This document discusses English grammar, including its core components and rules. It defines grammar as the structure of expressions in a language, including words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Grammar is divided into morphology, which describes word formation, and syntax, which describes phrase, clause, and sentence construction. The document outlines the main word classes in English including nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and determiners. It also discusses noun phrases and their structure.
Technical definitions aim to precisely name and categorize concepts. They do so by providing context about what something is as well as what it is not. However, definitions are complicated because meaning depends on social, political, economic and cultural contexts. When writing definitions, authors must consider their audience and purpose in order to determine how much contextual information to provide. Common types of definitions include parenthetical, sentence-level, operational, and extended definitions, with extended providing the most context.
This document provides guidelines for romanizing Korean text using the McCune-Reishauer romanization system. It includes:
1) An overview of the McCune-Reishauer system and how it handles vowels and consonants.
2) Rules for dividing Korean words and compound words when romanized.
3) Specific rules and examples for romanizing suffixes, verb conjugations, nouns, and other grammatical elements.
4) Guidance for romanizing names and geographical locations.
The AWL Reorganized for Spanish-Speaking ELLsRobert Bushong
The document discusses reorganizing the Academic Word List for Spanish-speaking English language learners. It describes the original Academic Word List, which contains 570 academic words arranged in frequency-based sublists. It also discusses how the list was constructed based on a corpus of academic texts. The presentation will examine how many of the Academic Word List words are cognates for Spanish speakers and the challenges in determining what constitutes a cognate. It will also discuss procedures for analyzing each word as a true, partial, or false cognate.
This document provides a glossary of grammatical terms that may be encountered in relation to Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling tests in the UK. It defines over 50 terms in under 20 sentences each, with level indicators showing whether the term applies to levels 3-5, 6 or both. The purpose is to support teachers by clarifying meanings that may vary according to different classification systems.
The document discusses English morphology, including singular and plural forms, morphological parsing and stemming, and the different types of morphology in English such as inflectional, derivational, compounding, and cliticization morphology. It provides examples to illustrate singular and plural forms, morphological rules for changing word endings, and how prefixes, suffixes, and other morphemes can be added to word stems to change word classes or derive new words.
1. The document discusses the graduate program at Makassar State University and provides examples of syntax differences across languages like English, Turkish, and Makassar. Syntax rules determine how words are combined to form proper sentences in each language.
2. The document then covers key topics in studying syntax, including structure, meaning, context, and why languages require syntax. Syntax combines words and phrases according to rules specific to each language. These rules specify grammatical relationships and determine proper sentence formation.
3. In conclusion, the document states that linguistics is a scientific field for analyzing language structure, function, and context. Descriptive linguists focus on providing grammatical descriptions, and syntax specifically describes how words are ordered to
This document discusses words, sentences, and dictionaries. It makes several key points:
- Words can be the basic building blocks of language and sentences, but a sentence does not always need multiple words and can consist of a single word command.
- There is a distinction between a word as a type and its occurrences as tokens. The same word can appear as different tokens in a sentence.
- Not all words have unpredictable meanings that need to be defined in a dictionary. Some words have predictable meanings based on their sounds.
- Idioms and phrases can have meanings that are unpredictable from the individual words. Larger linguistic units like proverbs can also have non-literal meanings.
- Not
The document discusses collocations, which are words that are typically used together, such as "tall tree" and "high mountain". It provides examples of collocations using the word "chance", such as "small chance" and "very small chance". The document explains how collocations can be used as a technique in translation, and provides the example of translating the Italian phrase "accendere un mutuo" which collocates to the English phrase "take out a mortgage".
Technical definitions aim to precisely name and categorize concepts. They do so by providing context about what something is as well as what it is not. However, definitions are complicated because meaning depends on social, political, economic and cultural contexts. When writing definitions, authors must consider their audience and purpose in order to determine how much contextual information to provide. Common types of definitions include parenthetical, sentence-level, operational, and extended definitions, with extended providing the most context.
This document provides guidelines for romanizing Korean text using the McCune-Reishauer romanization system. It includes:
1) An overview of the McCune-Reishauer system and how it handles vowels and consonants.
2) Rules for dividing Korean words and compound words when romanized.
3) Specific rules and examples for romanizing suffixes, verb conjugations, nouns, and other grammatical elements.
4) Guidance for romanizing names and geographical locations.
The AWL Reorganized for Spanish-Speaking ELLsRobert Bushong
The document discusses reorganizing the Academic Word List for Spanish-speaking English language learners. It describes the original Academic Word List, which contains 570 academic words arranged in frequency-based sublists. It also discusses how the list was constructed based on a corpus of academic texts. The presentation will examine how many of the Academic Word List words are cognates for Spanish speakers and the challenges in determining what constitutes a cognate. It will also discuss procedures for analyzing each word as a true, partial, or false cognate.
This document provides a glossary of grammatical terms that may be encountered in relation to Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling tests in the UK. It defines over 50 terms in under 20 sentences each, with level indicators showing whether the term applies to levels 3-5, 6 or both. The purpose is to support teachers by clarifying meanings that may vary according to different classification systems.
The document discusses English morphology, including singular and plural forms, morphological parsing and stemming, and the different types of morphology in English such as inflectional, derivational, compounding, and cliticization morphology. It provides examples to illustrate singular and plural forms, morphological rules for changing word endings, and how prefixes, suffixes, and other morphemes can be added to word stems to change word classes or derive new words.
1. The document discusses the graduate program at Makassar State University and provides examples of syntax differences across languages like English, Turkish, and Makassar. Syntax rules determine how words are combined to form proper sentences in each language.
2. The document then covers key topics in studying syntax, including structure, meaning, context, and why languages require syntax. Syntax combines words and phrases according to rules specific to each language. These rules specify grammatical relationships and determine proper sentence formation.
3. In conclusion, the document states that linguistics is a scientific field for analyzing language structure, function, and context. Descriptive linguists focus on providing grammatical descriptions, and syntax specifically describes how words are ordered to
This document discusses words, sentences, and dictionaries. It makes several key points:
- Words can be the basic building blocks of language and sentences, but a sentence does not always need multiple words and can consist of a single word command.
- There is a distinction between a word as a type and its occurrences as tokens. The same word can appear as different tokens in a sentence.
- Not all words have unpredictable meanings that need to be defined in a dictionary. Some words have predictable meanings based on their sounds.
- Idioms and phrases can have meanings that are unpredictable from the individual words. Larger linguistic units like proverbs can also have non-literal meanings.
