note also:
potato/potatoes tomato/tomatoes
do/does go/goes
6.3 Words ending in -y (baby, carry, easy etc.)
If a word ends in a consonant* + y (-by/-ry/-sy/-
vy etc.) y changes to ie before the ending -s:
baby/babies story/stories country/countries secretary/secretaries
hurry/hurries study/studies apply/applies try/tries y changes to I
before the ending -ed:
hurry/hurried study/studied apply/applied try/tried y changes to I
before the endings -er and -est:
easy/easier/easiest heavy/heavier/heaviest lucky/luckier/luckiest
y changes to i before the ending -ly:
easy/easily heavy/heavily temporary/temporarily
y does not change before -ing:
hurrying studying applying trying
y does not change if the word ends in a vowel* + y (-ay/-ey/-oy/-uy):
play/plays/played monkey/monkeys enjoy/enjoys/enjoyed buy/buys
An exception is: day/daily
Note also: pay/paid lay/laid say/said

6.4 Verbs ending in -ie (die, lie, tie)
If a verb ends in -ie, ie changes to y before the ending -ing:
die/dying lie/lying tie/tying
* a e i o u are vowel letters.
The other letters (b c d f g etc.) are consonant letters.
6.5Words ending in -e (hope, dance, wide etc.)
Verbs
If a verb ends in -e, we leave out e before the ending -ing:
hope/hoping smile/smiling dance/dancing confuse/confusing
Exceptions are be/being and verbs ending in -ee:
see/seeing agree/agreeing
If a verb ends in -e, we add -d for the past (of regular verbs):
hope/hoped smile/smiled dance/danced confuse/confused
Adjectives and adverbs
If an adjective end in -e, we add -r and -st for the comparative and superlative:
wide/wider/widest late/later/latest large/larger/largest
If an adjective end in -e, we keep e before -ly in the adverb:
polite/politely extreme/extremely absolute/absolutely
If an adjective ends in -le (simple, terrible etc.), the adverb ending is -ply, -bly etc.
: simple/simply terrible/terribly reasonable/reasonably
6.6 Doubling consonants (stop/stopping/stopped, wet/wetter/wettest etc.)
Sometimes a word ends in vowel + consonant.
For example:
stop plan rub big wet thin prefer regret
Before the endings -ing/-ed/-er/-est, we double the consonant at the end. So p → pp, n → nn
etc. For example:
stop
plan
rub
big
wet
thin
p →
pp n
→
nn b
→
bb g
→ gg
t →
tt n
stopping
planning
rubbing
bigger
wetter
thinner
stopped
planned
rubbed
biggest
wettest
thinnest

→
nn
If the word has more than one syllable (prefer, begin etc.), we double the consonant at the end
only if the final syllable is stressed:
prefer / preferring / preferred permit / permitting / permitted regret / regretting /
regretted begin / beginning
If the final syllable is not stressed, we do not double the final consonant:
Visit / visiting / visited develop / developing / developed
Happen / happening / happened remember / remembering / remembered
In British English, verbs ending in -l have -ll- before -ing and -ed whether the final syllable is
stressed or not:
travel / travelling / travelled cancel / cancelling / cancelled for American
spelling,
Note that we do not double the final consonant if the word ends in two consonants (-rt, -lp,
-ng etc.): start / starting / started help / helping / helped long / longer / longest
we do not double the final consonant if there are two vowel letters before it (-oil, -eed etc.):
boil / boiling / boiled need / needing / needed explain / explaining /
explained cheap / cheaper / cheapest loud / louder / loudest quiet / quieter /
quietest
we do not double y or w at the end of words. (At the end of words y and w are not
consonants.) stay / staying / stayed grow / growing new / newer / newest
American English
There are a few grammatical differences between British English and American English:
British speakers usually say:
have a bath have a shower
have a break have a
holiday
American speakers say:
take a bath take a shower take
a break take a vacation

