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3. Challenges
In realising entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education into mode of action, there are
challenges that need to be addressed. The challenges are discussed as in the following few
paragraphs.
3.1 One, is entrepreneurship teachable?
There is contention to this issue. There has been research looking into this and suggest that
the teaching of entrepreneurship is comparable to the teaching of art where some people are
naturally talented, whilst others need to work hard to achieve success as entrepreneurs (Saee,
1996). He further mentions that an entrepreneur is not created based on a curriculum but
demonstrations on how to become successful entrepreneurs is beneficial. In short,
entrepreneurs are responsible for their own success whether they are taught to be one or
otherwise. “There is scant evidence that entrepreneurship education courses prepared any of
them [entrepreneurs] for successfully managing or growing their post start-up firms” (Matlay,
2006)
Nonetheless, there has been instances where research shows that entrepreneurship education
encourages the involvement of more people in being an entrepreneur. Brown (1990) and
Vesper & Gartner (1996) both agreed that graduates who chose entrepreneurship as part of
their curriculum while studying tend to have more probability to be involved in
entrepreneurship activities.
Some recent scholars believe that entrepreneurship is teachable (Mwasalwiba, 2010) even if
ti is with some cautions. There is a need for more agreement on the definitions of
entrepreneurship. This is important as the definition provides educators with the basis for the
approach to teach entrepreneurship. Furthermore, there is also a need for longitudinal
research on the effects of entrepreneurship education on graduates in particular and on
entrepreneur in general so educators have more evidence and data to present the importance
of including entrepreneurship in the curriculum as a whole.
3.2 Two, are we, as educators, ready and capable to teach entrepreneurship?
Educators need to have the awareness and understanding that entrepreneurship education,
among others, includes the following:
• EE is not just knowledge acquisition
• EE is about developing competencies, attitudes and behaviour to make things happen
• EE requires active participations
• EE is learner centred pedagogies
• EE involves learning opportunities from the real world
With these points in mind, it is eminent that “teachers [educators] need the professional
competencies to be able to guide students through the learning process and acquire the
competencies rather than, as in the traditional methods, communicating knowledge and
information through „chalk and talk‟” (European Commission, 2011: p. 19).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/elemenkeusahawanandlmpendidikantinggi-141216040324-conversion-gate01/85/Elemen-keusahawanan-dlm-pendidikan-tinggi-158-320.jpg)
Uploaded byMubarrak Yak
Elemen keusahawanan dlm pendidikan tinggi
This document discusses the development of entrepreneurship in higher education institutions in Indonesia to address unemployment and create job opportunities. It emphasizes three roles of universities: education, research, and community service. Universities should foster entrepreneurship, creativity and skills in students to empower communities and solve social problems. Programs introduce entrepreneurship concepts across disciplines and establish entrepreneurship centers on campuses. The goal is to nurture entrepreneurial spirit and reduce the unemployment rate of educated graduates.
Elemen keusahawanan dlm pendidikan tinggi
- 2. 1 ELEMEN KEUSAHAWANAN DALAMPENDIDIKAN TINGGI Entrepreneurship and creativity element in tertiary education Panel Editor Prof. Dr. Haji Mohd Mustafa Bin Mohd Ghazali Dr. Siti Maftuhah Damio Dr. Hajjah Norsidah Mohammed Noordin Dr. Rohaya Abdul Wahab Mohamad Azmi Adnan Mohammad Mubarrak Mohd Yusof Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud Siti Fairuz Dalim Diterbitkan Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM Pereka Kulit Raiha Shahanaz Redzuan Diatur Huruf Mohamad Azmi Adnan Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud Mohammad Mubarrak MohdYusof Hak cipta terpelihara. Tiada dibenarkan mengeluar ulang mana-mana bahagian artikel, ilustrasi, dan isi kandungan buku ini dalam apa juga bentuk dan cara apa jua sama ada dengan cara elektronik, fotokopi, mekanik, atau cara lain sebelum mendapat izin bertulis daripada Dekan Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Kampus Seksyen 17, 40200 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Perundingan tertakluk kepada perkiraan royalti atau honorarium. Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Data Pengkatalogan-dalam-Penerbitan Edisi Pertama 2014 © Mohd Mustafa Bin Mohd Ghazali, Siti Maftuhah Damio, Hajjah Norsidah Mohammed Noordin, Rohaya Abdul Wahab, Mohamad Azmi Adnan, Mohammad Mubarrak Mohd Yusof, Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud, Siti Fairuz Dalim 2014
- 3. 2 PRAKATA TIMBALAN NAIBCANSELOR, JARINGAN INDUSTRI MASYARAKAT DAN ALUMNI UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA Selamat Sejahtera dan Salam Bahagia, Saya mengucapkan syabas dan tahniah atas penganjuran Seminar Antarabangsa oleh Fakulti Pendidikan bersama-sama Sekolah Tinggi Keguruan Ilmu Pendidikan dan Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Bandung UPI ini. Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM berada di atas landasan yang tepat dalam menyemarakkan elemen keusahawanan ini sebagai tema seminar. Ini selari dengan aspirasi universiti yang berhasrat melahirkan graduan bakal menjadi usahawan muda lebih-lebih lagi selepas UiTM dianugerahkan dengan gelaran Universiti Keusahawanan oleh Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia baru-baru ini. Tambahan pula Fakulti Pendidikan telah memenangi banyak anugerah keusahawanan fakulti. Saya berkeyakinan tinggi seminar antarabangsa yang dianjurkan ini akan memberi impak yang tinggi dalam usaha menjadikan bidang keusahawanan sebagai teras melahirkan graduan pendidikan yang berkualiti. Selamat berseminar dan selamat maju jaya. Profesor Dr. Norsaadah Ismail Timbalan Naib Canselor, Jaringan Industri Masyarakat dan Alumni Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia.
- 4. 3 PRAKATA DEKAN FAKULTIPENDIDIKAN UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA Salam Sejahtera, Saya mengambil kesempatan ini untuk mengucapkan syabas dan tahniah kepada semua Ahli Jawatankuasa seminar ini kerana berjaya menguruskan program kedua seumpama ini selepas kolokium antarabangsa di UPI Bandung pada tahun 2013. Seminar ini amat bermanfaat dalam usaha menumpulkan idea dan pandangan berkaitan bidang keusahwanan selari dengan pengiktirafan yang diberikan kepada UiTM sebagai sebuah universiti keusahawanan. Tambahan pula Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM sedang mengorak langkah menjana pelbagai transformasi ke arah menambahbaik peranan dan fungsi fakulti melatih bakal graduan dalam pelbagai dimensi ilmu. Selamat datang diucapkan kepada semua ahli rombongan dari Sekolah Tinggi Keguruan Ilmu Pendidikan UPI Bandung ke seminar yang diadakan di Malaysia pada kali ini semoga usaha murni ini akan terus berpanjangan dalam tindakan bersama mencari kecemerlangan akademia di universiti masing-masing akan berterusan. Semoga seminar ini akan merapatkan hubungan di antara kedua-dua buah universiti dan negara amnya. Selamat berseminar. Sekian, Terima Kasih Profesor Dr. Hj. Mohd Mustafa Mohd Ghazali Dekan Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia.
- 5. 4 PRAKATA KETUA MAGISTERPENDIDIKAN IPS Memanjatkan rasa syukur kehadirat Allah Robul A‟lamin bahwa berkat rahmat dan karunia-Nya telah terjalin kerjasama antara UITM dengan STKIP Pasundan, terutama Proogram Magister (S2) Pendidikan Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial untuk mengadakan Seminar AntarBangsa di Kampus UITM yang bertemakan: “Elemen Keusahawanan Dalam Pendidikan Tinggi”. Di Indonesia, usaha-usaha untuk menanamkan jiwa dan semangat kewirausahaan di perguruan tinggi terus digalakan dan ditingkatkan, tentunya dengan berbagai metode dan strategi yang membuat mahasiswa tertarik untuk berwirausaha. Menurut Heri Kuswara (2012), sedikitnya ada enam usaha atau cara dalam meningkatkan gemar kewirausahaan bagi mahasiswa, antara lain: 1. Pendirian Pusat Kewirausahaan Kampus. 2. Entrepreneurship Priority. 3. Pengembangan Program Mahasiswa Wirausaha (PMW) 4. Program Wirausaha Mandiri Untuk Mahasiswa. 5. Program Peningkatan Kompetensi Tenaga Kerja dan Produktivitas bagi Mahasiswa. 6. Program Pemberian Modal Usaha Untuk Mahasiswa. Selanjutnya McClelland (1998:25-28) menyatakan bahwa, ada tiga sifat baku yang ada dalam setiap diri manusia, yaitu: need of power, need of affilitiation, dan need of achievement. Ketiga sifat baku tersebut merefleksikan karakteristik kewirausahaan sebagai berikut: 1. Adanya keinginan untuk berprestasi. 2. Adanya keinginan untuk bertanggung jawab. 3. Mempunyai preferensi kepada resiko-resiko menengah. 4. Mempunyai persepsi pada kemungkinan berhasil. 5. Memperhitungkan umpan balik dan apa yang mereka kerjakan. 6. Mempunyai aktivitas enerjik. 7. Berorientasi masa depan. 8. Mempunyai keterampilan dalam pengorganisasian, dan 9. Sikap menomorduakan uang. Pada kesempatan yang berbahagia ini kami ingin mengucapkan terimakasih yang sebesar- besarnya terutama kepada Profesor Dr. Haji Mohd Mustafa Mohd Ghazali selaku Dekan Fakulti Pendidikan UITM, Profesor Dr. Norsaadah Ismail selaku Timbalan Naib Conselor
- 6. 5 Jaringan Industri, Masyarakatdan alumni UITM, juga kawan karib saya Haji Mohamad Azmi Adnan yang telah memfasilitasi untuk bisa terselenggara Seminar AntarBangsa antara UITM dengan STKIP Pasundan dan mudah-mudahan bisa dilanjutkan dengan diterbitkannya Prossiding dan buku. Mudah-mudahan kegiatan ini bisa mempererat persaudaraan antara UiTM dan STKIP Pasundan, baik bidang pendidikan pengajaran, penelitian maupun bidang pengabdian pada masyarakat. Akhirnya mudah-mudahan Allah Swt membalas amal shaleh Bapak dan Ibu dengan limpahan rahmat dan karunia-Nya, amin. Bandung, 28 Maret 2014 Ketua Magister Pendidikan IPS Ttd. Prof. Dr. H. Endang Komara, M.Si