- Not
The document discusses collocations, which are words that are typically used together, such as "tall tree" and "high mountain". It provides examples of collocations using the word "chance", such as "small chance" and "very small chance". The document explains how collocations can be used as a technique in translation, and provides the example of translating the Italian phrase "accendere un mutuo" which collocates to the English phrase "take out a mortgage".
Words sentences and dictionaryes by:Diana Villarreal12diana1993
This document discusses different linguistic concepts related to words, sentences, and dictionaries. It describes how language can be divided into different sized pieces, from sounds to utterances. Words are considered the basic units of language. Dictionaries provide translations of words and information about meanings, grammar, and pronunciation to look up words. Some linguistic items like idioms and collocations have unpredictable meanings that are figured based on common usage rather than the literal definition of the words. Idioms are phrases with figurative meanings, while collocations refer to words that commonly go together, like "hard work." Proverbs are also discussed as traditional sayings whose conventional interpretation differs from the literal meaning.
This document contains study guide notes for two units: Unit 12 on Logic and Unit 19 on Derivation. In Unit 12, key terms are defined such as logic, connectives, and logical notation. Examples of logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, and negation are provided. The purpose of developing a logical notation rather than using ordinary English is discussed. In Unit 19, morphological terms are defined including derivation, inflection, and zero derivation. Examples of derivational affixes and processes in English are given. Productivity in word formation is explained.
This document discusses different types of grammar including descriptive, prescriptive, traditional, and modern grammar. It provides examples to illustrate each type. Prescriptive grammar specifies how language should be used by following certain rules, while descriptive grammar objectively describes how a language is actually used. Traditional grammar is based on Latin grammar principles and is prescriptive, focusing on distinguishing correct from incorrect usage. The origin of language was debated in ancient Greece between views that language is natural or a social convention. Both sides provided arguments but ultimately language is viewed as naturally developing over time through social interactions.
This document discusses linear order and the four factors that determine the phonetic segments and word order in sentences: phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax. Phonology deals with syllable stress and sound combinations. Morphology examines affix ordering like "cats" with /t/ preceding /s/ due to the plural suffix. Lexicon explores word roots. Syntax analyzes word ordering rules across languages like English following Adjective-Noun order versus Makassar using Question word-Subject order. Relation, terms, context, and modality further govern temporal arrangements of linguistic elements.
What is a dictionary?
A dictionary is a reference book about words and as such it describes the functioning of individual words (sometimes called lexical items). It does so by listing these words in alphabetical order in the form of headwords, the words listed as entries in the dictionary.
The document discusses semantic analysis of simple declarative sentences. It defines key terms like predicator, predicate, and arguments. The predicator is the word that makes the most specific contribution to a sentence's meaning and describes the state of the referring expressions. Predicates are words that can function as predicators. Arguments are the referring expressions involved in the predicate. For example, in "Marcus Brutus killed Julius Caesar", "killed" is the predicator and "Marcus Brutus" and "Julius Caesar" are arguments. The document also discusses predicates of different degrees based on how many arguments they typically involve.
This document provides an overview of grammatical contrastive analysis, focusing on inflectional morphology. It discusses key grammatical categories such as aspect, case, gender, mood, number, and tense, and how they are conveyed through inflectional morphemes in some languages versus lexical means in others. The document uses examples from English and Chinese to illustrate differences in how these categories are expressed grammatically or lexically across languages. It aims to lay the groundwork for contrasting the morphological and lexical devices languages employ to convey grammatical meanings.
This document discusses different types of morphological systems and morphological operations. It begins by defining morphology as the study of meaningful parts of words (morphemes) and how they combine to form new words. There are three main types of morphological systems: isolating/analytic languages with single-morpheme words, inflectional/synthetic languages which allow combining of multiple morphemes, and polysynthetic languages which combine large numbers of morphemes. The main morphological operations discussed are concatenative processes like compounding, affixation, and incorporation as well as non-concatenative processes like reduplication and modification of internal word structure. Various examples are provided to illustrate different morphological phenomena across languages.
Here are the key parts of a dictionary entry structure:
1. The Word - The headword or main entry term.
2. Pronunciation - How to pronounce the word, often shown between slashes.
3. Part of Speech - The grammatical category of the word, such as noun, verb, adjective.
4. Entry Number - If a word has multiple definitions, they are numbered.
5. Definition - The meaning or meanings of the word. Multiple definitions are separated and numbered.
Chinese can be considered an isolating language for two main reasons:
1. Chinese words are generally monomorphemic, consisting of a single morpheme. However, Chinese does have some obligatory affixes in certain contexts like with classifiers and plural markings.
2. Even when affixes are present, the boundaries between morphemes are still clearly identifiable in Chinese. Examples are given showing how the addition of suffixes does not obscure the base morpheme.
Chinese is thus largely isolating based on its monomorphemic words and clear morpheme boundaries, though it does have some obligatory affixation in limited contexts.
The document discusses semantics and key semantic concepts including extension, sense, reference, and prototype. It defines extension as the set of all individuals a one-place predicate can be applied to. Sense is related to linguistic meanings while extension relates to real-world objects. Reference connects an expression to a single referent, while extension is the set of all potential referents. A prototype is a typical member of an extension. Cultural differences can lead to different prototypes depending on context.
The document discusses comparing the native Kadazan language of Penampang with English in terms of morphology, syntax and semantics. It provides two examples of metaphors that exist in the Kadazan language and how English expresses similar metaphors. The formation of compound sentences is analyzed for both languages, noting they are similar in using coordinators but different in word order. Morphological systems are compared, finding similarities in meaning change with inflectional and derivational morphemes but differences in word length and use of prefixes versus suffixes.
This document provides an overview of syntax and sentence structure. It defines syntax as the system of rules governing sentence formation and discusses key concepts in syntactic theory like transformational grammar, syntactic categories, phrase structure rules, and universal grammar. The document also examines how syntax is analyzed using trees and discusses applications for teaching second language learners.
The document discusses conjunctive cohesion, which refers to the logical relationships created between parts of a text. These links create meaning between clauses and sentences and can refer to external real-world relations or internal relations within the text's organization. There are three main types of conjunctive cohesion: elaboration, extension, and enhancement. Elaboration involves restatement or clarification, extension adds to or varies the meaning, and enhancement develops the meaning in terms of dimensions like time, comparison, cause, condition, or concession. Conjunctive cohesion contributes to the texture and coherence of a text by helping to build semantic units.