Will or shall can be used with I/we:
I will/shall be late this evening.
Shall I ...? and shall we ...? are used
to ask for advice etc. :
Which way shall we go?
Shall is unusual:
I will be late this evening.
Should I ...? and should we ...? are
more usual to ask for advice etc.:
Which way should we go?
British speakers use can’t to say they
believe something is not probable:
Sarah hasn’t contacted me. She
can’t have got my message.
American speakers use must not in
this situation:
Sarah hasn’t contacted me. She
must not have gotten my
message.
You can use needn’t or don’t need to:
We needn’t hurry. or
We don’t need to hurry.
Needn’t is unusual. The usual form is
don’t need to:
We don’t need to hurry.
After insist, demand etc. you can use
should:
I insisted that he should
apologize.
Many people are demanding that
something should be done about
the problem.
The subjunctive is normally used.
Should is unusual after insist, demand
etc.:
I insisted that he apologize. *
Many people are
demanding that something be
done about the problem.
British speakers generally use Have
you? / Isn’t she? etc.:
A: Lisa isn’t very well today.
B: Isn’t she? What’s wrong with
her?
American speakers generally use You
have? / She isn’t? etc.:
A: Lisa isn’t very well today.
B: She isn’t? What’s wrong with
her?
Accommodation is usually
uncountable: There isn’t enough
accommodation.
Accommodation can be countable:
There aren’t enough
accommodations.
* Many verbs ending in -ise in British English (apologize/organize/specialize etc.) are spelt with -ize
(apologize/organize/specialize etc.)
B)VERBS
How to deny in past, present and future (uko wahakana mugihe cyahise, cy’ubu, n’ikizaza)
1. Past (cyahise) 2. Present (cy’ubu)
I didn’t pay the tax (sinishyuye umusoro) I don’t eat rice (sindya umuceri)
YOU didn’t work yesterday (ejo hashije ntiwakoze) YOU don’t go to work (ntujya mu kazi)
HE/SHE/IT didn’t lend me the money HE/SHE/IT doesn’t buy the bag
(ntiyangurije amafaranga)
We didn’t drive the car (ntitwatwaye imodoka) We don’t like the robber (ntidukunda ibisambo)
You didn’t sell the fruit (ntimwagurishije imbuto) You don’t play the game(ntimwakinnye umukino
They didn’t play the game (ntibakinnye umukino) They don’t have the money(ntibafite amafaranga)

3. Future (igihe kizaza) 4. Verb to be in past (inshinga kuba mugihe cyahise)
I will not come tomorrow (ejo sinzaza ) I was a teacher(nari mwarimu)
You will not take the bus (ntuzatega imodoka) you were a child(wari umwana)
He/she/it will not do the business (ntabwo azakoraubucuruzi) He/she/it was a doctor (yari dogiteri)
We will not comb our hair (ntabwo tuzasokoza imisatsi) we were youth (twari urubyiruko)
You will not borrow money (ntimuzaguza amafaranga) you were students (mwari
abanyeshuri)
They will not attend the meeting (ntibazitabira inama) They were leaders (bari abayobozi)
5. Verb to be in present (kuba mugihe cy’ubu) 6. Verb to be in future (igihe kizaza)
I am a teacher (ndi mwarimu) I will be president (nzaba umukuru w’igihugu)
You are student (uri umunyeshuri) You will be teacher (uzaba umwarimu)
He/she is child (ni umwana) He/she will be a manager (azaba umucungamutungo)
We are boys (turi abahungu) We will be principal (tuzaba abayozi b’ibigo)
You are girls (muri abakobwa) You will be mayors (muzaba abayobozi
b’imirenge)
They are managers (turi abacungamutungo) They will be mature (tuzakura)
7. VERB TO HAVE IN PAST (inshinga kugira mugihe cyahise) 8. VERB TO HAVE IN
PRESENT (cy’ubu)
I had money ((nari mfite amafaranga) I have money (mfite amafaranga)
You had a book (warufite igitabo) You have a t-shirt(ufite ishati)
He/she had a pen (yarafite ikaramu) He/she has money(afite amafaranga)
We had boxes (dufite udukarito) we have classroom(dufite ishuri)
You had houses (mufite inzu) you have children(mufite abana)
They had notebooks (mwari mufite inzu) They have chairs (bafite intebe)
9. VERB TO HAVE IN FUTURE (kizaza) 10. PAST CONTINUOUS
TENSE
I will have money (nzagira amafaranga) I was eating the meet
You will have house (uzagira inzu) you were doing the business
He/she will have books (azagira ibitabo) he/she was coming to school
We will have weeding (tuzagira ubukwe) we were playing the football
You will have the wives (muzagira abagore) you were driving the cars
They will have husbands (bazagira abagabo) They were selling the fruits
11. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