- 7. 6 KANDUNGAN ISBN-978-967-13125-0-6 TAJUK MUKASURAT PRAKATA 2 KANDUNGAN 6-7 Pengembangan Kewirausahaan Di Perguruan Tinggi, Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Dan Kultur Pendidikan Dalam Rangka Menumbuhkan Kreativitas Dan Penciptaan Lapangan Kerja 8-14 Endang Komara Effectiveness of Entrepreneurship Programs among institutions of higher learning in Malaysia: Some issues and challenges 15-25 Ros Aizan Yahaya, Razmi Chik, Mohd Khalid fMohd Abas, Mohamed Dahlan Ibrahim, Mohd Rafi Yaacob, Ghazali Ahmad, Wee Yu Ghee & Mohammad Nizamuddin Abdul Rahim Empowering Youth In Social Entrepreneurship: Best Practices From Universiti Teknologi Mara (Uitm) International Humanitarian Mission To Kampung Ampel, Cambodia 26-32 Norshiha Saidin Entrepreneurship Inclination among Prospective Teachers: A case of Universiti Teknologi MARA 33-40 Norshidah Nordin, Melissa Malik & Rohaya Abdul Wahab Menggunakan Kemahiran ETR di kalangan Guru Pelatih: Refleksi bagi Seminar Kelas Pembangunan Profesional 41-48 Rohaya Abdul Wahab, Nadia Ainuddin Dahlan & Norsidah Mohd Nordin Konsep Kewirausahaan di Perguruan Tinggi 49-54 Nuning Sri Sukandari Pendidikan IPS di Sekolah dalam membimbing siswa berwirausaha untuk menghadapi era globalisasi 55-62 Tony Mokhamad Taufik Kurikulum kewirausahaan yang mampu membentuk generasi muda atau para lulusan, baik SMA, SMK, SMP 63-72 Esih Kurniawati Pendidikan Guru Di Muzium Dan Galeri Seni: Satu Pendekatan 73-82 Badrul Isa, Mohamad Azmi Adnan, Sumardianshah Silah & Raiha Shahanaz Redzuan
- 8. 7 Pengamatan Estetika TerhadapReka Bentuk Pakaian: Keselesaan Dan Pergerakan Fizikal 83-89 Muhamad Firdaus Ramli & Mohammad Mubarrak Mohd Yusof The Level of Self-Efficacy and Academic Achievement among Physical And Health Education Students Of UiTM Shah Alam 90-101 Nurshamshida Md Shamsudin, Nur Basyirah Shafei & Mohammad Mubarrak Bin Mohd Yusof Utilizing of Concept Mapping for Teaching Biodiversity to Lower Secondary Students in Science Classroom 102-124 Nurshamshida Md Shamsudin, Aisyah Binti Anuar, Siti Fairuz Dalim & Mohammad Mubarrak Bin Mohd Yusof Visual Art for Money Making: A Malaysian Teachers’ Training Institution Experience 125-131 Mohd Khairezan Rahmat & Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud Penghasilan Karya Kontemporari Menerusi Kaedah Penyelidikan Artistik ke atas Struktur Motif Ukiran Kayu Tradisional Melayu Terengganu 132-144 Sumardianshah Silah, Badrul Isa, & Raiha Shahanaz Redzuan Interest in Learning Science Among Students in SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam 145-154 Mohammad Mubarrak Mohd Yusof, Anthony Roi Jamil, & Nurshamshida Md Shamsudin Teachers and Entrepreneurship Education: The Basic Necessities 155-159 Siti Maftuhah Damio & Hamimah Hashim
- 9. 8 Pengembangan Kewirausahaan DiPerguruan Tinggi, Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Dan Kultur Pendidikan Dalam Rangka Menumbuhkan Kreativitas Dan Penciptaan Lapangan Kerja Endang Komara Latar Belakang: Program-program pengembangan dan penumbuhan wirausaha mahasiswa dikalangan Perguruan Tinggi tersebut dilatarbelakangi oleh keprihatinan masih besarnya pengangguran terbuka di negara Indonesia. Dan Pengembangan kewirausahaan pada perguruan tinggi di Indonesia saat ini tengah digalakan seiring dengan pesatnya pertumbuhan industri dan arus globalisasi. Menganalisa disatu sisi menurut laporan BPS, pada 2011 pengangguran mencapai 8,12 juta orang sebesar 14,45% adalah pengangguran terdidik lulusan perguruan tinggi, dan 91,85% lulusan SMA dan SMP sementara disisi lain, saat ini perguruan tinggi setiap tahunnya menghasilkan sekitar 1 Juta lulusan. Karena keterbatasan pasar kerja, yang dapat diserap hanya 30%. 1. Pendahuluan Oleh karena itu dengan Perguruan Tinggi sebagai Institusi pendidikan tertinggi setidaknya mengamalkan tiga kewajiban (Tridarma) yakni pendidikan, penelitian, dan pengabdian. Tridarma ditunjukan paling utama pada mahasiswa sebagai peserta didik dan bagian terbanyak dari Civitas academica Perguruan Tinggi. Setiap aktifitas academic dan non academic mahasiswa sejatinya harus selalu diarahkan agar nantinya memiliki karakter pendidikan penelitian, dan pengabdian pada masyarakat. Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, Perguruan Tinggi mendapatkan nilai tambah bila dihubungkan dengan kewirausahaan. Kiranya tulisan ini kiranya dapat meninfirasi sekaligus memberikan gambaran dan solusi jangka panjang dalam menatap indonesia di masa depan yang lebih cerah Amin. 1.1 Rumusan masalah Masalah yang menjadi bahasan pada makalah ini adalah bagaimana Perguruan Tinggi Di Indonesia mengembangan kewirausahaan, Pemberdayaan masyarakat dan karakter pendidikan dalam menumbuhkan kreatifitas dan penciptaan lapangan kerja. 1.2 Tujuan Untuk mengetahui bagaimana peran perguruan Tinggi dalam menumbuhkan kewirausaahaan mahasiswa, peberdayaan masyarakat dan karakter pendidikan dalam kreatifitas dan penciptaan lapangan kerja. 2. Pembahasan 2.1 Pengembangan kewirausahaan di Perguruan Tinggi dan pemberdaayaan masyarakat Pengembangan kewirausahaan pada perguruan tinggi di Indonesia saat ini tengah digalakan seiring dengan pesatnya pertumbuhan industri dan arus globalisasi. Gaung kewirausahaan dalam Perguruan Tinggi mulai terdengar seiring dengan hasil pertemuan Negara-negara diwilayah Asia dan Fasifik, APEC, di Seattle, Amerika Serikat. Diantara hasil tersebut
- 10. 9 berisikan adanya kerjasamasegitiga antara government – business-universities dengan harapan dapat menyokong perekonomian setiap negara Asia dan Pasifik. Selanjutnya Kewirausahaan yang sejatinya melekat dengan jurusan ekonomi dan bisnis, Perlahan tetapi pasti mulai diperkenalkan diberbagai jurusan di beberapa Perguruan Tinggi di Indonesia. Dan pada praktiknya, kewirausahaan menjadi mata kuliah umum disetiap jurusan Dalam kuliah tersebut mahasiswa di berikan pembelajaran mengenai konsep, kendala dan metode berwirausaha sejak dini. Mengutip pendapat Timon dalam buku kuratko dan Hodgetts berjudul Entrepreneurship: A Canteporary Approach (2000:17), Kewirausahaan merupakan kemampuan membuat dan membangun visi dari suatu yang seolah-olah tidak sesuai deangan tindak kreatif, perhatian, prakarsa, dan analisisnya terhadap perkembangan situasi. Sementara itu, Ziglar dalam yuliana ( 2011 ) mengutarakan bahwa wirausaha selalu mencari perubahan dengan melihat perubahan itu sebagai norma, sesuatu yang sehat, menanggapi dan memanfaatkan perubahan itu sebagai peluang. (PR.12/12/2013) Perguruan Tinggi sebagai Institusi pendidikan tertinggi setidaknya mengamalkan tiga kewajiban (Tridarma) yakni pendidikan, penelitian, dan pengabdian. Tridarma ditunjukan paling utama pada mahasiswa sebagai peserta didik dan bagian terbanyak dari Civitas academica Perguruan Tinggi. Setiap aktifitas academic dan non academic mahasiswa sejatinya harus selalu diarahkan agar nantinya memiliki karakter pendidikan penelitian, dan pengabdian pada masyarakat. Sejalan dengan hal tersebut, Perguruan Tinggi mendapatkan nilai tambah bila dihubungkan dengan kewirausahaan. 2.2 Potensi mahasiswa Dilihat dari latar belakang pendidikan, mahasiswa memiliki sejumlah potensi lebih dari golongan pemuda lainnya pertama, mahaasiswa telah memiliki pengalaman belajar hingga jenjang pendidikan tertinggi.Tentu mahasiswa memiliki pradigma berfikir dan analitis yang tinggi. Kedua, usia muda yang khas biasanya dibarengi oleh karakter progresifitas dan kritis. Dua karakter ini sangat berguna dalam berwirausaha. Progresiv, berguna untuk terus berusaha mencari terobosan dan pembaharuan waluapun terkadang mengalami kegagalan. Sementara itu, karakter kritis diperlukan untuk terus-menerus mencari tahu sebagai peluang usaha. Selaras dengan potensi tersebut, mahasiswa di Indonesia banyak mendapatkan kemudahkan untuk membuka lapangan usaha melalui berbagai program usaha yang dikeluarkan oleh pemerintah di Perguruan Tinggi seperti program kreatifitas mahasiswa dan proposal mahasiswa wirausaha yang menjadi wadah untuk menampung gagasan wirausaha mahasiswa. Apalagi jika ditambah masih minimnya wirausaha di Indonesia yang baru berkisar 0,3% dari total penduduk nasional. Padahal untuk bisa maju, suatu Negara minimal harus mempunyai 2,5% wirausaha dari total penduduknya. 2.3 Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Kegiatan kewirausahaan menjadi tantangan tersendiri bagi mahasiswa untuk ber kontribusi pada masyarakat. Tidak sedikit mahasiswa yang terjebak pada logika individualistis dalam berwirausaha Skema keuntungannya cenderung vertical (Vertical Profit) yakni antara konsumen, produksi, dan mengaku usahanya sendiri. Pradigma tersebut
- 11. 10 konon biasanya brcirikan“ Memperoleh keuntungan sebanyak-banyaknya dari modal yang minim, melalui tenaga kerja yang banyak dengan upah yang rendah”. Padahal wirausaha dapat menjadi jalan bagi mahasiswa untuk membuat usaha yang berguna bagi kolektif. Orientasi usaha yang dibuat tidak semata mencari keuntungan untuk pribadi, melainkan pula berguna bagi masyarakat yang ada disekitarnya ( Horizontal Profit ) Skema inilah yang sejatinya dilakukan oleh mahasiswa, disamping berpotensi membuka ruang usaha, jangan pula lupakan watak naluriah mahasiswa yakni pengabdian pada masyarakat. Setidaknya praktik usaha tersebut akan terealisasi bila pengoptimalkan praktik perkuliahan kewirausahaan. Semisal contoh bila mahasiswa diberikan penugasan terjun kedaerah terpencil dan tertinggal. Berikan penugasan menganalisis potensi usaha dan kembangkan masyarakat disana agar sejahtera dengan usaha tersebut. Ketika watak pengabdian pada masyarakat terbangun, bukan tidak mungkin terbentuk usaha yang konstruktif. Para mahasiswa tersebut pada saatnya nanti bisa membuka lapangan kerja disetiap pelosok daerah terpencil. Membangun daerah dan memberdayakan masyarakat, bukan justru berteguh pada logika individualis dengan hanya sekadar membuka usaha dikota. Meskipun demikian, dibutuhkan pula keberpihakkan pemerintah secara regulasi usaha ataupun permodalan. Jika hal tersebut bisa terealisasi, bukan tidak mungkin Indonesia bebas dari ketergantungan asing. Untuk menambah pencerahan penulis berusaha untuk dapat menampilkan contoh-contoh konkrit dari implementasi praktik kewirausaan berbasis kepedulian sosial baik dari Individu, organisaasi maupun perusahaan- perusahaan dan Perguruan tinggi Yang pertama diantaranya, pada Desember 2008 lalu, DPC Hipmi purwakarta telah melakukan kerjasama dengan sebuah Koperasi di Kecamatan Campaka-Purwakarta dalam bentuk Pelatihan keterampilan menjahit. Kegiatan ini dilakukan guna meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan keterampilan menjahit bagi siswa SMPN 2 Campaka Khususnya yang tidak mampu untuk melanjutkan jenjang pendidikan berikutnya. Mengingat Kecamatan Campaka ini merupakan kawasan industry khususnya Germent. Kedua adalah kepedulian perbankan terhadap talenta kewirausahana para mahasiswa yakni mengikuti kegiatan seleksi kewirausaan muda mandiri di wilayah Jawa Barat, Pada tahap final terkuak secercah harapan tentang masa depan kompetensi bangsa ini untuk mensejajarkan diri dengan bangsa lain yang lebih maju. Ada beberapa paparan presentasi dari 23 peserta terdiri atas 16 mahasiswa dan 16 alumni perguruan tinggi. Menurut salah satu juri yaitu Bapak H. Januar P Ruswita yang ditulis pada harian Pikiran rakyat Bandung. Bahwa bisnis – bisnis yang dilakoni finalis muncul dari keberanian mereka untuk hidup mandiri dalam mengambil peluang, menghadapi tantangan, dan menanggung resiko .lingkungan dan latar belakang keluarga juga memotivasi mereka untuk berubah dan tampil berbeda, serta menumbuhkan ide, kreatifitas, inovasi, dan imajinasi yang luar biasa. Sekarang banyak dari mereka sukses secara finansial.