The document provides an overview of fundamental syntactic concepts. It discusses the basic steps of syntactic analysis: 1) determining the relevant parts of a sentence, and 2) assigning grammatical labels to the parts. It then examines different syntactic units like phrases, clauses, and sentences. Key points include: phrases are composed of a head and optional modifiers/complements, clauses contain a subject-predicate relationship, and sentences are the largest unit. The document also outlines different tests for identifying constituents, or meaningful parts, of sentences.
The document discusses several processes for word formation in languages. It describes coinage as inventing new terms, borrowing as adopting words from other languages, compounding as joining words, and blending as combining parts of words. It also covers clipping as shortening words, backformation as changing a word's class, conversion as altering a word's class without changing form, acronyms as forming words from initial letters, and derivation as using affixes to change a word's meaning. The document provides examples for each process and encourages analyzing words formed through different processes.
This document discusses various concepts related to communication, language, and meaning. It defines semantics as the study of meaning and distinguishes between three subfields: lexical semantics, grammatical semantics, and logical semantics. It also discusses different units of analysis including words, utterances, sentences, and propositions. Finally, it outlines different dimensions of meaning such as reference versus sense, denotation versus reference, descriptive versus non-descriptive meaning, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Contextual meaning is also discussed as important for disambiguation.
Unit 6 - Predicates, Referring Expressions, and Universe of DiscourseAshwag Al Hamid
- Speakers refer to things in their utterances using referring expressions. Referring expressions give clues to help the hearer identify the referent. Predicates may be embedded in referring expressions.
- Generic sentences make statements about whole unrestricted classes rather than particular individuals.
- While semantics is concerned with meaning and existence, imagination allows us to refer to nonexistent things. The universe of discourse is the world, real or imaginary, being discussed. Successful communication requires assuming the same universe of discourse.
Principles And Parameters Of Universal GrammarDr. Cupid Lucid
The document discusses the key principles of Universal Grammar (UG) according to Chomsky's Principles and Parameters theory. It outlines several principles of UG, including structure dependency, the language faculty, the head parameter, the projection principle, government theory, and relating sound and meaning. The theory proposes that human languages are governed by universal principles and vary according to parameters within clearly defined limits.
English grammar refers to the rules and conventions for usage in the English language. It includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses and sentences. There are eight main word classes in English: nouns, determiners, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. Nouns form the largest word class. Unlike many other languages, English nouns do not have grammatical gender.
Presentation that I've made for the RISE / NEXt Startup Program in Hong Kong on the 3rd of July 2014.
The presentation was followed by a workshop.
Most of the material comes from the books Nancy Duartes's Slideology and Garr reynolds presentation Zen.
Words sentences and dictionaryes by:Diana Villarreal12diana1993
This document discusses different linguistic concepts related to words, sentences, and dictionaries. It describes how language can be divided into different sized pieces, from sounds to utterances. Words are considered the basic units of language. Dictionaries provide translations of words and information about meanings, grammar, and pronunciation to look up words. Some linguistic items like idioms and collocations have unpredictable meanings that are figured based on common usage rather than the literal definition of the words. Idioms are phrases with figurative meanings, while collocations refer to words that commonly go together, like "hard work." Proverbs are also discussed as traditional sayings whose conventional interpretation differs from the literal meaning.
This document contains study guide notes for two units: Unit 12 on Logic and Unit 19 on Derivation. In Unit 12, key terms are defined such as logic, connectives, and logical notation. Examples of logical connectives like conjunction, disjunction, and negation are provided. The purpose of developing a logical notation rather than using ordinary English is discussed. In Unit 19, morphological terms are defined including derivation, inflection, and zero derivation. Examples of derivational affixes and processes in English are given. Productivity in word formation is explained.
This document discusses different types of grammar including descriptive, prescriptive, traditional, and modern grammar. It provides examples to illustrate each type. Prescriptive grammar specifies how language should be used by following certain rules, while descriptive grammar objectively describes how a language is actually used. Traditional grammar is based on Latin grammar principles and is prescriptive, focusing on distinguishing correct from incorrect usage. The origin of language was debated in ancient Greece between views that language is natural or a social convention. Both sides provided arguments but ultimately language is viewed as naturally developing over time through social interactions.
This document discusses linear order and the four factors that determine the phonetic segments and word order in sentences: phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax. Phonology deals with syllable stress and sound combinations. Morphology examines affix ordering like "cats" with /t/ preceding /s/ due to the plural suffix. Lexicon explores word roots. Syntax analyzes word ordering rules across languages like English following Adjective-Noun order versus Makassar using Question word-Subject order. Relation, terms, context, and modality further govern temporal arrangements of linguistic elements.
What is a dictionary?
A dictionary is a reference book about words and as such it describes the functioning of individual words (sometimes called lexical items). It does so by listing these words in alphabetical order in the form of headwords, the words listed as entries in the dictionary.
The document discusses semantic analysis of simple declarative sentences. It defines key terms like predicator, predicate, and arguments. The predicator is the word that makes the most specific contribution to a sentence's meaning and describes the state of the referring expressions. Predicates are words that can function as predicators. Arguments are the referring expressions involved in the predicate. For example, in "Marcus Brutus killed Julius Caesar", "killed" is the predicator and "Marcus Brutus" and "Julius Caesar" are arguments. The document also discusses predicates of different degrees based on how many arguments they typically involve.
This document provides an overview of grammatical contrastive analysis, focusing on inflectional morphology. It discusses key grammatical categories such as aspect, case, gender, mood, number, and tense, and how they are conveyed through inflectional morphemes in some languages versus lexical means in others. The document uses examples from English and Chinese to illustrate differences in how these categories are expressed grammatically or lexically across languages. It aims to lay the groundwork for contrasting the morphological and lexical devices languages employ to convey grammatical meanings.
This document discusses different types of morphological systems and morphological operations. It begins by defining morphology as the study of meaningful parts of words (morphemes) and how they combine to form new words. There are three main types of morphological systems: isolating/analytic languages with single-morpheme words, inflectional/synthetic languages which allow combining of multiple morphemes, and polysynthetic languages which combine large numbers of morphemes. The main morphological operations discussed are concatenative processes like compounding, affixation, and incorporation as well as non-concatenative processes like reduplication and modification of internal word structure. Various examples are provided to illustrate different morphological phenomena across languages.