I am going to the marketYou are eating the potatoes
He/she is working in the office
We are singing the songs
You are dancing the music
They are driving the car
C. CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERBS
The class of verbs is divided into 3 categories (inshinga zigabanyijemo ibice3):
1. Full verbs (inshinga zihagije), example: Understand, work, believe, go, sing, sit, look, etc.
2. Primary verbs (inshinga zibanze), example: do (gukora), be (kuba), have (kugira)
3. Model verbs (inyunganizi), examples: can (gushobora), may, will, used, need (gushaka), etc.
1. Primary verbs
1) Use of did, do, does, shall and will
a)Present Negative(guhakana) Question (?)(KUBAZA)
You eat the food
Wariye
You don’t eat the food
(ntiwariye)
Do you eat the food?
(wariye?)
Yes I do, no I don’t (yego)
She drives the car
Yatwaye imodoka
She don’t drive the car Does she drive the car?
Yes she does, no she doesn’t
We study English
Twiga icyongereza
We don’t study English Do we study English?
Yes we do, no we don’t
I wash my body every
day(noka umubiri buri munsi)
I don’t wash my body Do you wash my body?
Yes I do, no I don’t
b)past Negative Question
I ate fruits yesterday
Ejo hashije narariye
I didn’t eat fruits yesterday Did you eat fruits yesterday?
Yes I did, no didn’t
You worked at office last year
Narakoze umwaka ushije
You didn’t work at office Did you work at the office?
Yes I did, no I didn’t
c)Future Negative Question
I will come to morrow
Nzaza ejo
I will not come to morrow Will you come tomorrow?
Yes I will, no I will not
I shall do my best(promise)
Nzagerageza
I shall not do my best Shall you do my best
Yes I shall, no I shall not
2) Use of was, were, am, is and are
a) past Negative Question
I was teacher I was not teacher Were you a teacher?

Nari mwarimu Yes I was, no I wasn’t
You were bandit
Wari umujura
You were not a bandit Were you bandit?
Yes I was, no I was not
B)president Negative Question
I’m manager
Ndi umucungamutungo
I’m not a manager Are you manager?
Yes I am, no I’m not
You are house worker
Uri umukozi wo murugo
You are not a house worker Are you a house worker?
Yes I am, no I am not
She is a little girl
Ni akana gato
She is not a little girl Is she a little girl?
Yes she is, no she isn’t
3) Use of had, have and has
Past Negative question
I had money
Narimfite amafaranga
I had not money
Sinarifite amafranga
Had you money?
Yes I had, no I had not
Present Negative question
I have the key
Nari mfite imfunguzo
I have not the key Have you the key?
Yes I have, no I haven’t
We have a book(mfite igitabo) We have not the book Have you the book?
Yes we have, no we haven’t
D. MODEL VERBS
A) modal auxiliaries
Positive Negative(guhakana)
Can Can not
Could Could not
May May not
Might Might not
Shall Shall not
Should Should not
Will Will not
Would Would not
Must Must not
Ought to Ought not to
Used to Used not to
Need Don’t Need
Want Don’t want
Eg1. Can you eat the food? (ushobora kurya?)
We could drive the car (dushobora gutwara imodoka)
You may come here (ushobora kuza hano)

She might go to school (ugomba kwiga)
We shall work (tuzakora)
They should eat the fruits (bashobora kurya imbuto)
You must brush your teeth (mugomba koza amemyo)
I need doctor (Nshaka muganga)
We want television (dushaka TV)
b) modal idioms
E.g. you had better to say that
I would rather die than betray my country
We have got to do our job
C)semi-auxiliaries
To be able to Be likely to Be supposed to
Have to Be going Be about to
Be bound to Be due Be capable to
Here are examples in which we have use these idioms
1.they are able to do it
2.it is likely to rain in some minutes
3.you are supposed to work to day
4.we are to go now
5.she is about to finish
6.this was bound to happen anyway
7.all students are due to finish their work by September
UNITY14:IF –CONDITIONAL
1.first conditional
it has the present simple after if, the future simple in the other clause.
If present simple………. will +infinitive
E.g. 1. If I have enough money, I will buy some new shoes
2.if I see her, I will tell her
2.the second conditional
It uses the past simple after if, the would and the infinitive
If+past simple, would+infinitive
Eg1.if I won the lottery i would buy a big house
2.if I met the president, I would say Hello
3.we could travel all over world if she was rich
4.if I had her number, I would call her
3.third conditional
If+past perfect…...would+have+past participle
1.if she had studied, she would have passed the exam