- 12. 11 Salah seorang peserta,mahasiswi dari Unsil Tasikmalaya. Begitu memulai kuliah, langsung memutuskan lepas dari ketergantungan kepada orangtuanya. Keberaniannya menjalankan bisnis membuat dan menjual produk-produk rajutan dengan inovasi aplikasi produk-produk local Tasikmalaya yang saat itu tidak trend dikalangan teman-teman sebayanya, justru membuat produknya menjadi unik dan cepat diminati pasar. Sekarang buah keberhasilannya terwujudkan dalam sedan hatchback yang selalu menemaninya beraktifitas. Peserta lainnya, Anggapradika, Mahasiswa IM Telkom Bandung termotivasi oleh keuletan ayahnya, sopir bus yang berani mengubah hidupnya dengan berwirausaha penyewaan bus pariwisata begitu mulai masuk kampus, anak muda ini berani menjalankan bisns kuliner masakan jepang serta mengembangkannya dengan model kemitraan syariah. Hasilnya sekarang sudah delapan outlet di operasikan. Bahkan dari penyisihan laba usahannya, dia mampu membayar uang muka pembelian satu unit bus pariwisata untuk dikelola ayahnya. Mengambil basis UMKM, bisnis anak-anak muda yang didukung fisik prima, jiwa energik, dan pemikiran kritis tersebut bisa menjadi inisiator pergerakan roda perekonomian Negara kita untuk keluar dari dampak krisis ekonomi, dan siap menghadapi era pasar bebas dunia. Dinamika bisnis mereka menjadi repleksi makna hidup, dari sikap prihatin ke sikap optimis yang selalu tertanam pada setiap gerak langkahnya. Program wirausaha muda mandiri diatas diadakan oleh Bank Mandiri, sebagai bagian coporate social responsibility (CSR) dari realisasi program kemitraan dan bina lingkungan. Mendorong menciptakan generasi muda yang tidak hanya menjadi generasi pencari kerja, tetapi juga menjadi generasi pencipta lapangan kerja. Serta mengangkan UMKM menjadi sector idaman mahasiswa, dan menggerakan nya menjadi kekuatan ekonomi Negara. Sementara Kamar Dagang dan Industri Jawa-Barat sebagai wadah organisasi pengusaha- pengusaha, dalam dua tahun terakhir meluncurkan program perahu atau penumbuhan wirausaha muda. Program yang dibantu dana CSR Pertamina ini diperuntukan bagi pengusaha-pengusaha UMKM yang berusia dibawah 35 Tahun, dengan latar belakang pendidikan Strata Satu. Kepada mereka selama enam bulan dilakukan pendampingan dan penambahan wawasan bisnis, serta dititipkan selama sebulan diperusahaan-perusahaan besar.khusus bagi wirausaha yang masih menjalankan pendidikan diperguruan tinggi, Kamar Dagang dan Industri Jawa-Barat bekerjasama dengan Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Ekuitas dibantu pembiayaan dari Telkom, Bank BJB, dan Bank BRI, Mengadaka program Studenpreneur. Program-progra penumbuhan wirausaha muda tersebut dilatarbelakangi oleh keprihatinan masih besarnya pengangguran terbuka di Negara Indonesia. Disatu sisi menurut laporan BPS, pada 2011 pengangguran mencapai 8,12 juta orang sebesar 14,45% adalah pengangguran terdidik lulusan perguruan tinggi, dan 91,85% lulusan SMA dan SMP sementara disisi lain, saat ini perguruan tinggi seiap tahunnya menghasilkan sekitar 1 Juta lulusan . Karena keterbatasan pasar kerja, yang dapat diserap hanya 30%. Paradigma baru generasi bangsa Indonesia yang kuat dalam wirausaha sedang giat dimunculkan. Pelaksanaannya memerlukan perubahan metode pendidikan diperguruan tinggi dari model perkuliahan yang hanya menghasilkan jobseeker menjadi model yang menghasilkan juga jobcreator atau wirausaha yang bisa memberikan pekerjaan kepada orang lain. Thailand adalah contoh bagaimana pemerintahannya berperan aktif menciptakan wirausaha-wirausaha muda bangsanya. Database mahasiswa-mahasiswa yang sedang
- 13. 12 menjalani pendidikan didalammaupun diluar negeri tercatat lengkap dan terintegrasi pengelolaanya. Kebijakan pemerintah terarah dan sistematis, aparatnya aktif terjun kekampus-kampus dan menawarkan program-program kewirausahaan. Berbeda dengan Indonesia, penumbuhan wirausaha-wirausaha muda masih terkendala persoalan-persoalan klasik yang justru tidak diselesaikan tuntas oleh pemerintah. Rumit dan mahalnya pengurusan izin usaha menjadi hambatan awal ketika suatu UMKM mulai menjalankan usaha. Perpajakan juga sering membuat ketidakpastian yang berujung jebakan. Sementara dukungan perbankan utuk permodalan pengambangan UMKM sudah relatif membaik, meski pelaksanaan dilapangan belum berjalan mulus.Political will dan good will Pemerintah tetap diperlukan dan harus berjalan nyata, serta diterjemahkan melalui kebijakan-kebijakan khusus yang memberikan porsi dan akses seluas-luasnya bagi wirausaha-wirausaha muda untuk menjadi agent of cange Pembangunan ekonomi bangsa. 2.4 Perubahan Mindset Pendidikan 2.4.1 Kultur Pendidikan Penulis sangat tertarik dengan Tulisan Guru besar sekaligus Rektor Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI Bandung) Bapak Sunaryo Kartadinata dengan judul tulisan Kultur Pendidikan. Hal ini saya sampaikan agar pemaparan diskusi antar bangsa ini mendapatkan gambaran utuh tentang sebuah harapan pendidikan Indonesia kedepan? Inilah tulisan selengkapnya Persoalan pendidikan yang dialami bangsa ini tidak bisa dilihat secara sporadis, melainkan harus dilihat dalam perspektif utuh Mindset pendidikan mulai dari aspek filosofis, keilmuan pendidikan sebagai landasan kerja, dan praksis pendidikan. Pendidikan bukanlah proses “ Investasi “ sesaat dan instan melainkan proses jangka panjang dan hasilnya dalam bentuk prilaku yang muncul pada saat ini merupakan produk dari proses. Persoalan proses dalam dunia pendidikan adalah hal yang penting Karena esensi pendidikan adalah proses. Proses membawa manusia dalam kondisi apa adanya kepada kondisi bagaimana seharusnya. Apakah praktik (penyelenggaraan) pendidikan selama ini sudah berlandaskan kepada Mindset utuh ilmu pendidikan dan konsisten dalam makna yang terkandung didalam jiwa amanat Undang-undang? Fenomena yang tampak menunjukan adanya kesenjangan antara Mindset utuh pendidikan yang terkandung dalam Undang Undang No 20/2003 dengan Mindset pendidikan dalam praktik penyelenggaraan pendidikan, yang menumbuhka kultur pendidikan tidak sehat. Jika pendidikan bertanggung jawab untuk membangun martabat bangsa yang diwujudkan dalam ketahanan hidup bangsa, perlu upaya penyehatan kultur pendidikan. Diperlukan repormasi pemikiran , kebijakan, dan penyalenggaraan pendidikan, yang tidak semata-mata didasarkan atas pemahaman Undang Undang secara tekstual, melainkan secara konstektual dan dilandasi dengan pemaknaan filosofis-pendagogis yang berbasis nilai kultural dan agama. Kunci utama penyahatan pendidikan terletak pada reformasi Mindset atau tata pikir secara utuh dalam memaknai hakikat dan praktik penyelenggaraan pendidikan, dan menempatkan ilmu pendidikan sebagai framework dan landasan kerja bagi penyelenggara pendidikan untuk memfasilitasi perkembangan peserta didik melalui penciptaan suasana dan prses pembelajaran yang mendidik Terdapat sejumlah kaidah mendasar yang terkandung dalm Undang Undang No.20/2003 yang perlu ditelaah dalam rangka memahami makna pendidikan dan membangun Mindset
- 14. 13 utuh pendidikan sebagailandasan kerja bagi penyelenggaraan pendidikan nasional, Untuk mengembangkan manusia Indonesia bermartabat. Pengertian pendidikan yang dinyatakan dalam pasal 1 (1) mengandung perubahan pradigma jika dibandingkan dalam kultur pendidikan yang terkandung dalam UU No.2/1989, tentang system pendidikan nasional. Dalam Undang Undang No. 20/2003 terjadi sebuah reformasi pemikiran tentang pendidikan berupa penegasan bahwa pendidikan menekankan kepada mewujudkan suasana belajar dan proses pembelajaran dan keterlibatan peserta didik secara aktif mengembangkan potensi dirinya.Pradigma ini menggambarkan bahwa proses pendidikan adalah proses transaksional untuk mengembangkan ragam potensi peserta didik. Oleh karena itu pendidik harus berinteraksi dengan keragaman yang disebutkan. Ukuran keberhasilan pendidikan yang berhenti pada angka ujian adalah sebuah ketimpangan. Dengan demikian pembelajaran akan menjadi proses menguasai keterampilan dan mengakumulasi pengetahuan. Paradigma ini menempatkan peserta didik sebagai pembelajar imitatif dan belajar dari berbagai ekspose didaktis belaka yang akan berhenti pada penguasaan fakta, prinsip dan aplikasinya. Paradigma ini tidak konsisten dalam esensi pendidikan yang digariskan dalam Undang Undang Sisdiknas dan bahkan mengingkari hakikat manusia itu sendiri. Kaidah pendidikan nasional yang disebutkan semestinya membentuk Blue Print pendidikan nasional yang mengandung landasan filosofis dan landasan kultural yang menjamin pendidikan tidak tercerabut dari akar budaya bangsa Indonesia. Ini berarti mausia Indonesia yang bermartabat adalah manusia Indonesia yang tidak tercerabut dari akar budayanya sebagai bangsa Indonesia. Pendidikan berfungsi untuk membangun karakter, membangun watak, dan membangun kepribadian dan martabat bangsa. Perlu disadari bahwa yang ditegaskan dalam hal ini adalah, kecerdasan kehidupan bangsa bukan kecerdasan orang perorang martabat bangsa bukan martabat orang per-orang.Oleh karena itu, pendidikan harus membangun kecerdasan kultural (cultural intelligency). Semua rumusan yang sangat indah tetapi abstrak itu perlu dipadankan dengan praktek penyelenggaraan pendidikan .Pertanyaannya adalah, Sudahkah praktik penyelenggaraan pendidikan menunjang terpenuhinya fungsi dan tercapainya tujuan yang dirumuskan dalam kaidah normative yang disebutkan itu? Fungsi dan tujuan pendidikan , sebagai tujuan utuh pendidikan nasional, yakni tujuan individual,tujuan kolektif, dan tujuan eksistensial. Tujuan individual yaitu tujuan yang harus tercapai oleh setiap peserta didik dalam mengembangkan potensi dirinya. Tujuan kolektif adalah tujuan yang harus dicapai dalam wujud kecerdasan kehidupan bangsa, dan tujuan eksistensial adalah tujuan yang harus terwujud dalam karakter bangsa yang bermartabat yang memiliki daya saing dan ketahanan hidup yang kokoh. Dalam perspektif pendidikan yang digambarkan, membangun manusia Indonesia yang bermartabat, melalui upaya pendidikan adalah mewujudkan tujuan utuh pendidikan nasional, sehingga dengan demikian setiap kebijakan, regulasi, praktik penyelenggaraan, manajemen, dan evaluasi pendidikan harus secara konsisten beranjak dari Mindset utuh pendidikan yang terarah kepada pencapaian tujuan utuh pendidikan nasional. Demikialah pemaparan makalah prosiding Seminar Antar bangsa ini, penulis sarikan dari beberapa tulisan di harian Pikiran Rakyat Bandung dengan penulis Bapak Restu Nur Wahyudin, Bapak Januar P Ruswita,dan Bapak Sunaryo Kartadinata. Terima kasih..
- 15. 14 3. PENUTUP 3.1 Kesimpulan Berdasarkanpemaparaan makalah diatas, maka dapatr ditarik kesimpulan sebagai berikut : Program Kewirausahaan yang sejatinya melekat dengan jurusan ekonomi dan bisnis, Perlahan tetapi pasti mulai diperkenalkan diberbagai jurusan di beberapa Perguruan Tinggi di Indonesia. Dan pada praktiknya, kewirausahaan menjadi mata kuliah umum disetiap jurusan Dalam kuliah tersebut mahasiswa di berikan pembelajaran mengenai konsep, kendala dan metode berwirausaha sejak dini. Penumbuhan wirausaha-wirausaha muda masih terkendala persoalan-persoalan klasik yang justru tidak diselesaikan tuntas oleh pemerintah. Rumit dan mahalnya pengurusan izin usaha menjadi hambatan awal ketika suatu UMKM mulai menjalankan usaha. Perpajakan juga sering membuat ketidakpastian yang berujung jebakan. Sementara dukungan perbankan utuk permodalan pengambangan UMKM sudah relatif membaik, meski pelaksanaan dilapangan belum berjalan mulus.Political will dan good will Pemerintah tetap diperlukan dan harus berjalan nyata, serta diterjemahkan melalui kebijakan-kebijakan khusus yang memberikan porsi dan akses seluas-luasnya bagi wirausaha-wirausaha muda untuk menjadi agent of cange Pembangunan ekonomi bangsa 3.2 Saran-saran Mengambil intisari dari kesimpulan yang telah disampaikan diatas, dapat dikemukakan saran-saran sebagai berikut : Program kewirausahan diperguruan tinggi hendaknya terus dilanjutkan dengan beberapa akselerasi, target pencapaian dan capaian kompetensi yang harus dimiliki mahasiswa melalui pengembangan kurikulum pendidikan secara nasional. Uji kompetensi mahasiswa dapat dilakukan melalui implemetasi Tridarma Perguruan Tinggi meliputi Pendidikan, Penelitian, dan Pengabdian masyarakat. Diperlukan repormasi pemikiran , kebijakan, dan penyelenggaraan pendidikan, yang tidak semata-mata didasarkan atas pemahaman Undang Undang secara tekstual, melainkan secara konstektual dan dilandasi dengan pemaknaan filosofis-pendagogis yang berbasis nilai kultural dan agama sehingga menghasilkan wirausaaha muda yang bermental religius..