Here are the key parts of a dictionary entry structure:
1. The Word - The headword or main entry term.
2. Pronunciation - How to pronounce the word, often shown between slashes.
3. Part of Speech - The grammatical category of the word, such as noun, verb, adjective.
4. Entry Number - If a word has multiple definitions, they are numbered.
5. Definition - The meaning or meanings of the word. Multiple definitions are separated and numbered.
Chinese can be considered an isolating language for two main reasons:
1. Chinese words are generally monomorphemic, consisting of a single morpheme. However, Chinese does have some obligatory affixes in certain contexts like with classifiers and plural markings.
2. Even when affixes are present, the boundaries between morphemes are still clearly identifiable in Chinese. Examples are given showing how the addition of suffixes does not obscure the base morpheme.
Chinese is thus largely isolating based on its monomorphemic words and clear morpheme boundaries, though it does have some obligatory affixation in limited contexts.
The document discusses semantics and key semantic concepts including extension, sense, reference, and prototype. It defines extension as the set of all individuals a one-place predicate can be applied to. Sense is related to linguistic meanings while extension relates to real-world objects. Reference connects an expression to a single referent, while extension is the set of all potential referents. A prototype is a typical member of an extension. Cultural differences can lead to different prototypes depending on context.
The document discusses comparing the native Kadazan language of Penampang with English in terms of morphology, syntax and semantics. It provides two examples of metaphors that exist in the Kadazan language and how English expresses similar metaphors. The formation of compound sentences is analyzed for both languages, noting they are similar in using coordinators but different in word order. Morphological systems are compared, finding similarities in meaning change with inflectional and derivational morphemes but differences in word length and use of prefixes versus suffixes.
This document provides an overview of syntax and sentence structure. It defines syntax as the system of rules governing sentence formation and discusses key concepts in syntactic theory like transformational grammar, syntactic categories, phrase structure rules, and universal grammar. The document also examines how syntax is analyzed using trees and discusses applications for teaching second language learners.
The document discusses conjunctive cohesion, which refers to the logical relationships created between parts of a text. These links create meaning between clauses and sentences and can refer to external real-world relations or internal relations within the text's organization. There are three main types of conjunctive cohesion: elaboration, extension, and enhancement. Elaboration involves restatement or clarification, extension adds to or varies the meaning, and enhancement develops the meaning in terms of dimensions like time, comparison, cause, condition, or concession. Conjunctive cohesion contributes to the texture and coherence of a text by helping to build semantic units.
The document provides an overview of fundamental syntactic concepts. It discusses the basic steps of syntactic analysis: 1) determining the relevant parts of a sentence, and 2) assigning grammatical labels to the parts. It then examines different syntactic units like phrases, clauses, and sentences. Key points include: phrases are composed of a head and optional modifiers/complements, clauses contain a subject-predicate relationship, and sentences are the largest unit. The document also outlines different tests for identifying constituents, or meaningful parts, of sentences.
The document discusses several processes for word formation in languages. It describes coinage as inventing new terms, borrowing as adopting words from other languages, compounding as joining words, and blending as combining parts of words. It also covers clipping as shortening words, backformation as changing a word's class, conversion as altering a word's class without changing form, acronyms as forming words from initial letters, and derivation as using affixes to change a word's meaning. The document provides examples for each process and encourages analyzing words formed through different processes.
This document discusses various concepts related to communication, language, and meaning. It defines semantics as the study of meaning and distinguishes between three subfields: lexical semantics, grammatical semantics, and logical semantics. It also discusses different units of analysis including words, utterances, sentences, and propositions. Finally, it outlines different dimensions of meaning such as reference versus sense, denotation versus reference, descriptive versus non-descriptive meaning, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Contextual meaning is also discussed as important for disambiguation.
Unit 6 - Predicates, Referring Expressions, and Universe of DiscourseAshwag Al Hamid
- Speakers refer to things in their utterances using referring expressions. Referring expressions give clues to help the hearer identify the referent. Predicates may be embedded in referring expressions.
- Generic sentences make statements about whole unrestricted classes rather than particular individuals.
- While semantics is concerned with meaning and existence, imagination allows us to refer to nonexistent things. The universe of discourse is the world, real or imaginary, being discussed. Successful communication requires assuming the same universe of discourse.
Principles And Parameters Of Universal GrammarDr. Cupid Lucid
The document discusses the key principles of Universal Grammar (UG) according to Chomsky's Principles and Parameters theory. It outlines several principles of UG, including structure dependency, the language faculty, the head parameter, the projection principle, government theory, and relating sound and meaning. The theory proposes that human languages are governed by universal principles and vary according to parameters within clearly defined limits.
English grammar refers to the rules and conventions for usage in the English language. It includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses and sentences. There are eight main word classes in English: nouns, determiners, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. Nouns form the largest word class. Unlike many other languages, English nouns do not have grammatical gender.
Presentation that I've made for the RISE / NEXt Startup Program in Hong Kong on the 3rd of July 2014.
The presentation was followed by a workshop.
Most of the material comes from the books Nancy Duartes's Slideology and Garr reynolds presentation Zen.
Nouns are a part of speech that typically refer to people, places, things, animals, or ideas. Nouns can function as subjects or objects and occur with articles and adjectives. Nouns are defined by their grammatical properties in different languages, though some definitions focus on semantics. Nouns inflect for properties like number, gender, and case in some languages. There are different types of nouns including proper nouns, common nouns, count nouns, collective nouns, concrete nouns, and abstract nouns. Noun phrases are groups of words including a noun and accompanying modifiers.
The document discusses adjectives and adverbs. It begins by explaining that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Some words can function as both adjectives and adverbs depending on context. The document then discusses determiners, which are distinct from but were once considered a type of adjective. It provides examples of the different types of adjective uses such as attributive and predicative. The document also covers adjectival phrases, other modifiers of nouns besides adjectives, adjective order, and comparison of adjectives.
This document provides an introduction to the structure of the English language. It discusses analyzing language at various levels, including words, meanings, syntax, morphology, sounds, and written forms. Some key points:
- Morphology is the study of how morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) are combined to form words. Morphemes can be free-standing words or affixes like prefixes and suffixes.
- Words are organized into classes (parts of speech) based on how they function in phrases, clauses, and sentences. The main classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and pronouns.
- Closed word classes like determin
This document discusses word classes and provides definitions and examples of open classes and closed classes of words. It focuses on characterizing and describing the major word classes of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. For each class, it discusses morphological and syntactic properties that are common across languages, provides language-specific examples, and notes observations about defining and analyzing these word classes both within and across languages.