2.she would become a teacher if she had gone to university
4.zero conditional
If+present simple…. present simple.
1.if people eat too much, they get fat
2.if you touch a fire you get burned.
3.if the babies are hungry, they cry
4.people die if they do not eat
5.snakes bite if they are scared
UNITY15:DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH
In English language, there are two ways of conveying what someone else has said:
a). indirect /reported speech
b) direct/quoted speech
1) indirect speech
It is also called also indirect speech, it is used to communicate what someone else said, think or believe
but without using The exact words.
E.g. he said that he was going to the English course.
2. direct speech
It is involves quoting the exact words uttered by the person, within inverted commas or quoted marks
E.g. ‘I’m going to the English course’ he said
Direct speech Reported speech
He said ‘I’m fine’ He said that he was fine
He said ’I have been married for 3 years.’ He said that he had been married for 3 years
He said’ I went to the theatre yesterday’ He said that he had gone to the theatre the day before
1. REPORTED STATEMENTS
The tense generally moves backwards in the following ways:
From To
Simple present Simple past
Simple past simple past
Present perfect Past perfect
Past perfect past perfect
Will Would
Progressive forms
Am/is/are Was/were
Was/were was/were
Has been had been
Had been Had been

Tense Direct speech Reported speech
Present simple ‘I like ice cream’ She said that she liked ice cream
Present continuous ‘I am living in Kigali’ He said he was living in Kigali
Past simple ‘I brought a car ’She said she had brought a car or she said she brought a car
Past continuous ‘I was walking along the street’ She said she had been walking along the
street.
Present perfect ‘I haven’t seen Julie’ said she hadn’t seen Julie
Past perfect ‘I had taken English lessons before’ She said she had taken English lessons
before
Will ‘I will see you later’ She said she would see me later
Would ‘I would help, but…...’ She said she would help but…...
Can ‘I can speak perfect English’ She said she could speak English
Could ‘I could swim when I was four’ She said she could swim when she was four
Shall ‘I shall come later’ She said she should come later.
Should ‘I should call my mother ‘ he said she should call her mother
Might ‘I might be later’ she said she might be later
Must ‘I must study in the weekend’ She said she must study in the weekend
Note that, a occasionally, we don’t need to change information in direct speech is still true (but this is
only for things which are generally facts, and even then usually we like to change the tense)
• Direct speech:’ the sky is blue’
• Reported speech: she said that the sky is/was blue.
2. TIME EXPRESSIONS WITH REPORTED SPEECH
Sometimes when we change direct speech into reported speech we have to change time expressions too.
We do not have always have to do this, however it depends on when we heard the direct speech and
when we say the reported speech.
For examples,
It’s Monday. Julie say, ’I’m leaving to day’.
If I tell someone on Monday, I say ‘Julie said she was leaving to day
If I tell someone on Tuesday, I say ‘Julie said she was leaving yesterday’
If I tell someone a month later, I say ‘Julie said she was leaving on Monday
If I tell someone a month later, I say ‘Julie said she was leaving that day
So, there is no easy conversion. You really have to think about when the direct speech was said.
Here are a table of some possible conversions
Direct speech Indirect speech
Now Then/at that time
Today Yesterday/that day
Yesterday The day before yesterday/the day before
Last night The night before
Last week The week before/the previous week
Tomorrow Today/the next day/the following day

Here There
3. REPORTED QUESTIONS
So now you have no problem with making reported speech from positive and negative sentences.,
but how about questions? How can we make the reported speech here?
May be this example will help you
 Direct speech: ‘where do you live?”
 Reported speech: she asked me where I lived
How do you see now I made it? The direct question is in present tense. We make a present tense
question with ‘do’ or ‘does’ so I need to take that away. Then I need to change the verb to the past
simple.
Another examples:
1.direct speech: ‘where is Julie?’
2.reported speech: she asked me where Julie was
Direct question Reported question
‘where is the post office, please? She asked me where the post office was.
‘what are you doing?’ She asked me what I was doing
‘who was that fantastic man?’She asked me who that fantastic man had been
So much for ’WH question. But what if you need to report YES/NO question?
We do not have any question words to help us, we use YES
• Direct speech:’do you like chocolate?’
• Reported speech: she asked me if I liked chocolate.
No problem? Here are a few more examples:
Direct question Reported question
‘do you love me’? He asked me if I loved him.
‘have you ever been to Kigali?’ She asked me if I had ever been to Kigali
‘are you living here’ She asked me if I was living here
4.REPORTED ORDERS
In fact, we make this into reported speech in the same way as a request. We just use ‘tell ‘instead of
‘ask’
Direct order Reported order
‘go to bed’ He told the child to go to bed.
‘don’t worry!’ He told her not to worry.
‘be on time!’ He told me to be on time.
‘don’t smoke!’ He told us not to smoke.
5.REPORTED SPEECH: HOPE, INTENTIONS&PROMISES
When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by that
clause or to –infinitive:
‘I will pay you the money tomorrow’
He promised to pay me the money the next day.