- 16. 15 Effectiveness of EntrepreneurshipPrograms among institutions of higher learning in Malaysia: Some issues and challenges Ros Aizan Yahaya, Razmi Chik, Mohd Khalid Mohd Abas, Mohamed Dahlan Ibrahim, Mohd Rafi Yaacob, Ghazali Ahmad, Wee Yu Ghee & Mohammad Nizamuddin Abdul Rahim Abstract: Entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial activities act as catalysts to a country‟s economic growth. Due to the immense value of their contribution, most governments have incorporated entrepreneurial training at university level. The Malaysian government encouraged a host of entrepreneurial activities to drive the country‟s economic transformation to high income economy in 2020. The entrepreneurial agenda is aimed at producing highly skilled human capital with entrepreneurial capabilities at the same time reducing graduate unemployment. This paper focuses on identifying the issues and challenges in entrepreneurial activities faced by institutions of higher learnings (IHLs) in Malaysia. It is part of a major study evaluating the effectiveness of entrepreneurial programs at IHLs. Qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed. The sample for this study were administrators and students of selected IHLs. Outcome of this research shows that IHLs are facing a myriad of challenges in carrying out entrepreneurial programs including lack of opportunity for students to create networking with entrepreneurs from outside their university. Keywords: entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial activities, issues and challenges, entrepreneurship education. 1. Introduction Entrepreneurs are the driving force of a nation‟s economy and they provide for a stronger economy through innovation driven by creativity. The Malaysian government recognizes the contribution provided by entrepreneurs in supporting the country‟s economic growth, therefore, it is vital for a country to have a constant supply of entrepreneurs to keep the economy going. Various efforts have been and will be made available by the government to promote entrepreneurial activities. One of the approaches is looking at the role of IHLs as the seedbeds for training future entrepreneurs. Among the government‟s effort include the incorporation of entrepreneurial training at the university level. This is hoped to further enhance and encourage entrepreneurial interests among students to prepare them for the real world, thus reduce the issue of graduate unemployment. In recent years, the job markets for graduates are shrinking at an alarming rate. Job opportunities are scarce and the competition is getting fierce. This is evident from a collection of research carried out in graduate unemployment (Kuratko 2005; Venkatachalam and Waqif 2005). Governments are now looking into training undergraduates in the area of entrepreneurship education. Volery and Mueller (2006) highlight the possibility of the role of entrepreneurship education in influencing an individual‟s decision to become an entrepreneur. University students today are future entrepreneurs and the future of a country depends on them. Therefore, the time is now for IHL students to be exposed to entrepreneurial skills and competencies such as leadership, innovation, creativity, competent, risk taking and opportunity seeking to prepare them for the real world.
- 17. 16 Currently, almost allIHLs in Malaysia handle different types of entrepreneurial development programs for their students. Some embed such programs into their formal program syllabus, while other IHLs conduct similar programs on a voluntary basis. Whichever way these IHLs handle their entrepreneurship development activities, they have the same purpose, to prepare their graduates with knowledge and competencies important to become successful entrepreneurs, hence to produce graduates who are capable to become entrepreneurs. This paper focuses on part of a major study on entrepreneurship education conducted among IHLs in Malaysia. The main purpose of the study is to carry out a situational analysis on entrepreneurship education development among IHLs in Malaysia. The objectives are: 1. Identify issues and challenges in entrepreneurship education and development at IHLs 2. Identify effectiveness and weaknesses existing entrepreneurial effort at IHLs 3. Identify critical success factor regarding entrepreneurship education and development at IHLs 4. Propose a mechanism or a “bridging program” suitable to be implemented at IHLs with collaboration from Ministry of Higher Education in helping entrepreneurship graduates especially in their initial entrepreneurial activities. Data collected for this research employs a wide sampling strategy. Participants are not limited to those involved at the universities, but those from Polytechnics and Community Colleges are also included, hence the term IHL (institute of higher learning) is used. Other stakeholders include graduate entrepreneurs, business councils, non-governmental organizations and entrepreneurship educators. It is hoped that the Entrepreneurship Education and Development Master Plan for IHLs are able to meet the needs of producing human capital with entrepreneurial competencies, thus support the nation‟s economic transformation towards a high income economy by 2020. Figure 1.1 shows an overview of this study. Figure 1.1 Outline of the Effectiveness of entrepreneurial programs among IHLs in Malaysia
- 18. 17 This paper, therefore,is concerned with the first objective which is identifying and evaluating the issues and challenges surrounding entrepreneurship education among IHLs in Malaysia in promoting entrepreneurship education. A mixed method approach is utilized and the outcome analyzed accordingly. 2. Background Entrepreneurship can be defined as a dynamic process in creating incremental wealth (Ronstadt, 1984). An entrepreneur, on the other hand, is a person or a group of people who possess entrepreneurship skills such as innovative, risk taker and opportunity seeker. They are able to manipulate economic factors such as land labour, capital in order to create new products or provide services to the consumer to gain profit. Table 2.1 outlines various definitions of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship as compiled by Fortner (2006). Table 2.1: Compilation of definitions of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship as compiled by Fortner (2006), from 1755 to 2002. Cantillon (1755) Entrepreneurship is defined as self-employed Say (1803) Entrepreneurship combines all factors of production. Schumpeter (1934) Entrepreneurship is the act of creating new combination. It reduces the market equilibrium and focuses on innovation. Cole (1968) Entrepreneurship is an activity to start, or to continue and expand a business for profit. Leibenstein (1969) Entrepreneurship involves activities carried out to develop an enterprise where not all markets are known or can be identified, and where the function of production is incomplete. Kirzner (1973) Entrepreneurship is the exploration of opportunities with the ability to correctly anticipate where the next market imperfections and imbalances will be. Ronstadt (1984) Entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of creating incremental wealth. Hisrich (1989) Entrepreneurship is the process of creating something different with value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychological, and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction. Vesper (1986) Entrepreneurship is new venture creation. Stevenson, Roberts, and Gousbeck (1985) Entrepreneurship is a process by which individuals, either on their own or inside an organization, pursue opportunities without regard for the resources they currently control. Gartner (1989) Entrepreneurship is the creation of new organizations. Low and MacMillan (1988) Entrepreneurship is the creation of new enterprise. Stevenson and Sahlman(1989) Entrepreneurship is the relentless pursuit of opportunity without regard for resources currently controlled. Stoner and Freeman (1992) combining resources to produce goods or services that fosters economic growth, increases productivity, and creates new technologies, products, and services. Bygrave and Entrepreneurship is the process of creating or seizing an opportunity and pursuing it
- 19. 18 Timmons (1992) regardless of theresources currently controlled Drucker (1995) Innovation is the effort to create purposeful, focused change in an enterprise's economic or social potential. Harvard Business School (2002) Entrepreneurship is a way of managing opportunities over time. It is an approach to management that entails the continuous identification and pursuit of opportunity, the marshalling and organization of resources to address evolving opportunities, and the ongoing reassessment of needs as context changes over time. Entrepreneurship education involves the process of educating and encouraging learners to be more inclined towards entrepreneurship which involves relevant pedagogical processes (Binks, 2006). The main purpose of entrepreneurship education is to create an awareness of entrepreneurial culture at the same time inculcating entrepreneurial behaviors and mindset which leads to the creation of new business and job opportunities (Fayolle and Gailly 2005) Entrepreneurship education is necessary to produce graduates who are capable of fulfilling the society‟s needs (Rushing 1990). This can be achieved through implementation of entrepreneurial curriculum which incorporates formal and informal teaching and learning activities (Boyle, 2007). The planning and designing of the curriculum for entrepreneurship education should take into consideration the relevancy to the real world by being creative and innovative (Robinson and Haynes, 1991). The government of Malaysia is fully aware of the importance of entrepreneurship to the economic growth of the country. For this reason, the government, through various government agencies, provide support and encouragement to strengthen entrepreneurial activities in the country. The government started focusing on entrepreneurial activities way back when the New Economic Policy was launched. A special ministry for Cooperation and Entrepreneurial Development was established aiming at the creation of an industrious Bumiputera community. The ministry was absolved in 2009 and entrepreneurship development was later placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) which is responsible for the internationalization of trade in the country until today. Institutions of higher learnings (IHLs) in Malaysia play a vital role in encouraging and promoting entrepreneurship education. This is due to the fact that IHLs act as launchpads for future entrepreneurs to develop their skills and abilities in entrepreneurship. IHLs should therefore provide and nurture an entrepreneurial environment that can encourage and develop students‟ interests in entrepreneurship. At this moment, IHLs in Malaysia have been encouraging entrepreneurial activities through various means, formal and informal. Among them through projects conducted by entrepreneurial student associations, as part of the syllabus requirement whereby students are needed to do entrepreneurial projects, as well as other formal and informal activities. Forums and panel discussions were also held where experts in entrepreneurship were invited as speakers. Previous research in entrepreneurship education and development at IHLs has been carried out by a few researchers. For example, Haniroh and Nor Aishah (2009) conducted a study on the needs of formal entrepreneurship education at public IHLs involving 1558 first year to final year Arts and Science students from five public IHLs. Outcome of their study reveals that in general students agreed that there is a dire need for formal entrepreneurship education at public IHLs in Malaysia. Findings also suggested that there is a significant difference in course content based on gender of students.