The document discusses English syntax and describes the four main groups of syntactic structures. It explains that words can be combined into larger structures to convey various meanings. The structures are formed by combining two or fewer words and can be divided into constituents. Some examples of structures provided are noun phrases and verb phrases. The rest of the document elaborates on different types of syntactic structures such as modification structures, appositives, verbs as modifiers, adverbs as noun modifiers, and prepositional phrases as modifiers. It also provides examples and diagrams to illustrate syntactic heads and dependents.
Morphology is the study of words and their meaningful parts, called morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning that cannot be broken down further while retaining meaning. There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, and bound morphemes, which must be attached to other morphemes. Bound morphemes are classified as either derivational or inflectional based on how they change the word. Derivational morphemes can change the part of speech or meaning of the word, while inflectional morphemes change grammatical properties like number, tense or case without altering the core meaning. Together, morphemes form words and convey meaning
An adjective is a word that provides additional information about a noun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. Adjectives can be used attributively to modify a noun or predicatively in a statement. In English, adjectives typically precede the nouns they modify and can be compared using suffixes like "-er" and "-est" or irregular forms to indicate levels of comparison.
The document provides instructions for mastering vocabulary words from the TOEFL iBT Exam Vocabulary List. It explains that the list contains 1,700 words divided into intermediate and advanced categories. Learners are instructed to write new words on notecards along with definitions and examples to aid memorization. Regular study of the notecards through writing sentences and adding synonyms is recommended to increase vocabulary knowledge. Context clues that may help determine word meanings are also outlined.
The document provides instructions for mastering vocabulary words from Michael Buckhoff's TOEFL iBT Vocabulary List. It explains that the list contains 1,700 words divided into intermediate and advanced categories. Learners are instructed to write new words on notecards and study them regularly by writing sentences and adding synonyms. The document also provides examples of context clues like examples, appositives, punctuation and conjunctions that can help determine a word's meaning.
The document provides instructions for mastering vocabulary words from Michael Buckhoff's TOEFL iBT Vocabulary List. It explains that the list contains 1,700 words divided into intermediate and advanced categories. Learners are instructed to write new words on notecards along with their meanings and use sentences to study the words regularly. Contextual clues from examples, appositives, punctuation etc. can help understand unfamiliar words encountered in reading.
This document discusses the key concepts of generative grammar including:
- Generative grammar defines syntactic structures and generates all grammatical sentences of a language using a finite set of rules.
- Syntax is the study of how words are combined into phrases and sentences. Phrases are groupings of words headed by a lexical category.
- Sentences contain lexical categories like nouns, verbs, adjectives as well as functional categories like determiners and auxiliaries.
- Verbs select complements like objects, predicates, and clauses that are required, while adjuncts provide optional details like time and manner.
- Recursion allows categories to embed within each other, generating infinitely long phrases.
This document discusses different approaches to grammar and analyzing sentence structure. It describes traditional prescriptive grammar that aimed to set rules based on Latin. It also describes descriptive grammar that aims to objectively describe how languages are used. The document also discusses analyzing immediate constituents, or how words group together into phrases. Labeling constituents with parts of speech allows sentence structure to be represented diagrammatically.
1) A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds, typically consisting of a nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically consonants).
2) Syllables are considered the basic building blocks of words and can influence a language's rhythm, prosody, poetic meter, and stress patterns.
3) Syllabic writing began several hundred years before the first letters, with the earliest recorded syllables on Sumerian tablets from around 2800 BC, representing an important advance in the history of writing.
This document discusses various processes of word formation in English, including compounding, derivation, blending, clipping, acronyms, novel creations, and respelling. Compounding involves combining two or more root morphemes, while derivation adds affixes to change a word's part of speech. Blending merges parts of two words together. Clipping and acronyms abbreviate words. Novel creations and respelling invent new words without reusing existing parts.
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আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
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English grammar
1. English grammar is the body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in the English language.
This includes the structure of words, phrases,clauses and sentences. A text that contains more than one
[1]
sentence is no longer in the realm of grammar, but is instead is in the realm of discourse.
The grammar of a language is approached in two ways: descriptive grammar is based on analysis of text
corpora and describes grammatical structures thereof, whereas prescriptive grammar attempts to use the
identified rules of a given language as a tool to govern the linguistic behaviour of speakers. This article
predominantly concerns itself with descriptive grammar.
There are historical, social and regional variations of English. Divergences from the grammar described
here occur in some dialects of English. This article describes a generalized present-day Standard
English, the form of speech found in types of public discourse including broadcasting, education,
entertainment, government, and news reporting, including both formal and informal speech.
Although British English, American English and Australian English have several lexical differences, the
grammatical differences are not as conspicuous, and will be mentioned only when appropriate.
Grammar is divided into morphology, which describes the formation of words, and syntax, which
describes the construction of meaningful phrases, clauses, and sentences out of words.
Contents
[hide]
1 Word classes and phrase classes
o 1.1 Nouns
1.1.1 Noun phrases
1.1.1.1 Order of determiners
o 1.2 Determiners
o 1.3 Pronouns
1.3.1 Personal pronouns
1.3.2 Demonstrative pronouns
1.3.3 Relative pronouns
o 1.4 Verbs
1.4.1 Regular and irregular lexical verbs
1.4.2 Auxiliary verbs
1.4.3 History of English verbs
o 1.5 Adjectives
1.5.1 Adjective phrases
o 1.6 Adverbs
1.6.1 Adverb placement
2. 1.6.2 Adverb phrases
o 1.7 Prepositions
1.7.1 Prepositional phrases
o 1.8 Conjunctions
2 Clause syntax
o 2.1 Verb phrases
2.1.1 Tense
2.1.2 Aspect
2.1.3 Voice
2.1.4 Mood
o 2.2 Adjuncts
o 2.3 Verb complementation
2.3.1 Transitive and intransitive verbs
2.3.2 Ergative verbs
3 Sentence and clause patterns
o 3.1 Clause types
4 History of English grammars
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 Bibliography
o 7.1 Grammar books
o 7.2 Monographs
8 External links
[edit]Word classes and phrase classes
Eight major word classes are described here. These
are: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and determiner. The first seven are
traditionally referred to as "parts of speech". There are minor word classes, such as interjections, but
[2]
these do not fit into the clause and sentence structure of English.
Open and closed classes
[2]
Open word classes allow new members; closed word classes seldom do. Nouns such as "celebutante",
(a celebrity who frequents the fashion circles)" and "mentee," (a person advised by a mentor) and
adverbs such as "24/7" ("I am working on it 24/7") are relatively new words; nouns and adverbs are
[2]
therefore open classes. However, the pronoun, "their," as agender-neutral singular replacement for the
"his or her" (as in: "Each new arrival should check in their luggage."), while in widespread conversational
3. use, has not gained complete acceptance in the more than forty years of its use; pronouns, in
[2]
consequence, form a closed class.