Other verbs used in this pattern include: hope, propose, threaten , guarantee ,swear
Examples
I will be back by lunchtime’
he promised to be back by lunchtime
he promised that he would be back by lunchtime.
We should arrive in Kigali before nightfall.
They hoped to arrive in Kigali in Kigali before nightfall
The hoped they would arrive in Kigali before nightfall.
Give me the keys to the safe or I will shoot you!
He threatened to shoot me if I didn’t give the keys to the safe.
He threatened that they would shoot me if I didn’t give him that keys to the safe.
UNIT 17: HOW TO JOIN TWO SENTENCES (GUHUZA INTERURO EBYIRI)
Conjunctions is the word which joins together words or sentences
types of the sentences of conjunctions
1.co-ordinating conjunctions
Examples: and, but, also, or, nor, so, yet, either, either...or, neither…or
2.subordinating conjunctions
Examples: after, before, because, if, whether, when, where, how, while, that, though, although, as,
unless.
Here are some examples
1) Using but also (kandi)
-I am working but also I am studying English (ndi gukora kandi ndi no kwiga)
-I am hearing but also I am looking the person (ndi kumva kandi ndino kureba umuntu)
-you are beautiful but also you are intelligent (uri mwiza kandi uzi n’ubwenge)
-you are small boy but also you are kind (uri muto kandi uranitonda)
2) using so
You fail in exam so you are not intelligent (watsizwe ikizamini ubwo ni ukuvuga ko utazi ubwenge)
Your shop has no items so you will not get the clients (iduka ryawe ntabicuruzwa rifite ni ukuvuga ko
utazabona abakiriya)
3) Using either…. or
Either peter or john are my friend (yaba peter cyangwa john ni ishuti zanjye)

Either teacher or students are smart (yaba mwarimu cyangwa abanyeshuri bambaye neza)
Either men or women are created by God (ari umugabo cyangwa umugore bose baremwe ni Imana)
4) Using neither …nor
Neither Steven nor Herbert are lazy (yaba Steven cyangwa habery ntanumwe wumunebwe)
Neither john nor Peter is absent (yaba john cyangwa peter ntanumwe wasibye)
5) Even if (nubwo)
Even if you are beautiful, I don’t love you (nubwo uri mwiza singukunda)
Even if you are smart, I don’t love you (nubwo wambaye neza singukunda)
6)so that
I worked hard so that I might get a first class
7) Let us(mureke)
Let us pray God (mureke dusenge)
Let us eat the food (mureke turye)
Let us drink the tea (mureke tunywe)
UNITY18.CLAUSES
It is a part of the sentence.
They are two main types of clause
1.independent clause
2.dependent clause
A). independent clauses
It is a complete sentence, it contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought in both
context and the meaning
E.g. the door opened and the man walked in.
It can be joined by a coordinating conjunction to form complex or compound sentences.
1.Co –coordinating conjunctions
And but for or nor So Yet
B). dependent clause
It is part of sentence contain a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought.
E.g. I wondered whether the homework was necessary
2.Subordinating conjunctions

After although As before Even if Even though in order that
Once Provided that Since So that Than though Unless
Until whenever Where whereas Whether While Why
2.Eg.1) the window opened because the man pushed it
2)i wonder whether the homework is necessary
3)they will visit you before they go to air port
4)i go to show that i am very popular
5) the dog that like cats are very unusual
3.Relative pronouns
That Which Whichever
Who Whoever Whom
Whose Whosever Whomever
The relative pronoun below is used in defining relative clauses
Person Thing Place time reason
Subject who/that which that
Object who/whom which that Where when why
Possessive that/whose whose
Eg.3) dog that like cats are very unusual.
2)the women that the men loved was living in Kigali
3)the man whose car is fallen
4)the tree whose leaves have pollen
5)the doctor whom/who/that i was hoping was not come.
6)let us go to a country where the sun always thing
UNITY 19: GENDER
It is noun that distinguishes between male and female
In English there three genders namely: masculine, feminine and neuter
1.neuter gender it is means neither male or female
E.g. book, pen, room, tree etc.
2.masculine gender
E.g. boy, father, brother etc.
3.feminine gender
E.g. sister, girl, mother ect
Here are Some are exemples
MASCULINE FEMININE MASCULINE FEMININE
Actor Actress Widower Widow