- 20. 19 Reza et al,(2009) measured the level of interest among 71 entrepreneurship engineering students at Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP). Outcome of his study suggested that students showed high level of interest in techno-entrepreneurship. Ching et al., (2001) looked at factors affecting UKM students‟ attitude towards entrepreneurship. His sample of 100 undergraduate and postgraduate students shows that the level of social contribution which influence students interest in entrepreneurship education was at satisfactory level. 3. Methods This research employs both qualitative and quantitave approaches. The purpose of the qualitative data was to get a clearer picture of why and how, regarding the aims of the research. Data was collected through brainstorming sessions, interviews and focus groups. Visits to entrepreneurial universities abroad were also carried out. Meanwhile, the quantitative approach was done through distribution of questionnaires. The intrument was developed based on the outcome of the interviews with the Vice Chancellor of one of the IHLs, entrepreneurial alumni and the focus group sessions conducted earlier. A total of 118 IHLs were involved in this research including public and private. Out of this figure, 20 were public universities, 70 community colleges and 28 polytechnics. To ensure the private IHLs correctly represent the population, they were divided into clusters based on their geographical location. Thus the private IHLs were clustered into zones; North, East, and South Malaysia which totalled 98. Two sets of questionnaires were distributed to students, authorities of entrepreneurial programs at IHLs, lecturers and other stakeholders. Among the constructs involved are students attitude, entrepreneurial knowledge, readiness to become an entrepreneur and entrepreneurship ecosystem. Variables used to gauge entrepreneurship education knowledge among administrators of entrepreneurial centres at IHLs include entrepreneurial ecosystem, challenges faced by the IHLs, development of entrepreneurial programs. As mentioned earlier, this paper focuses on the issues and challenges faced by the IHLs. A pilot study was conducted at two IHLs situated in the East Coast of Malaysia. The purpose of the pilot study was to gauge the reliability of the instrument. Questionnaires were distributed to a small sample, randomly selected from various academic programs from two IHLs. Qualitative data were analysed using qualitative methods and quantitative data were analysed using SPSS. A cross tabulation, descriptive , and inferential analysis were carried out. 4. Findings For the purpose of this paper, only the first objective of this research is explored. Outcome of the first objective has been catagorized into roles played by diffferent stakeholders namely the IHLs, entrepreneurs and the community. These categories are exhibited in Figure 4.1
- 21. 20 Figure 4,1 Categoriesof stakeholders and their roles The IHLs role in providing conducive environment for entrepreneurial activities include providing experienced and qualified faculty members, providing adequate facilities, providing enough funding for capital and creating entrepreneurial-friendly policies The entrepreneurs‟ role in providing support include their contribution in sharing of ideas and expertise with students and the involvement of international entrepreneurs with IHL‟s projects. The community‟s role include providing moral support for fresh graduates, parents, as part of community, providing support for their university children‟s involvement in entrepreneurial activities. Table 4.1 outlines the findings of the questionnaires for the constructs mentioned above. Each of these roles is further discussed next. Table 4.1 Issues and Challenges faced by IHLs in entrepreneurial activities STATEMENT Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Difficulties faced by the university in encouraging networking with entrepreneurs outside the university 9.5% 26.2% 28.6% 26.2% 9.5% Lack of available means for the university to create connnection with international entrepreneurs 2.3% 18.6% 30.2% 34.9% 14.0% Support provided by the community towards fresh graduates who are budding entrepreneurs 0.0% 14.0% 27.9% 46.5% 11.6% Limited funding for startup capital provided by the university 2.3% 7.0% 20.9% 44.2% 25.6% Role of IHLs Role of Entrepreneurs Role of Community
- 22. 21 Lack of experiencedfaculty members in the field of entrepreneurship 2.3% 25.6% 27.9% 25.6% 18.6% Limited number of suitable lecturers to handle entrepreneurial programs 4.7% 20.9% 9.3% 34.9% 30.2% Existing facilities at the universities do not encourage entrepreneurial activities 9.3% 30.2% 25.6% 14.0% 20.9% Existing University policy does not provide for easy business registration for students 14.0% 18.6% 30.2% 18.6% 18.6% Lack of support for entrepreneurial activities from top management 18.6% 51.2% 11.6% 9.3% 9.3% Difficulty in getting experienced entrepreneurs to share their experiences with students 14.0% 58.1% 9.3% 9.3% 9.3% Lack of support from parents of most university students in their involvement in entrepreneurial activities 4.7% 34.9% 32.6% 20.9% 7.0% Note: The word “university” is used interchangably with IHLs 4.1 Roles of Stakeholders 4.1.1 Role of IHLs The role of the IHLs in providing a conducive environment for entrepreneurial activities was found to be vital in supporting and encouraging entrepreneurial activities. Some issues highlighted include providing experienced and qualified faculty members, providing proper facilities, providing enough funds for entrepreneurial activities and providing entrepreneurial-friendly university policies. Provide experienced and qualified faculty members. This issue was seen as an important element in ensuring knowledgeable faculty members at the university. Asked if there is a lack of experienced faculty members in the field of entrepreneurship, 44.2% agreed and strongly agreed as opposed to only 27.9 disagree and strongly disagree while 27.9 indifferent. It can be concluded that at the moment there is no clear evidence that there is lack of experienced faculty members in the field of entrepreneurship. Lack of experienced faculty members in the field of entrepreneurship 2.3% 25.6% 27.9% 25.6% 18.6% On the issue of the number of suitable faculty members who are capable in handling entrepreneurial programs, a huge 65.1% agreed that this is a big issue at IHLs. 25.6%
- 23. 22 responded disagree andstrongly disagree which clearly shows that currently many faculty members who are have no entrepreneurial background are tasked to handle entrepreneurial programs at IHLs. Limited number of suitable faculty members to handle entrepreneurial programs 4.7% 20.9% 9.3% 34.9% 30.2% Provide adequate facilities, funding for capital, entrepreneurial-friendly policies and support. About equal number of respondents provide mixed responses regarding the role of existing university‟s facilities in encouraging entrepreneurial activities. 34.9% agree and strongly agree that there is not enough facilities to support entrepreneurial activities while 39.5 disagree and strongly disagree. Existing facilities at the universities do not encourage entrepreneurial activities 9.3% 30.2% 25.6% 14.0% 20.9% Asked with the issue of funding for startup capital, majority of respondents agree that this is a serious issue. 44.2% agree that their IHL did not provide enough funding to startup their business, while only 9.3% disagree and strongly disagree. Limited funding for startup capital provided by the university 2.3% 7.0% 20.9% 44.2% 25.6% On campus business registration is another issue where 37.2% of respondents agree and strongly agree that it is a hassle to register their business on campus. Meanwhile, 32.6% disagree and strongly disagree to this statement. Existing University policy does not provide for easy business registration for students 14.0% 18.6% 30.2% 18.6% 18.6% When asked about lack of support for entrepreneurial activities from top management, only 18.6% agree and strongly agree to this statement while 69.8% disagree and strongly disagree. This demonstrates that there exist enough support from top management when it comes to entrepreneurial activities. Lack of support for entrepreneurial activities from top management 18.6% 51.2% 11.6% 9.3% 9.3% 4.1.2 Role of Entrepreneurs Entrepreneurs play an important role in enhancing and encouraging entrepreneurial activities. The role of entrepreneurs in contributing and sharing their experiences and ideas
- 24. 23 with IHL studentsis another issue faced by IHLs. About 35.7% agree and strongly agree that the IHLs have some form of difficulties in creating, maintaining and encouraging networking with entrepreneurs outside the university while 35.7% disagree and strongly disagree. Difficulties faced by the university in encouraging networking with entrepreneurs outside the university 9.5% 26.2% 28.6% 26.2% 9.5% Findings also reveal that there is no problem in getting experienced entrepreneurs to share their experiences with students. 72.1% disagree and strongly disagree when asked whether there is lack of support from experienced entrepreneurs. Difficulty in getting experienced entrepreneurs to share their experiences with students 14.0% 58.1% 9.3% 9.3% 9.3% Another issue explored was the available means for the university in creating connections with international entrepreneurs. 48.9% agree and strongly agree that it is indeed a problem while oly 20.9% disagree and strongly disagree. Lack of available means for the university to create connnection with international entrepreneurs 2.3% 18.6% 30.2% 34.9% 14.0% As far as facing difficulties in getting cooperation from international entrepreneurs to be involved with university projects. 48.9% agree and strongly agree to this issue. 4.1.3 Role of Community Finally, community involvement in providing moral support for entrepreneurial activities was also investigated. Findings reveal that parents, as part of the community, provide strong support towards fresh graduates who are budding entrepreneurs. 57.1% agree and strongly agree to this statement while 14% strongly disagree. Support provided by the community towards fresh graduates who are budding entrepreneurs 0.0% 14.0% 27.9% 46.5% 11.6% On the other hand, 39.6% disagree and strongly disagree to the question that parents of most university students do not support their children‟s involvement in entrepreneurial activities while they are still studying. 39.6% disagree and strongly disagree to the statement.
- 25. 24 Lack of supportfrom parents of most university students in their involvement in entrepreneurial activities 4.7% 34.9% 32.6% 20.9% 7.0% 4.2 Mean Score Analysis From table 5.1 below it is clear that IHLs in Malaysia are facing high level of challenges in executing entrepreneurial programs based on the overall mean score of 3.15. The most difficult challenge is limited funding made available by IHLs for students to start their businesses is with the mean score of 3.8. The weakest challenge is closely related to lack of support from top management with a mean score of 2.4. in getting suitable lecturers to run entrepreneurial programs, a score of 3.65. Meanwhile, community support towards budding entrepreneurs produces a mean score of 3.65 while the difficulties of IHLs to provide means and ways to network with external entrepreneurs reveal a 3.40 and lack of experrience among lecturers gives a 3.33. A low average challenge with a mean score of 3.0 shows the difficulty in business registration, restricted policy 3.09, lack of suitable facilities 3.07 and difficulty among IHLs to create opportunities for students to netwok with exterrnal entrepreneurs 3.00. Low level mean score less that 3.0 are for parents of university students who did not support their children‟s involvement in entrepreneurial activities 2.91 and difficulties in getting entrepreneurs to share their experiences 2.42 and no support from top management 2.40. Table 5.1: Mean score for challenges faced by IHLs in implementation of entrepreneurial programs STATEMENT Mean Score Difficulties faced by the IHLs in encouraging networking with entrepreneurs outside the university 3.0 Lack of available means for the IHLs to create connnection with international entrepreneurs 3.4 Support provided by the community towards fresh graduates who are budding entrepreneurs 3.56 Limited funding for startup capital provided by the IHL 3.84 Lack of experienced faculty members in the field of entrepreneurship 3.33 Limited number of suitable lecturers to handle entrepreneurial programs 3.65 Existing facilities at the universities do not encourage entrepreneurial activities 3.07 Existing IHL policy does not provide for easy business registration for students 3.09 Lack of support for entrepreneurial activities from top management 2.4 Difficulty in getting experienced entrepreneurs to share their experiences with students 2.42 Lack of support from parents of most IHL students in their involvement in entrepreneurial activities 2.91 OVERALL 3.15 Note: The word “university” is used interchangably with IHLs
- 26. 25 5. Discussions AndRecommendations The issues discussed in this paper focuses on the challenges faced by IHLs in Malaysia in implementing and encouraging entrepreneurial activities at their campuses. Findings suggested that the major role played by the IHLs determine the success of any enterpreneurial programs. In doing so, the IHLs face some issues and challenges such as developing networking with entrepreneurs and students, exposing and creating connections with international entrepreneurs, providing enough funding for students, providing experienced and qualified faculty members in the field of entrepreneurship, providing a conducive environment, easing up on the business registration policy and most importantly, providing support from top management of the IHLs. The role of the community in providing moral support was seen as a catalyst to further encourage entrepreneurial activities at IHLs. Last but not least, the role of entrepreneurs, locally and abroad was seen as important in providing related experiences and knowledge to IHL students in the process of training them to become successful entrepreneurs later in life. It is suggested that future studies focus expanding the sample to include school level enterpreneurial activities in line with the Ministry of Education‟s aspirations to encourage entrepreneurship education among schoolchildren. References Binks, M., K. Starkey, et al. (200). "Entrepreneurship education and the business school." Technology Analysis and Strategic Management 18(1): 1-18. Boyle, T. J. (2007). "A new model of entrepreneurship education: Implications for Central and Eastern European universities." Industry & Higher Education 16: 9-19. Fayolle, A. G. and B. Gailly (2005). Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour to assess entrepreneurship teaching programmes, Centre for Research in Change, Innovation and Strategy: 1-18. Fortner, M. L. (2006). Entrepreneurs and their Social Networks: Motivations, Expectations and Outcomes. PhD Doctoral, The George Washington University, Washington, DC. Haniroh & Nor Aishah. (2009). Kajian keperluan pendidikan keusahawan secara formal dalam kalangan pelajar Institut Pengajian Tinggi Awam (IPTA) di Malaysia untuk kecemerlangan Negara. Prosiding Persidangan Pendidikan, UKM. Kuratko, D.F. (2005). Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 29 (5), 577-598. Robinson, P. and M. Haynes (1991). "Entrepreneurship education in America's major universities." Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice Spring: 41-52. Ronstadt, R. C. (1984). Entrepreneurship: Text, Cases, and Notes. Dover, MA: Lord Publishing. Rushing, W.F. 1990. Entrepreneurship and Education. Dlm. Calvin A.Kent (pnyt.). Entrepreneurship Education: Current Development, Future Direction. HLM. 29-40. New York: Quorum Books. Venkatachalam, V. B. and A. A. Waqif (2005). "Outlook on integrating entrepreneurship in management education in India." Decision 32(2): 57-71. Volery, T. and S. Mueller (2006). A conceptual framework for testing the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education programmes towards entrepreneurial intention. 51st ICSB World Conference Melbourne, Australia.