Word classes and grammatical forms
A word can sometimes belong to several word classes. The class version of a word is called a
[3]
"lexeme". For example, the word "run" is usually a verb, but it can also be a noun ("It is a ten mile run
[3]
to Tipperary."); these are two different lexemes. Further, the same lexeme may be inflected to express
different grammatical categories: for example, as a verb lexeme, "run" has several forms such as "runs,"
[3]
"ran," and "running." Words in one class can sometimes be derived from those in another and new
words be created. The noun "aerobics," for example, has recently given rise to the adjective "aerobicized"
[3]
("the aerobicized bodies of Beverly Hills celebutantes." )
Phrase classes
Words combine to form phrases which themselves can take on the attributes of a word class. These
[3]
classes are called phrase classes. The phrase: "The ancient pulse of germ and birth" is a noun
phrase and functions as a noun in the sentence: "The ancient pulse of germ and birth was shrunken hard
and dry." (Thomas Hardy, The Darkling Thrush) It is therefore anoun phrase. Other phrase classes
[3]
are: verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, and determiner phrases.
[edit]Nouns
Nouns form the largest word class. According to Carter and McCarthy, they denote "classes and
categories of things in the world, including people, animals, inanimate things, places, events, qualities
[3]
and states." Consequently, the words "Mandela," "jaguar," "mansion," "volcano," "Timbuktoo,"
"blockade," "mercy," and "liquid" are all nouns. Nouns are not commonly identified by their form; however,
some common suffixes such as "-age" ("shrinkage"), "-hood" ("sisterhood"), "-ism" ("journalism"), "-ist"
("lyricist"), "-ment" ("adornment"), "-ship" ("companionship"), "-tude" ("latitude"), and so forth, are usually
[3]
identifiers of nouns. There are exceptions, of course: "assuage" and "disparage" are verbs; "augment" is
a verb, "lament" and "worship" can be verbs. Nouns can also be created by conversion of verbs or
adjectives. Examples include the nouns in: "a boring talk," "a five-week run," "the long caress," "the utter
disdain," and so forth.
Number, gender, type, and syntactic features
[4]
Nouns have singular and plural forms. Many plural forms have -s or -es endings (dog/dogs,
referee/referees, bush/bushes), but by no means all (woman/women, axis/axes, medium/media). Unlike
[4]
some other languages, in English, nouns do not have grammatical gender. However, many nouns can
refer to masculine or feminine animate objects (mother/father, tiger/tigress, alumnus/alumna,
[4]
male/female). Nouns can be classified semantically, i.e. by their meanings: common nouns ("sugar,"
"maple," "syrup," "wood"), proper nouns ("Cyrus," "China"), concrete nouns ("book," "laptop"),
[4]
and abstract nouns ("heat," "prejudice"). Alternatively, they can be distinguished grammatically: count
[5]
nouns ("clock," "city," "colour") and non-count nouns ("milk," "decor," "foliage").
[edit]Noun phrases
Main article: English noun phrase
Noun phrases are phrases that function grammatically as nouns within sentences. Nouns serve as
[5]
"heads," or main words of noun phrases. Nouns have several syntactic features that can aid in their
[5]
identification. Nouns (example: common noun "cat") may be
4. 1. modified by adjectives ("the beautiful Angora cat"),
2. preceded by determiners ("the beautiful Angora cat"), or
[5]
3. pre-modified by other nouns ("the beautiful Angora cat").
Within the noun phrase, determiners occur at the far left edge of the noun phrase before the noun head
and before any other modifiers:
DETERMINER + OTHER MODIFIERS + NOUN
The head can have modifiers, a complement, or both.
Modifiers which occur before the head are called '"pre-modifiers", and those which occur after the
[5]
head ("who knows what fighting means") are called "post-modifiers". Pre-modifiers can be
determiners ("The"), adjectives ("rough", "seamy-faced", "real raw-knuckle", or "burnt-out"), or other
nouns ("College").
Complements occur after the head like post-modifiers, but are essential for completing the meaning
[6]
of the noun phrase in a way that modifiers are not.
Examples of modifiers (heads are in boldface, modifiers are italicized) include:
[7]
"The burnt-out ends of smoky days."
[8]
"The rough, seamy-faced, raw-boned College Servitor ..."
[9]
"The real raw-knuckle boys who know what fighting means, ..."
Examples of complements (heads are in boldface, complements are italicized) include:
[10]
1. "The burnt-out ends of smoky days."
2. "The suggestion that Mr. Touchett should invite me appeared to have come from Miss
[11]
Stackpole."
[12]
3. "The ancient pulse of germ and birth was shrunken hard and dry."
Within a sentence, a noun phrase can function as the grammatical subject or the object, as well as
[6]
other uses. Examples (the noun phrase is italicized, and the head boldfaced):
[13]
1. Subject: "Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest."
[14]
2. Object: "Dr. Pavlov ... delivered many long propaganda harangues ..." )
Noun phrases can be constructed with the determiner "the" and an adjective. Some examples are:
"The great and the good were present."
"Give to the poor."
Noun phrases can be compound:
[15]
1. "The idle spear and shield ..."
More examples of noun phrases are:
the balloon the big red balloo
DET NOUN DET ADJ ADJ NOUN
5. many balloons many big red ball
DET NOUN DET ADJ ADJ NOU
all balloons all big red balloo
DET NOUN DET ADJ ADJ NOUN
The distinctness of the determiner and adjective positions relative to each other and the noun head is
demonstrable in that adjectives may never precede determiners. Thus, the following are
ungrammatical English nouns phrases: *big the red balloon, *big red the balloon (as well as *big
many red balloons, *big red many balloons, *big all red balloons, *big red all balloons).
[edit]Order of determiners
Determiners can be divided into three subclasses according to their position with respect to each
other:
predeteminers
central determiners
postdeterminers
Predeterminers may precede central determiners but may not follow central determiners.