Author Authoress Washer man Washerwoman
Bachelor Spinster tiger Tigress
Boy scout Girl guide Hero Heroine
Brave Squaw Poet Poetess
Brother Sister Shepherd Shepherdess
Conductor Conductress Hunter Huntress
Count Countess Lord Lady
Dad Mum Man Women
Daddy Mummy Manager Manageress
Father Mother Master Mistress
Father in- law Mother in-law Millionaire Millionaires
Fiancé Fiancée Monitor Monitress
Gentleman Giantess Monk Nun
God Goddess Mr. Mrs.
Governor Matron Nephew Niece
Grandfather Grandmother Papa Mama
Headmaster Headmistress Priest Priestess
Husband Wife SirMadam
King Queen Son Daughter
Lad Lass Uncle Aunt
Landlord Landlady Prince Princess
Ways of forming the feminine of the nouns
by using an entirely different word
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Boy Girl Husband Wife
Father Mother King Queen
Gentleman Lady Son Daughter
.by adding a syllable (ess, ine, trix,a, ect)
Author Authoress Songster Songstress
Jew Jewess Prince Princess
Patron Patroness Founder Foundress
Peer Peeress Instructor Instructress
.by placing a word before or after as masculine or feminine
Grandmother Grandfather Great-uncle Great aunt
Salesman Saleswomen Milkman Milk women
Landlord Landlady WasherwomenWasherwomen

UNITY 20: PREPOSITION
It is the word placed a noun or pronoun to show it relation to some other word in the sentence.
Eg1. The clock is on the wall
2.the cow is grazing in the field
3.he is angry with you
Let us classify the different preposition
1.prepostion showing the place
E.g. 1.my uncle is at home
2.we are going to America
3.the children run away from the dangerous dog
4.please keep me away from evil
5i put the new roof on my house
6.the book was moved onto the lower selves
7.They are four rooms in my house
8.We are now out of trouble
2.preposition showing the relative position
1.the bird is above the tree
2.the cup is below the table
3.mark is behind the teacher
4.stuent is in front of desk
3.preopsition showing orientation
1.this house is across the river
2.the hotel along the road
3.he lives around the corner
4. simple preposition
A) monosyllable
As at But by down For
From in like Near to Of Off
on out past per Pro Qua
re round Since than through Till
up via with Below Into Anti
b) polysyllables
About Among Beyond Outside Unlike
Above Around Despite Over Until
Across behind During Pace Upon
After Beneath Except Thought out Versus

Against Beside Inside Towards Out of
Along Between opposite underneath Near to
5.complex preposition
a) two word sequences
Up against Apart from Subsequent to Because of Near to
As for Close to Along with Exclusive of Previous to
Except for Due to As per Instead of Thanks to
Outside of Next to but for Irrespective of Together with
Upward of Owing to Ahead of Regardless Case of
According to Prior to Back of Inside of Place of
B) three-word sequence
In aid of In case of In comparison with In addition to On the pain of
In behalf of In consequence of In contact with With regard to In relation to
In charge of In respect of In line with With respect to With reference to
In front of In reed of As far as On top of With exception of
In place of In accordance with In exchange of On the part of In the line of
UNITY21: ADVERB
It is the word which modifies the meaning of the verb, an adjective or another adverb
Examples:
The old man walked slowly
Teacher writes very carefully.
Types of adverbs
1. adverb of time: if a verb answers for question when then the verb shows the time of action
Examples:
1.he left the place a few minutes ago
2.he will soon come back
2. Adverb of place: if the verb answers the question where then the adverb shows the place of action.
Examples:
I meet him in the theatre
This is the place where the tree stood
3. adverb of number: if the verb answers for the question how often then the adverb shows the number
of action.
Examples:
The comet appears once in several years
That poor man is always happy
4. Adverb of manner: if a verb answers for question how or in what manner then it shows the
condition of the verb.