- 27. 26 Empowering Youth InSocial Entrepreneurship: Best Practices from Universiti Teknologi Mara (Uitm) International Humanitarian Mission to Kampung Ampel, Cambodia Norshiha Saidin Abstract: Youth participation in social entrepreneurship is the participation of youths in acts of promoting human welfare by giving of their time, their talents and treasure. This paper highlights the best practices of youth involvement in social entrepreneurship in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. A series of local community engagements projects culminated in two international humanitarian missions to Cambodia in 2013 involving 28 students and academicians in the field of mechanical engineering, building conservation, education and medical care for the sole purpose of improving the quality of life and eradicating poverty. Both missions were based on the Islamic principles of philanthropy and aid. The „Wakaf Telaga for Kemboja‟ utilizes the concept of waqf in order raise the funds required to build 36 wells for hundreds of families in Kampung Ampel. . The second mission revolved around the act of Qurban and Aqiqah. The motto for the missions is „Everyone is a change maker.” This article presents the results of the survey and discusses the multiple benefits empowering youths in social entrepreneurship, in particular fostering leadership, connecting young people to their communities and developing their interest of making a difference. The challenge is to ignite the passion, to sustain and to continue recruiting this generation of Gen Y in philanthropic acts. In order to educate the next wave of philanthropists, universities must include entrepreneurial and philanthropic elements in their curriculum. Kata kunci: Best practices, Social entrepreneurship. 1. Introduction This paper highlights a new movement spreading across the country, the noteworthy topic of social entrepreneurship and youth empowerment in conducting humanitarian and philanthropic work. Recognizing the importance of this emerging field, two projects in social entrepreneurship conducted by students of Universiti Teknologi MARA are highlighted, as well as a discussion of the multiple benefits that it wields to the students, the organization and the community. 1.1 Youth philanthropy Philanthropy is defined as “goodwill to fellow men; and active effort to promote human welfare; a philanthropic act or gift; or an organization distributing or supported by philanthropic funds,” (Merriam-Webster 1993, 872) while Agard 2002 describes it as acts of the wealthy giving money to the poor (Agard 2002). Youth philanthropy is the participation of youths in acts of promoting human welfare by giving of their time, their talents and treasure. On a broader level, youth philanthropy demands youths to answer profound questions such as 1. “What are the issues I am concerned about?” 2. Empowering youth as leaders; and 3. What do I need to know in order to plan and participate in philanthropic projects? There are multiple benefits in empowering youths in Islamic
- 28. 27 philanthropy, in particularfostering leadership, connecting young people to their communities and developing their interest of making a difference. This paper suggests the importance of perceiving youth as resources, a concept important to the philosophy of youth in philanthropy. We put forth the idea that youth should share responsibility and control with adults in a philanthropic setting, a contradiction to the norm of youth as recipients and as subordinates to adults (Pratt, Hunt and Owen 1996). Youth empowerment gives youth the voice and authority to initiate and make decisions on important issues such as grant making, planning of humanitarian aid and volunteer management. Michigan Community Foundations Youth Project (MCYFP) pioneered a ten year project beginning in 1986, working with youth to develop their talents as grant maker. Such initiatives provided a future for nonprofit organization and humanitarian organizations faced with issues of lack funding and shortage of volunteers. This began the movement of teaching children the concept of philanthropy and the birth of Learning to Give was established in 1997 (Agard 2002). Learning to Give (LTG) is the first of its kind, a comprehensive program with a curriculum, professional development, materials and resources for educators, and its own publications. (Agard 2002; Learning to Give). 1.2 The Mission of Community Networking Unit, UITM UiTM Chapter for MERCY Malaysia projects was established in June 2012 and is sited in the Community Networking Unit of the Office of Industry, Community and Alumni (ICAN). The guiding principles of the chapter are: • Collaborating with the community to identify and meet community needs in a sustainable way • Building enduring relationships with local communities and addressing inequalities • Promoting community engagement projects and community based research. 1.3 The International Humanitarian Mission The Community Networking Unit of ICAN, UiTM in Sept 2013 undertook two international humanitarian missions to Cambodia, the Waqf Telaga Kemboja and Ibadah Qurban and Aqiqah. The student initiated missions were in collaboration with Al-Il‟tisam Relief Program (ARP) a local NGO with an established record of involvement in various local and international projects. The mission mobilized 22 students and academicians who are professionals in the field of mechanical engineering, building conservation, education and medical care for the sole purpose of improving the community quality of life and eradicating poverty. In Islam, the Niat or intention before embarking on any saction is crucial. With that understanding, the humanitarian missions were conducted with a clear resolution of performing our role in providing aid to fellow Muslim brethren and our continual quest of developing attributes of the righteous.
- 29. 28 “Serve God andjoin not any partners with Him; And do good to parents, kinsfolk, orphans, those in need, neighbors who are near, neighbors who are strangers, the companion of your side, the wayfarer (Ye meet) and what your right hand tosses, for God loveth not the arrogant, the vainglorious.” (Al Anam-36) “And they feed, for love of God, the indigent, the orphan and the captives.” (Al Dahr-8) The main objectives of the social entrepreneurship projects are: • To provide an opportunity for the university to embark on poverty eradication projects, to conduct its third function of public advocacy and community engagement. • To encourage students and faculty member‟s participation in voluntary humanitarian projects involving the transfer of knowledge, in this case water assessment, water management and hygiene education and fund raising. 1.4 Rationale for conducting philanthropic work in Cambodia According to the Report of the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) a specialized body of United Nations Organization, a total of 8.4 million Cambodians live below the poverty line on less than USD1.25 per day. Over 90% of the poor live in the rural areas where 80% of Muslims are located. Foreign aid of RM100.00 can support the daily expenses of one Muslim family living in rural Cambodia for one month. Although Cambodia is a country rich with natural resources, the economy has suffered due to ongoing strife. Agricultural activities are still relatively dangerous due to the threat of landmines and yields are low and rooted in traditional methods. With no drainage system, paddy cultivation is once a year and dependent on the rainy season and water from the Mekong River. Excessive rain causes flooding, like the floods in 2011 which flooded villages along the Mekong for over a month, and meant no revenue for that year. In general, IFAD documented that 1.6 million people in rural Cambodia faced shortage of food at least once a year. In addition, limited educational opportunities and low literacy rates are major obstacle to development. 1.5 Why Kampung Ampel? The village was selected for several reasons. Firstly due to its location which is 6 hours away from Phnom Penh, near the Vietnamese border, aid from NGOs has been scarce. Secondly, the high population density of Kampung Ampel and its four neighboring village, means there are nearly 10,000 units with total household of 8 to 10 people. And 95% of the residents are Muslims living below the poverty line.
- 30. 29 1.6 Description ofWaqf Telaga Kemboja Waqf Telaga Kemboja‟s main aim was to provide aid to the Cambodian Muslims in Kampung Ampal, in meeting their fundamental needs by providing clean water for drinking and basic hygiene kits and distribution of alms. The General Comment No. 15, The right to water. UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, November 2002 with regards to the issue of water rights Article 1.1 states the universal human right to clean water and sanitation is vital to life, just as human dignity. It is a prerequisite to other rights. A clean water program is pivotal in improving health care and prevention of water borne diseases. A recent study cites the risk of infection through water and food such as cholera, diarrhea, hepatitis A and typhoid in Cambodia as very high. Citing the World Bank, 11,000 children die each year in Cambodia due to illness from unclean water. The mission utilized the concept of Waqf to raise funds and finance the building of fresh water wells in Cambodia. The Waqf concept was chosen as it gave Malaysian the opportunity to perform righteous deeds as well as an important social role in alleviating poverty and increasing the socioeconomic status among the fellow Muslims. The following options of aid were offered to and information regarding the fund was disseminated via the use of SMS, Facebook and websites. Waqf or sponsor a well at a cost of RM1500 per well either as an individual, a family or an organization Sponsor a family at RM300 per family Sponsor much needed hygiene kits The initial target was to build 3 wells at a cost of RM1500 per well. Alhamdulillah the fundraising and awareness campaign conducted during the month of Ramadhan 1434 Hijrah, raised sufficient funds to build 36 well, total cost of RM54,000 as well as contribution of RM10,000 to complete the construction of Masjid Baitul Nur of Kampong Phom Soy. The 5 day humanitarian mission from 1-5 September 2013 carried out various assessments and completed the following tasks. 1. Well construction under the clean water program. Identify the well site and gained the consent of the landowner and the agreement of 20 families nearby who agreed to share the well. Well construction will start at the end of the year after the monsoon season ends. 2. Carried out a review and provided an assessment of the rehabilitation of Baitul Rahim mosque, built in 1914, one of the original mosques in Cambodia. 3. The distribution of zakat funds and alms to the religious teachers and poor. 4. Distribution of 400 hygiene kits to families and conducted health assessment for the elderly. 5. Conducted a study on the history, culture as well as assessment for economic intervention eco-tourism and fish farming. 6. Produced a travelogue and a visual audit of the village. .
- 31. 30 2. Ibadah Qurbanand Aqiqah to Kemboja The second mission Ibadah Qurban and Aqiqah, October 10-15, 2013 was a follow up to the first mission and was equally successful. The overwhelming response from the faculty and staff of UiTM and Malaysians raised funds for 104 cows. Kampung Ampel was the centre for the sacrificial slaughter and saw the community and 26 participants from UiTM working tirelessly for two days in the selection and sacrificial slaughter of the cattle as well as the distribution of meat to 20 neighboring villages. Each village received 3-5 cows depending on its population and needs. All UiTM male students and two female students were given the experience of performing the Qurban under the guidance of the Imam. The 6 days humanitarian mission carried out various knowledge transfer activities and completed the following tasks; 1. Ibadah Qurban and Aqiqah of 104 cows valued at RM280 per portion, total value of RM203, 840.00 2. Eid ul Adha feast for 1000 people 3. Free circumcision services for 50 children of Kampung Ampel 4. Free medical care and distribution of medicine by 2 volunteer doctors 5. Smart Solat workshop for children and fardu ain classess for woman 6. Collection of well water samples to be analysed by the Faculty of Applied Science.. 2.1 Benefits of empowering youths in Islamic philanthropy The participants from both humanitarian missions (n=34) were asked to respond to a survey regarding the impact of the program and how it helped. Learn how to make better decisions 95% Learn about the issues that peers face in your community 88% Become better at planning and facilitating meetings 82% Feel more comfortable sharing ideas in a group 83% Feel more comfortable in a leadership role 89% Feel more comfortable giving presentation in public 78% Feel more committed to helping the ummah 89% Develop positive relationships with youth that you would otherwise never have met 88% Develop a strong, positive relationship with at least one adult 79% Increase their interest in higher education 59% Strengthen your sense of identity 89% Increase your knowledge of Islam 78% 3. Findings and suggestions The best practices from these international missions and social entrepreneurship projects demonstrate the successful role of such projects in inculcating wholesome development of
- 32. 31 students. The paperhighlights the following the multiple benefits of empowering youth in social entrepreneurship: 1. Philanthropic and community engagement activities should be adopted and made an important component in the university curriculum as part of Islamic Daawah, as it is education of the heart and heightens one‟s submission to Allah the Almighty. 2. To render help to those in need, is one of the characteristic features of the righteous and philanthropic activities develops these in youth. 3. Philanthropic and humanitarian service is a more practical method of propagation, as it is teaching by doing and is a more effective method of teaching to the young people 4. Youth grant makers and community activist develop language and planning skills, mathematical and budgeting skills. Project management improves their critical thinking, problem solving and public speaking prowess. All these aid youth development and enhance graduate employability. 5. Entrepreneurship activities empower youth to take charge and initiate change, providing them the opportunity to be a giver and not a taker. By involving youth in philanthropic deeds, research has shown that as adults, they continue to give and serve civil society (Agard 2002). 6. Philanthropic activities provide safe, secure environments for youth and opportunities to develop and grow. Working with NGOs and members of society helps them to forge positive relationships with adults and peers, establish connections with community and improve their capacity to lead. 7. The concept of youth philanthropy promotes a cultural shift, away from viewing youth from a deficit perspective, to a culture of viewing youth as assets to the community and society as a whole. 8. Society and organizations will benefit from youth philanthropy, as young people are future potential donors (Allen 2002) and potential volunteers in giving of their time and effort. 3.1 Conclusions The challenge is to ignite the passion, to sustain and to continue recruiting this generation of Gen Y in philanthropic acts. In order to educate the next wave of philanthropists, universities must include philanthropic elements in their curriculum.. References Allen, Paula. “Youth and Philanthropy:Legal Issues, Practical Consequences.” New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, 38 (2002). 49-65 Agard, Kathryn A. “Learning to Give: Teaching Philanthropy K-12.” New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising, 36 (2002). 37-53 Learning to Give. Accessed 01 October 2013 http://www.learningtogive.org
- 33. 32 Masputeriah Hamzah, AzlanAbdul Rahman, Nur Naha Abu Mansor, Ahmad Ariffin Bujang. “Transforming Students through Service Learning, University Community Engagement Conference 2013”. National Youth Development Information Center. The Younger Americans Act. Accessed 07 October 2004. http://www.nydic.org/nydic/yaanew/YAA.html. Rosen,M. and Sedonaen. “Changing the Face of Giving: An Assessment of Youth Philanthropy.” (2001). Youth Leadership Institute. Accessed 01 October 2004. http://www.irvine.org/assets/pdf/pubs/youth/Youth_Philanthropy.pdf. Related Websites The Learning to Give Web site, at http://www.learningtogive.com, contains information about how to educate students, grades K-12, to be philanthropically knowledgeable. The web site serves as resources for educators looking to implement philanthropic concepts into their curriculum. The Youth Grantmakers Web site, at http://www.younggrantmakers.org, offers resources, lessons and information on how to engage students in the grantmaking process. This Web site is a communication of the Michigan Community Foundation Youth Project (MCFYP) of the Council of Michigan Foundations. Acknowledgment We wish to thank the many benefactors from Universiti Teknologi MARA and the people of Malaysia as well as international donors from Dubai, Abu Dhabi and New Zealand. We surpassed our initial target of building 3 wells, raising enough funds to build 36 wells. Thank you for helping us make a meaningful difference to the many Muslim families in Kampung Ampel and neighbouring villages. May Allah Taala give us the guidance to resolve that we shall make the Quran and Sunnah our guiding light and practice Islam as much as possible in our deeds. This programme is a project of the University Community Transformation Centre (UCTC) sited in ICAN.