Postdeterminers follow central determiners but may not precede them. Central determiners must
occur after predeterminers and before postdeterminers. Thus, a central determiner e.g. the as in
the red balloons
DET ADJ NOUN
can be preceded by a predeterminer e.g. all as in
all the red balloons
PREDET CENT.DET
DET ADJ NOUN
or the central determiner the can be followed by a postdeterminer e.g. many as in
the many red balloons
CENT.DET POSTDET
DET ADJ NOUN
A sequence of predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer is also possible as
in
all the many red balloons
PREDET CENT.DET POSTDET
DET ADJ NOUN
6. However, there are several restrictions on combinatory possibilities. One general
restriction is that only one determiner can occur in each of the three determiner
positions. For example, the postdeterminers many and seven can occur in the
following
many smart children
seven smart children
the many smart children
the seven smart children
but both many and seven cannot occur in postdeterminer position
rendering the following noun phrases ungrammatical: *many
seven smart children, *seven many smart children, *the many
seven smart children, *the seven many smart children.
Additionally, there are often other lexical restrictions. For example,
the predeterminer all can occur alone (as the sole determiner) or
before a central determiner (e.g., all children, all the children, all
these children, all my children); however, the
predeterminer such can only occur alone or before a central
determiner (e.g., such nuisance!, such a nuisance!).
Predeterminers include words
e.g. all, both, half, double, twice, three times, one-third, one-
fifth, three-quarters, such, exclamative what. Examples with
predeterminers preceding a central determiner:
all the big balloons
both his nice parents
half a minute
double the risk
twice my age
three times my salary
one-third the cost
one-fifth the rate
three-quarters the diameter
such a big boy
what a clever suggestion
Central
determiners
include words
e.g. the, a/an, this,
that, these, those,
7. every, each, enou
gh, much, more, m
ost, less, no, some
, either, neither, w
hich, what.
Examples of
central
determiners
preceding
adjectival modified
noun heads:
the big balloon
a big balloon
this big balloon
that big balloon
these big balloons
those big balloons
every big balloon
each big balloon
no big balloon
some big balloons
either big balloon
English grammar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from English grammer)
English grammar series
English grammar
Contraction
Disputes in English grammar
English compound
English honorifics
English personal pronouns
8. English plural
English relative clauses
English verbs
English irregular verbs
English modal verb
Gender in English
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edit
English grammar is the body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in the English language. This
includes the structure of words, phrases,clauses and sentences. A text that contains more than one sentence is
no longer in the realm of grammar, but is instead is in the realm of discourse.[1]
The grammar of a language is approached in two ways: descriptive grammar is based on analysis of text
corpora and describes grammatical structures thereof, whereas prescriptive grammar attempts to use the
identified rules of a given language as a tool to govern the linguistic behaviour of speakers. This article
predominantly concerns itself with descriptive grammar.
There are historical, social and regional variations of English. Divergences from the grammar described here
occur in some dialects of English. This article describes a generalized present-day Standard English, the form
of speech found in types of public discourse including broadcasting, education, entertainment, government, and
news reporting, including both formal and informal speech. Although British English, American
English and Australian English have several lexical differences, the grammatical differences are not as
conspicuous, and will be mentioned only when appropriate.
Grammar is divided into morphology, which describes the formation of words, and syntax, which describes the
construction of meaningful phrases, clauses, and sentences out of words.
Contents
[hide]
9. 1 Word classes and phrase classes
o 1.1 Nouns
1.1.1 Noun phrases
1.1.1.1 Order of determiners
o 1.2 Determiners
o 1.3 Pronouns
1.3.1 Personal pronouns
1.3.2 Demonstrative pronouns
1.3.3 Relative pronouns
o 1.4 Verbs
1.4.1 Regular and irregular lexical verbs
1.4.2 Auxiliary verbs
1.4.3 History of English verbs
o 1.5 Adjectives
1.5.1 Adjective phrases
o 1.6 Adverbs
1.6.1 Adverb placement
1.6.2 Adverb phrases
o 1.7 Prepositions
1.7.1 Prepositional phrases
o 1.8 Conjunctions
2 Clause syntax
o 2.1 Verb phrases
2.1.1 Tense
2.1.2 Aspect
2.1.3 Voice
2.1.4 Mood
o 2.2 Adjuncts
o 2.3 Verb complementation
2.3.1 Transitive and intransitive verbs
2.3.2 Ergative verbs
3 Sentence and clause patterns
10. o 3.1 Clause types
4 History of English grammars
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 Bibliography
o 7.1 Grammar books
o 7.2 Monographs
8 External links
[edit]Word classes and phrase classes
Eight major word classes are described here. These
are: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and determiner. The first seven are
traditionally referred to as "parts of speech". There are minor word classes, such as interjections, but these do
not fit into the clause and sentence structure of English.[2]
Open and closed classes
Open word classes allow new members; closed word classes seldom do.[2] Nouns such as "celebutante", (a
celebrity who frequents the fashion circles)" and "mentee," (a person advised by a mentor) and adverbs such
as "24/7" ("I am working on it 24/7") are relatively new words; nouns and adverbs are therefore open
classes.[2] However, the pronoun, "their," as agender-neutral singular replacement for the "his or her" (as in:
"Each new arrival should check in their luggage."), while in widespread conversational use, has not gained
complete acceptance in the more than forty years of its use; pronouns, in consequence, form a closed class.[2]
Word classes and grammatical forms
A word can sometimes belong to several word classes. The class version of a word is called a "lexeme".[3] For
example, the word "run" is usually a verb, but it can also be a noun ("It is a ten mile run to Tipperary."); these
are two different lexemes.[3] Further, the same lexeme may be inflected to express different grammatical
categories: for example, as a verb lexeme, "run" has several forms such as "runs," "ran," and
"running."[3] Words in one class can sometimes be derived from those in another and new words be created.
The noun "aerobics," for example, has recently given rise to the adjective "aerobicized" ("the aerobicized
bodies of Beverly Hills celebutantes."[3])
Phrase classes
Words combine to form phrases which themselves can take on the attributes of a word class. These classes
are called phrase classes.[3] The phrase: "The ancient pulse of germ and birth" is a noun phrase and functions
as a noun in the sentence: "The ancient pulse of germ and birth was shrunken hard and dry." (Thomas
11. Hardy, The Darkling Thrush) It is therefore anoun phrase. Other phrase classes are: verb phrases, adjective
phrases, adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, and determiner phrases.[3]
[edit]Nouns
Nouns form the largest word class. According to Carter and McCarthy, they denote "classes and categories of
things in the world, including people, animals, inanimate things, places, events, qualities and
states."[3] Consequently, the words "Mandela," "jaguar," "mansion," "volcano," "Timbuktoo," "blockade,"
"mercy," and "liquid" are all nouns. Nouns are not commonly identified by their form; however, some
common suffixes such as "-age" ("shrinkage"), "-hood" ("sisterhood"), "-ism" ("journalism"), "-ist" ("lyricist"), "-
ment" ("adornment"), "-ship" ("companionship"), "-tude" ("latitude"), and so forth, are usually identifiers of
nouns.[3] There are exceptions, of course: "assuage" and "disparage" are verbs; "augment" is a verb, "lament"
and "worship" can be verbs. Nouns can also be created by conversion of verbs or adjectives. Examples include
the nouns in: "a boring talk," "a five-week run," "the long caress," "the utter disdain," and so forth.