Examples:
He was seriously injured
John writes very carefully
5. Adverb of degree or quantity: if a verb answers for question how much or in what
Examples:
The sky is very cloudy
She sings pretty well
6. Adverb of reason: if the verb explains the reason for the action the called adverb for reason.
Examples:
As he was not well
Therefore, he returned home
UNITY22:ADJECTIVES
Adjective describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.
If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind or how many, you need an adjective to be
able to answer.
1.TYPES OF ADJECTIVE
They are different types of adjectives in the English language:
1.numeric: six, one hundred and one, seven ect
2.quantitative: more, all, some, half, more than enough
3. qualitative: color, size, smell ect
4.possessive:my, his, their, your ect
5.interrogative: which, whose, what
6.demonstrative: this ,that, those, these
2.COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVE
Adjectives change in form to show comparison; they are called ‘’degree of comparison’’
Type of degree of comparison
a) Positive degree of comparison
1. Examples:
2. John is a tall boy
3. John is taller than Mary
4. John is tallest of them
b) superlative degree of comparison
Positive comparative Superlative
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Long Longer Longest
High Higher Highest
Great Greater Greatest
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
Young Younger Youngest

Tall Taller Tallest
Large Larger Largest
Wise Wiser Wise
White Whiter White
Brave Braver Bravest
Pure Purer Purest
Fine Finer Finest
Able Abler Ablest
Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful
Useful More Useful Most Useful
Famous More Famous Most Famous
Difficult More Difficult Most Difficult
Important More Important Most Important
Lovely Lovelier Loveliest
Wealthy Wealthier Wealthiest
Holy Holier Holiest
Easy Easier Easiest
Happy Happier Happiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Healthy Healthier Healthiest
Late Later Late
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Much More Most
Near Nearer Nearest
Little Less Least
Many More Most
Red Redder Reddest
Sad Sadder Saddest
Big Bigger Biggest
Hot Hotter Hottest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Fat Fatter Fattest
3.THE+SUPERLATIVE
THE is placed before the superlative
Examples:
1.he is the richest man in the world
2.that is the largest crocodile I have ever seen
3.she is the tallest girl in the class.

4.SYNONYM OF ADJECTIVES
it is the word with similar or identical meaning to another
1.synomyms for ‘good’
Excellent Brilliant Great
Super Fantastic Terrific
Magnificent Fine Superb
2. synonym’s for ‘happy’
Glad Content Blissful
Joyful Delighted Thrilled
Pleased Gleeful Elated
Cheerful Merry Jolly
3.synomyms for hungry
Ravenous Starving Famished
5.ORDE OF ADJECTIVES
RULES
Where a number of adjective are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective.
the usual order in the following:
1.Value/opinion Delicious, lovely, charming
2.size Small, huge. tiny
Age/temperature Old, hot, young
3.Shape Round, square, rectangular
4.Color Red, blonde, black
5.Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese
6.material Plastic, wooden ,sliver
Here are some examples
1. A lovely old red post-box
2. Some small round plastic tables
3. Some charming small silver ornaments
UNITY 23: DETERMINERS
It is the words placed in front of noun to make it clear that noun.
CLASSES OF DETERMINERS
They are several classes of determiners:
1. Definite articles
articles in English are invariable, that is, they do not change according to the gender or number of the
noun.

Examples: the boy, the women, the children
It is used:
a) when both the speaker and listener know what is being talked about.
E.g. where is the bathroom?
It is on the first floor
B) in identification of particular person or object
E.g. 1.the man who wrote this book is famous
2.my house is the one with a blue door
c)to refer to object we regard as unique:
1.the sun 2.the moon 3.the world
d)before superlatives and ordinal numbers
e.g. 1. The highest building 2.the first page 3.the last chapter
e) to refer to whole group of people
1. the Japanese 2.the old
f) with names of the geographical area and oceans:
1.the Caribbean 2.the Sahara 3.the Atlantic
g) groups of years
she grew up in the seventies
2.indefinite article: a and an
A used when nouns starting with a consonant
Eg 1. A boy 2. A house 3. A car
AN is used when nouns is starting with a vowel(a,e,I,o,u,y)
Eg 1. An orange 2.an opera 3. An apple
3. demonstratives
It shows where an object or person is in relation to the speaker.
Singular Plural
This These
That Those
E.g. this a nice surprise 2. that is no thing to me
4.possesives
Possessive pronouns and possessive adjective s show who the thing belong to
Person adjectives pronouns
I My Mine
You Your Yours
He/she/it His/her/it His/hers/its
We Our Ours
You Your Yours
They their Theirs
E.g. 1. Her brother is married to this sister
2. I think this is your passport, yes it is mine
5.Quantifiers