- 34. 33 Entrepreneurship Inclination amongProspective Teachers: A case of Universiti Teknologi MARA Norshidah Nordin, Melissa Malik & Rohaya Abdul Wahab Abstract: Entrepreneurship is the vital source of the sustained economic development of the country. Decisions to be entrepreneurs are determined by certain factors; and such underlying factors could influence students‟ inclination towards entrepreneurial career. However, not many studies have been carried out to understand this phenomenon, especially in the local context. Therefore, this study was intended to investigate the inclination towards entrepreneurship among prospective teachers of UiTM, Shah Alam. Specifically, it aimed was to examine the level of inclination towards entrepreneurship and whether there were significant differences between inclination towards entrepreneurship according to gender and programs. About 159 undergraduate students from the faculty of Education participated in this study. This study utilized a survey method using cross sectional research design. An empirical test carried out on the data gathered from questionnaires demonstrates the level of inclination towards entrepreneurship was moderate. However, there were no significant differences between inclination towards entrepreneurship according to gender and programs. Finally, based on the findings, the practical implications were discussed in this paper. Kata kunci: Entrepreneurship education; inclination towards entrepreneurship; career aspiration 1. Background of the study In the world of academics, there has been a marked increase in entrepreneurship studies (Solomon, Weaver et al, 2005). Many local universities have recognized the importance of entrepreneurships and developed curriculum related to entrepreneurs‟ education and learning as a mean to prepare a new generation for an entrepreneurial career (Lim, Lee and Cheng, 2012; Shane and Venkataraman, 2000). According to Postigo & Iacobucci (2006) one of the reasons the government and universities interested in entrepreneurial activity as a means of coping with unemployment problems and economy enhancement. In the local context, Ahmad Yasruddin Md Yasin et al (2011) reviewed in their studies that since the year of 2006, report from higher Education showed that about 30% of graduates were still unemployed and about a quarter of graduates from local public universities remained unemployed six months after completing their studies in 2008 (NEAC, 2010). This issue of unemployment is also affecting the prospective teachers, particularly in the public universities. There were limited place for prospective teachers to be employed in schools. Hence, government authorities, public and private institutions considered that entrepreneurship education is an important solution to the employment difficulty of university graduates by guiding them to organize a new business venture (Kume et al, 2013). Besides, Mohar Yusof et al (2008) claimed that entrepreneurship is seen as an engine of economic progress, job creation and social adjustment. Given this juncture, higher learning institutions have been given the directive to play a leading role in inculcating university students with the entrepreneurial knowledge and skills that will be useful in their future career endeavours (Nurmi and Paasio, 2007). However, despite the exponential growing research interest in the area of entrepreneurship, there were very few study has been specifically investigated among prospective teachers in Malaysia.
- 35. 34 1.1 Understanding theconstructs of entrepreneur inclination The inclination to become as an entrepreneur is connected to entrepreneur intentional activity. Entrepreneurial intentions might be seen as the first move in an evolving process (Ponmani et al (2014). According to Bird (1989) intention is defined conscious state of mind that directs attention toward a specific goal. Parallel, Dhose and Walter (2010) claimed that entrepreneurial intention is termed as individuals‟ willingness to perform entrepreneurial behaviour, to engage in entrepreneurial action, to be self-employed, or to establish new business. Hence, individuals with the intention to start a business not only have a propensity to start, but in addition, adopt a rational behaviour to reach their goal. Several theories have been proposed to account for the concept of entrepreneurship. These theories have their roots in economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and management (Simpeh, 2011). Among the several entrepreneurial intention models, Ajzen‟s (1991) theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is widely recognized. Ajzen‟s social psychology theory of planned behaviour posited that three variables, namely (1) attitude towards a given behaviour, (2) subjective norms and (3) perception of control over the behaviour precede the formation of intention. Ajzen (1991) claimed that subjective norms refer to the perceived social pressure to perform behaviour. The presumption is that the more favourable the social norm, the greater will be the inclination to perform the behaviour. On the other hand, Shapero and Sokol posited that the intention to go into entrepreneurship is predicated on perceived desirability and feasibility of entrepreneurship as a career resident in an individual and his or her propensity to act. Nonetheless, McStay (2008) reviewed Shapero and Sokol (1982) entrepreneurial event formation model. This model assumes that critical life changes (displacement) precipitate a change in entrepreneurial intention and subsequent behaviour. Displacement can occur in a negative form or a positive form. Hence, the intention to become self-employed and form a new venture (an entrepreneurial event) therefore depends on the individual‟s perceptions of desirability and feasibility in relation to that activity. Literature revealed the linked between personal factors such as general education, gender, prior experience and family background on the development of perceptions and consequently intentions of going into entrepreneurship ( Hisrich and Peters, 1989 and Krueger, 1993). The studies suggest that individual entrepreneurial traits and the good impact brought by family add to higher intention towards entrepreneurship (Kirkwood 2007). With regards to gender perspective, studies revealed mixed results. For example, Ooi (2011) found that gender, together with other factors such as programs of study, previous working experience and mother‟s occupation had significant differences on undergraduates‟ inclination towards becoming entrepreneurs. Zaidatol Akmaliah & Afsaneh, (2009a) found that male university students were found to exhibit higher entrepreneurial intention compared to their female counterparts. Parallel, Ponmani et al (2014) in their studies revealed that there is a difference in the level entrepreneurial intention, attitude towards behaviour, and perceived behaviour control between male and female. Male students showed significantly higher entrepreneurial intention, attitude towards behaviour, and perceived behaviour control as compared to the female students. There is no difference between male and female with regard to social norms. On the other hands, studies done by Kristiansen and Nurul Indarti (2004) and Shinnar et al (2009)
- 36. 35 showed that therewere no significant differences between male and female students regarding interest in entrepreneurship. Apart from gender aspect, literature showed that there is a disparity in entrepreneurial intention between students of different disciplines. The study revealed that the time anticipated to start a firm is longer for those studying science and/or technical disciplines than humanities (Galloway et al., (2006); Wu and Wu, 2008). On the other hands, Ponmani et al (2014) found in their studies that there is no difference between students from science and non-science with regard to entrepreneurial intention, attitude towards behaviour, and perceived behaviour control. Students from both streams more or less have the same level of behavioural characteristics regarding venture start-up. Hence, having much said about entrepreneurial inclination, the overriding questions: Are the prospective teachers particularly from local public universities, inclined to be involve in entrepreneurship? What are the factors that inspire prospective teachers to venture into entrepreneurships? Are male students more inclined toward entrepreneurship than are female students? There is still a scanty of empirical research on university students‟ perception toward entrepreneurship, particularly among prospective teachers. Thus this study was intended to further investigate perceptions of prospective teachers of UiTM towards entrepreneurship inclination. 1.2 Objectives of the study To examine the level of inclination towards entrepreneur among prospective teachers of UiTM, shah Alam To examine the significant difference between prospective teacher‟s entrepreneur inclination and gender To examine significant difference between prospective teachers‟ entrepreneur inclination and program 2. Methodology In this study, survey method using cross sectional research design was employed. The instrument measuring entrepreneurial inclination was adapted from Ooi et al (2011). Entrepreneurial inclinations indicate respondents‟ probability of starting a business upon the completion of their study (either after their undergraduate or graduate study). Thus, respondents who indicated a high probability of starting a business were classified as entrepreneurially inclined; and those indicated a low probability were classified as non- entrepreneurial inclined. The questionnaires consists of 8 items with a seven point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) was utilized. The sample questions such as, “I seriously considered entrepreneurship as a highly desirable career option”, “I have the planning for opening a new venture” and “I would like someday to start my own business” There were 159 undergraduate students from four programs (namely Art education, TESL, Science education and Physical and health education) participated in this study. Descriptive (frequency and percentage) and inferential statistics ( t-test and Anova ) were used to analyze the data.
- 37. 36 3. Findings 1) Analysison the level of entrepreneur inclination among students‟ of Faculty of Education UiTM, shah Alam Table 1: The Levels of entrepreneur inclination among prospective teachers of UiTM, shah alam Level Frequency Percentage Low Moderate High 10 120 29 6.3 75.5 18.2 Total 159 100 Table 1 displays the levels of entrepreneur in among prospective teachers of UiTM, Shah Alam. The findings revealed that majority of them, that is, about 75.5% (120) demonstrated moderate level of entrepreneur inclination and 18.2% (29) showed high entrepreneur inclination. On the other hand, only 10% (6.3) of respondent showed low level of entrepreneur inclination. The result of the study is in line with the study done by Ooi et al (2011). This study suggests that the probability of these prospective teachers to be self- employed or entrepreneur inclined were quite positive. Further analysis was carried out to find out the respondents perception towards entrepreneurial inclination and the result was showed as below:
- 38. 37 Table 2: Perceptiontowards entrepreneur inclination among prospective teachers of UiTM, SA Mean indicator: low=1.00-3.00; moderate= 3.01-5.00; high= 5.01-7.00 Table 2 showed the distribution of mean scores for the perception towards entrepreneur education among the prospective teachers of the faculty of Education, UiTM , Shah Alam . The result showed that the overall mean score were average ( m= 4.45, std dev=1.48). The highest mean score in this dimension was item no 5 (I would like someday to start my own business) m= 4.97 std, dev=1.427. This is followed by item no 1 (I seriously considered entrepreneurship as a highly desirable career option, m=4.91, std dev= 1.363) and item no 3 ( I have the planning for opening a new venture.) m= 4.61, std= 1.432. However, the least mean score was m= 3.74, std dev= 1.506 where respondent least prefer to work in a big organization than a small firm. Objective 2: Analysis on the differences between entrepreneur inclination and gender Table 2: Independent t-test between entrepreneur intentions and gender N Mean std dev t df p Male 27 4.6157 0.8550 1.638 157 . 103 Female 132 4.3087 0.89374 Based on the independent t-test shown in table 2, there was no significant differences in entrepreneur intentions and gender of the respondents; where t= 1.638, p= 0.103. Therefore, the result indicates that the gender does not show any significant effect on entrepreneur intentions of the prospective teachers of UiTM. This study is in line with the study of Kristiansen and Nurul Indarti (2004) Entrepreneur inclination Mean Std dev 1. Seriously considered entrepreneurship as a highly desirable career option 4.91 1.36 2. Never thought of entrepreneurship as a career choice. 4.26 1.80 3. Have the planning for opening a new venture. 4.61 1.43 4. Won‟t start a business because it is too risky and I am afraid of failing 4.41 1.62 5. Would like someday to start my own business. 4.97 1.42 6. Could easily pursue a career involving self-employment 4.76 1.32 7. If pursue a career involving self-employment, the chances of failure would be very high 3.96 1.46 8. Prefer to work in a big organization rather than a small firm. 3.74 1.50 4.45 1.48
- 39. 38 Objective 3: Analysison the differences between entrepreneur inclination and program Table 3: Anova analysis between entrepreneur intentions and type of program Sum of squares df F sig Between group 4.401 3 1.873 0.136 Within group 121.380 155 Table 3 displays ANOVA analysis on the entrepreneur and types program of the respondents. Based on the One-Way ANOVA test, the results showed, there were no significant differences in the entrepreneur based on type of program (F=1.873; p= 0.136). This finding indicated that types of programs of the respondents do not have any effect on their entrepreneur intentions. 4. Discussions and Conclusions This study was aimed at examining the perception of prospective teachers towards entrepreneur inclination. Besides, this study also was intended investigate whether there were differences between entrepreneurial inclination on gender and program. The finding revealed that the respondent‟s entrepreneurial inclination was moderate. This is in line with the study done by Ahmad Yasruddin Md Yasin et al (2011). Thus, the finding suggests that the prospective teacher inclination towards starting a business was moderate. In this context, the respondents perceived that entrepreneurship as a highly desirable career option, they would like someday to start their own business and they have planning for opening a new venture. However, according to Mohar Yusof et al (2008), factors such as lack of exposure, experience and information on entrepreneurial opportunities and programmes can deter students from getting on new venture creation soon after they graduated. Nonetheless, starting a business is not an event, but a process which may take many years to evolve and come to an execution. Entrepreneurial inclination might be viewed as the first step in an evolving process (Mazzarol, Volery, Doss and Thein, 1999). Individuals with the intention to start a business not only have a propensity to start, but in addition, adopt a rational behaviour to reach their goal. Hence, this implied that the academic leaders, educators and policy makers should provide infrastructure, knowledge skills and mind sets in helping the students to accomplish the university agenda of creating an innovative entrepreneurial culture and making entrepreneurship as a career choice. Besides, there is also a pertinent need for the university to provide entrepreneurship education so as to increase awareness of students towards entrepreneurship. Nevertheless, Yu and Chan (2004) noted that the level of entrepreneurial knowledge among students at higher education institutions were still low despite the relative high level of interest in entrepreneurship. Therefore, Yu and Chan (2004) advised to revise the curriculum and method of teaching in order to disseminate the entrepreneurial knowledge and skills to more universities students at higher education institutions.