Number, gender, type, and syntactic features
Nouns have singular and plural forms.[4] Many plural forms have -s or -es endings (dog/dogs, referee/referees,
bush/bushes), but by no means all (woman/women, axis/axes, medium/media). Unlike some other languages,
in English, nouns do not have grammatical gender.[4] However, many nouns can refer to masculine or feminine
animate objects (mother/father, tiger/tigress, alumnus/alumna, male/female).[4] Nouns can be classified
semantically, i.e. by their meanings: common nouns ("sugar," "maple," "syrup," "wood"), proper nouns ("Cyrus,"
"China"), concrete nouns ("book," "laptop"), and abstract nouns ("heat," "prejudice").[4] Alternatively, they can
be distinguished grammatically: count nouns ("clock," "city," "colour") and non-count nouns ("milk," "decor,"
"foliage").[5]
[edit]Noun phrases
Main article: English noun phrase
Noun phrases are phrases that function grammatically as nouns within sentences. Nouns serve as "heads," or
main words of noun phrases.[5] Nouns have several syntactic features that can aid in their
identification.[5] Nouns (example: common noun "cat") may be
1. modified by adjectives ("the beautiful Angora cat"),
2. preceded by determiners ("the beautiful Angora cat"), or
3. pre-modified by other nouns ("the beautiful Angora cat").[5]
Within the noun phrase, determiners occur at the far left edge of the noun phrase before the noun head and
before any other modifiers:
12. DETERMINER + OTHER MODIFIERS + NOUN
The head can have modifiers, a complement, or both.
Modifiers which occur before the head are called '"pre-modifiers", and those which occur after the head
("who knows what fighting means") are called "post-modifiers".[5] Pre-modifiers can be determiners
("The"), adjectives ("rough", "seamy-faced", "real raw-knuckle", or "burnt-out"), or other nouns ("College").
Complements occur after the head like post-modifiers, but are essential for completing the meaning of the
noun phrase in a way that modifiers are not.[6]
Examples of modifiers (heads are in boldface, modifiers are italicized) include:
"The burnt-out ends of smoky days."[7]
"The rough, seamy-faced, raw-boned College Servitor ..."[8]
"The real raw-knuckle boys who know what fighting means, ..."[9]
Examples of complements (heads are in boldface, complements are italicized) include:
1. "The burnt-out ends of smoky days."[10]
2. "The suggestion that Mr. Touchett should invite me appeared to have come from Miss
Stackpole."[11]
3. "The ancient pulse of germ and birth was shrunken hard and dry."[12]
Within a sentence, a noun phrase can function as the grammatical subject or the object, as well as other
uses.[6] Examples (the noun phrase is italicized, and the head boldfaced):
1. Subject: "Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest."[13]
2. Object: "Dr. Pavlov ... delivered many long propaganda harangues ..."[14])
Noun phrases can be constructed with the determiner "the" and an adjective. Some examples are:
"The great and the good were present."
"Give to the poor."
Noun phrases can be compound:
1. "The idle spear and shield ..."[15]
More examples of noun phrases are:
the balloon the big
13. DET NOUN DET ADJ
many balloons many b
DET NOUN DET A
all balloons all big
DET NOUN DET ADJ
The distinctness of the determiner and adjective positions relative to each other and the noun head is
demonstrable in that adjectives may never precede determiners. Thus, the following are ungrammatical
English nouns phrases: *big the red balloon, *big red the balloon (as well as *big many red balloons, *big
red many balloons, *big all red balloons, *big red all balloons).
[edit]Order of determiners
Determiners can be divided into three subclasses according to their position with respect to each other:
predeteminers
central determiners
postdeterminers
Predeterminers may precede central determiners but may not follow central determiners. Postdeterminers
follow central determiners but may not precede them. Central determiners must occur after predeterminers
and before postdeterminers. Thus, a central determiner e.g. the as in
the red balloons
DET ADJ NOUN
can be preceded by a predeterminer e.g. all as in
all the red balloons
PREDET CENT.DET
DET ADJ NOUN
or the central determiner the can be followed by a postdeterminer e.g. many as in
14. the many red balloons
CENT.DET POSTDET
DET ADJ NOUN
A sequence of predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer is also possible as in
all the many red balloons
PREDET CENT.DET POSTDET
DET ADJ NOUN
However, there are several restrictions on combinatory possibilities. One general
restriction is that only one determiner can occur in each of the three determiner
positions. For example, the postdeterminers many and seven can occur in the following
many smart children
seven smart children
the many smart children
the seven smart children
but both many and seven cannot occur in postdeterminer position
rendering the following noun phrases ungrammatical: *many seven
smart children, *seven many smart children, *the many seven smart
children, *the seven many smart children. Additionally, there are often
other lexical restrictions. For example, the predeterminer all can occur
alone (as the sole determiner) or before a central determiner (e.g., all
children, all the children, all these children, all my children); however,
the predeterminer such can only occur alone or before a central
determiner (e.g., such nuisance!, such a nuisance!).
Predeterminers include words e.g. all, both, half, double, twice, three
times, one-third, one-fifth, three-quarters, such, exclamative what.
Examples with predeterminers preceding a central determiner:
all the big balloons
both his nice parents
half a minute
15. double the risk
twice my age
three times my salary
one-third the cost
one-fifth the rate
three-quarters the diameter
such a big boy
what a clever suggestion
Central determiners
include words
e.g. the, a/an, this, t
hat, these, those, e
very, each, enough,
much, more, most,
less, no, some, eith
er, neither, which,
what.
Examples of central
determiners
preceding adjectival
modified noun
heads:
the big balloon
a big balloon
this big balloon
that big balloon
these big balloons
those big balloons
every big balloon
each big balloon
no big balloon
some big balloons
either big balloon
16.
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22. [ my stepmother’s ] friendly children
both [ my stepmother’s ] friendly children
[ my stepmother’s ] many friendly children
all [ my stepmother’s ] many friendly children
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1176. [ my stepmother’s ] friendly children
both [ my stepmother’s ] friendly children
[ my stepmother’s ] many friendly children
all [ my stepmother’s ] many friendly children