A few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough ect
6.numbers
One, ten, ordinal, cardinal, percent
7. distributives
All, both, half, either, neither, each, every
8.diffrence words
Other, another
9. Question words
Which, what, whose
10. defining words
Which, whose
UNITY24: QUANTIFIERS
I form sub-class under determiners. They are adjectives or phrases that serve to answer two possible
questions:
1.how many?
2.how much?
For example: a few, a little, much, many, most, some, any, enough ect are quantifiers.
Quantifiers that describe quantity
Words and phrase that describe quantity include al little, none a few ect. sme of these are used only
with:
1.countable nouns it is the nouns that answer the question ‘how many?’
For example: a few, number of, several ect
2.uncountable nouns. these are the nouns that answer the question; how much? For example: a little,
a bit of, ect)
Some of the are also used withed with both. these are the ones that answer both questions for
example: such as: no, none, some, a lot of ect
ŦƢ in other way, Quantifiers are adjective and adjectival phrase that give approximate answer to the
questions ‘how much and how many?
1.numbers: ordinal and cardinal, percentages

2.quantifies with countable and uncountable nouns
2.a few and few, a little and little
3.some and any
4.compound nouns made with some, any and no
5.graded quantifiers
6.enough+noun
A) ENOUGH
it is used to indicate the necessary amount or quantity, it is placed before nouns
 here are some examples
1.here is enough time
2.you have enough money
3.is there enough food?
B) COMPARATIVE QUANTIFIES
There 10 comparative quantifiers which are: much, many,more ,most,few. fewe, fewest ,little,less
and least
a)1. I have much time 2. I have more time 3.i have the most time.
2. I have many apples 2. I have more apples 3.i have the most apples
b) he has few friends 2. He has fewer friends 3. He has the fewest friends
c)he has little time 2. He has less time 3. he has the least time.
C)GRADED QUANTIFIERS
They function like comparatives and hold a relative position on a scale of increase ir decrease
 Here are some examples
1.here are many people in Rwanda, more in Indian but the most people live in china.
2.much time and money is spent on education, more on health service but the most is spending on
national defense.

3.few rivers in Europe are not polluted, fewer people die young now than past time, the country with
the fewest people per square kilometer must be in Australia.
4a) scientists have little hope of finding a complete cure of cancer before the year 20000
b) she had less time to study than Paul had better results
c)Give that dog the least opportunity and it will bite you
D) QUANTIFIERS WITH COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Adjective and adjectival phrase that describe quantity are shown below.
Some can only go with countable nouns examples friends, cups and other
It can go with uncountable nouns examples tea, money ,advice ect
Only with uncountable nouns With uncountable nouns Only with countable nouns
How much? No/none A fewer
A bit of Not any A number of
- Some(any) Several
A great deal of A lot of A large number of
A large amount of Plenty of A great number of
- Lots -
Note: much and many are used in negative and question
1.how much money have you got?
2.how many cigarettes have you smoked?
3.there is not much sugar in the cupboard.
4.there were not many people at the concert
They are also used with too ,so not so
1.it is the problem when there are so many people
2.there is not so much work to do this week
3.i have got a lot of work this week
E) SOME AND ANY
SOME it used in positive statement

1. I had some rice for lunch
2. He got some book from library
3. Keza needs some help with his exam
ANY is used in negative sentences
1. She does not want any kitchen appliances for charismas
2. Here is not any reason to complain
3. No, thank you, I do not want any more cake
F) COMPOUND NOUNS MADE WITH SOME, ANY AND NO
SOME
ANY THING BODY ONE WHERE
NO
1.POSITIVE STATEMENT
1.someone is sleeping in my bed
2.he saw something in the garden
3.i left my glasses somewhere in the house
2.QUESTION
 Here some examples
1.are you looking for someone? (I’m sure you are)
2.have you something lost?(I’m sure you have)
3.is there anything to eat?
4.did you go anywhere last night?
3.NEGATIVE STATEMENT
1.she did not go anywhere last night.
2.he does not know anybody here
NOTICE that there is difference in emphasis between nothing, nobody ect and not .. anything,not..
anybody:
 Here are examples
1. I do know anything about it9no emphasis)
2. I know nothing about (more emphasis)
4.SOMETHING, SOMWBODY.SOMEWHERE

ENGLISH AS THE WING OF QUALIFICATION

ENGLISH AS THE WING OF QUALIFICATION

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