- 40. 39 References Ahmad Yasruddin MdYasin, Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mahmood & Nik Azyyati Nik Jaafar (2011) Students‟ Entrepreneurial Inclination at a Malaysian Polytechnic: A Preliminary Investigation International Education Studies Vol. 4, No. 2; May 2011 Ajzen, I. 1991. The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 50(2): 179-211. Bird, B. J. (1989). Implementing entrepreneurial ideas: The case for intention. Academy of Management Review, 13, 442 – 453. Brannback, M., Kickul, J., Elfving, J., and Carsrud, A. (2007). Trying to be an Entrepreneur? A „Goal-Specific‟ Challenge to the Intentions Model, Abo Akademi University. Galloway, L. & Keogh, W. (2006). Developing the entrepreneurial spirit in student education to meet professional needs. Paper presented at Conference on Fostering Entrepreneurship: The role of higher education, Trento, Italy. Hisrich, R.D. and Peters, M.P. (1989). Entrepreneurship. Starting, developing and managing a new enterprise, Homewood. Kirkwood, J. (2007). "Igniting the entrepreneurial spirit: Is the role parents play gendered?" International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research13 (1): 39-59. Kristiansen, S., & Nurul Indarti. (2004). Entrepreneurial Intention among Indonesian and Norwegian Students.Journal of Enterprising Culture,12(1), 55–78 Krueger, N. (1993) Impact of prior entrepreneurial exposure on perceptions of new venture feasibility and desirability. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 18(1): 5-21. Kume. A. Kume, V & Shahini. B. (2013) Entrepreneurial characteristics amongst University students in Albania. European Scientific Journal, June edition, vol.9, No.16 Mazzarol, T., Volery, T., Doss, N., & Thein, V. (1999). Factors influencing small business start- ups. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 5(2) 48-63. McStay, D (2008) An investigation of undergraduate student self-employment intention and the impact of entrepreneurship education and previous entrepreneurial experience. Unpublished doctoral degree dissertation. Bond University, Australia Mohar Yusof, Manjit Singh Sandhu and Kamal Kishore Jain (2008) Entrepreneurial inclination of university students: a case study of students at Tun Abdul Razak University. UNITAR E- JOURNAL Vol.4, No. 1, January 2008 Nurmi, P. and K. Paasio (2007). "Entrepreneurship in Finnish universities." Education and Training 49(1): 56-65. Ooi Yeng Keat, Selvarajah, C and Meyer, D (2011) Inclination towards entrepreneurship among university students: An empirical study of Malaysian university students International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 4; March. Ooi, Y.K., (2008). Inclination towards entrepreneurship among Malaysian university students in Northern Peninsula Malaysia. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. Ponmani. R., Pretheeba, P,, and R. Annapoorani, R. (2014) Entrepreneurial Intention among Male and female students from different domains of specialty reshaping Management and Economic Thinking through Integrating Eco-Friendly and Ethical Practices. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Management and Economics 26-27 February Postigo, S., & Iacobucci, D. (2006). Undergraduats students as a source of potential entrepreneurs: A comparative study between Italy and Argentina. International entrepreneurship education: Issues and newness. A. Fayolle and H. Klandt. Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc. Shane, S. and Venkataraman, S. (2000) The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research, Academy of Management Review, 25, 1, 217-226.
- 41. 40 Shapero, A. andSokol, L. (1982). Social Dimensions of Entrepreneurship. In C. Kent, D. Sexton and K. Vesper, Eds. The Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 72-90. Shinnar, R., Pruett, M., & Toney, B. (2009). Entrepreneurship Education: Attitudes across campus. Journal of Education for Business, 84(3), 151–159 Solomon, G. T., K. M. Weaver, et al. (2005). Pedagogical methods of teaching entrepreneurship: An historical perspective. Keystones of entrepreneurship knowledge, In R. V. D. Horst, King-Kauanui, S. & Duffy, S. Malden, MA, Blackwell Publishing Inc. Wu, S. and Wu, L. (2008). The impact of higher education on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in China, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 15(4), 752 – 774. Yu, C. M & Chan, C. (2004). Entrepreneurship education in Malaysia. Universiti Multimedia. In Estere, C. A. (2004). Promoting student centered learning in experiential education. Journal of Experiential Education, 27(2), 141-160. Zaidatol Akmaliah, L.P & Afsaneh, B. (2009a). Entrepreneurial Intention of University Students: An Analysis of Gender and Ethnic Groups. International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management, 9(4), 49–60
- 42. 41 Menggunakan Kemahiran ETRdi kalangan Guru Pelatih: Refleksi bagi Seminar Kelas Pembangunan Profesional Rohaya Abdul Wahab, Nadia Ainuddin Dahlan & Norsidah Mohd Nordin Abstrak: Kajian ini menyelidik refleksi guru-guru pelatih akan elemen keusahawanan yang diterapkan dalam kursus bukan perniagaan sebagai salah satu komponen silibus bagi ijazah latihan guru. Lima guru pelatih telah ditemu duga untuk mendapatkan pandangan dan pengalaman berkenaan dengan elemen keusahawanan dalam kursus tersebut, dan mengimbang tara sama ada elemen keusahawanan tersebut memberi impak positif dalam pembelajaran mereka dan pekerjaan di masa hadapan. Dua pensyarah yang mengajar kursus tersebut telah turut serta dalam kajian ini. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa guru-guru pelatih yang ditemu duga berjaya mempamerkan sikap dan kemahiran keusahawanan apabila diberi peluang. Mereka juga menganggap bahawa komponen-komponen keusahawanan yang diterap dalam kursus itu melibatkan peluang bagi pengalaman praktikal yang berhubungan dengan kemahiran hidup termasuk kemahiran memimpin, kemahiran membuat keputusan, kemahiran berkumpulan dan kemahiran berkomunikasi. Berdasarkan hasil kajian, adalah disarankan agar pihak universiti menggalakkan integrasi pendidikan keusahawanan kreatif yang melewati kursus keusahawan tradisional dan integrasi antara kursus-kursus lain. Kata kunci: Pendidikan keusahawanan, pembangunan professional, guru pelatih, kemahiran ETR. 1. Pendahuluan Bidang keusahawanan dianggap sebagai salah satu kuasa penggerak yang penting demi pembangunan ekonomi negara. Pembangunan ekonomi sesebuah negara dipercayai mempunyai kaitan dengan aktiviti-aktiviti keusahawanan (Lingelbach, de la Viňa & Asel, 2005; Minniti & Lévesque, 2008; Naudé, 2013). Kemajuan keusahawanan dilihat sebagai elemen kunci demi mencapai visi Malaysia untuk menjadi negara maju menjelang tahun 2020 (Pejabat Perdana Menteri Malaysia, 2010; Norasmah, Nor Hafiza & Rahmah, 2012). Pihak kerajaan telah mempelbagaikan usaha untuk meningkatkan bidang keusahawanan negara. Contoh-contoh usaha yang dilakukan adalah mewujudkan polisi-polisi, menyediakan peluang-peluang dana dan sokongan bagi usahawan-usahawan perniagaan kecil-kecilan dan sederhana, kursus latihan dan kemudahan yang berkaitan (Mohamed Ariff & Syarisa Yanti, 2002; Mazura & Norasmah, 2011). Institusi-institusi pendidikan juga mempunyai peranan dalam menjayakan agenda ini. Bidang pendidikan adalah penting untuk melahirkan ciri-ciri keusahawanan (Chilosi, 2001; Baumol, Litan & Schramm, 2007) dan pendidikan keusahawanan di institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi telah menghasilkan pertumbuhan baru khususnya di kalangan masyarakat maju (Mars & Metcalfe, 2009). Terdapat peningkatan dari segi keperluan dalam melengkapi graduan di masa akan datang dengan pengetahuan keusahawanan memandangkan sektor penggajian pekerja dijangka akan dikuasai oleh perniagaan kecil- kecilan dan juga bekerja sendiri (Shinnar, Pruett & Toney, 2008; Syahrina et al., 2013). Sehubungan itu, pendidikan keusahawanan akan menjadi satu kelebihan kepada pelajar- pelajar yang mengikuti pengajian bidang perniagaan dan juga bukan bidang perniagaan. Di Malaysia, keusahawanan merupakan satu subjek wajib bagi semua universiti awam sejak 2007 (Norasmah, Nor Hafiza & Rahmah, 2012). Pihak universiti berterusan memainkan peranan penting apabila bidang keusahawanan disenaraikan dalam Agenda Projek Kritikal
- 43. 42 bagi fasa keduadalam Pelan Tindakan Pengajian Tinggi Nasional 2011-2015 (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi, 2012). Guru-guru pelatih dikatakan berada pada kedudukan yang unik apabila dikaitkan dengan pendidikan keusahawanan kerana kurikulum pendidikan rendah dan menengah ada menerapkan elemen-elemen keusahawanan. Jadi, pengetahuan dan pendedahan tentang pendidikan keusahawanan yang dipelajari semasa pengajian ijazah mereka dapat menyediakan bakal guru-guru untuk menyampaikan elemen-elemen tersebut sepanjang perkhidmatan mereka di sekolah. Pendidikan keusahawanan dijangka akan memberi manfaat kepada para pelajar dari segi pembangunan professional dan insaniah (Guven, 2013). Namun, tidak banyak usaha yang digembleng untuk mengkaji impak penerapan nilai-nilai keusahawanan dalam bidang bukan perniagaan di universiti-universiti awam Malaysia, terutama sekali guru-guru pelatih. Oleh itu, kajian ini diharap dapat menyelidik setakat mana nilai-nilai keusahawanan yang diterapkan dalam kursus bukan perniagaan dapat memberi manfaat kepada pembelajaran mereka, dan bagaimana nilai-nilai keusahawanan memberi kesan dalam bidang keusahawanan itu sendiri dan pekerjaan mereka. 1.1 Bidang keusahawanan sebagai kunci kepada pembangunan ekonomi Malaysia Keusahawanan adalah satu bidang yang telah diberi perhatian besar di Malaysia. Pelbagai mekanisme seperti polisi dan pendidikan keusahawanan telah diberi tempat yang sepatutnya oleh pihak kerajaan (Mohamed Ariff & Syarisa Yanti, 2002; Mazura & Norasmah, 2011). Usaha-usaha ini mempamerkan komitmen yang diberikan oleh pihak kerajaan dalam membentuk aset manusia dengan kapasiti dan semangat inovasi. Perkara ini dijangka dapat membantu memajukan ekonomi bangsa serta menyetarakan kedudukan mereka dengan negara-negara maju menjelang tahun 2020 disamping menyuntik semangat untuk bersaing demi menghadapi era gloabalisasi (Pejabat Perdana Menteri Malaysia, 2010; Norasmah, Nor Hafiza & Rahmah, 2012). Seperti yang dinyatakan sebelum ini, aktiviti-aktiviti keusahawanan memberi kesan kepada perkembangan dan pembangunan ekonomi sesebuah negara. Naudé (2013) menyatakan bahawa bidang keusahawanan yang semakin meningkat di negara-negara menyaksikan penurunan dari segi taraf kemiskinan seperti China dan semakin kerap dilihat adalah bidang keusahawanan juga menjadi kaedah yang berkesan dalam membantu mereka mengatasinya. Terdapat dua jenis bidang keusahawanan yang telah dikenalpasti oleh Baumol, Litan & Schramm (2007): inovasi dan replikasi. Replikasi merupakan jenis yang paling selalu dipraktik di mana idea-idea berkenaan bisnes yang sedia ada diguna pakai manakala inovasi pula memerlukan penghasilan sesuatu yang belum pernah wujud seperti sesuatu produk atau servis yang baharu. Terdapat juga keusahawanan sosial yang menggalakkan individu atau masyarakat mewujudkan ekonomi yang berdaya tahan diri. Fargion, Gevorgianiene & Lievens (2011) percaya bahawa usahawan-usahawan amat penting kepada ekonomi negara kerana mereka menjana kekayaan melalui ciri-ciri mereka yang kreatif, berani mengambil risiko dan bertindak sebagai ejen perubahan. Mereka turut mengenal pasti lima ciri-ciri seseorang usahawan iaitu berkebolehan dalam mengenal pasti dan mengambil peluang, menyelesaikan masalah dengan kaedah yang baru dan kreatif, mampu merancang dan melaksanakan projek, berkebolehan menghadapi pelbagai situasi dan berani mengambil risiko.
- 44. 43 1.2 Mengubah lanskappenggajian Memiliki segulung ijazah tidak lagi menjanjikan pekerjaan yang setara dengan kelayakan bagi seseorang graduan. Memandangkan bilangan graduan universiti yang semakin meningkat dan ekonomi global yang tidak menentu, tidak semua graduan akan berjaya mendapat pekerjaan yang menawarkan gaji idaman. Keadaan ini akan menyebabkan peningkatan dalam kadar pengangguran dan ramai graduan akan mencari pekerjaan alternatif seperti membuka peluang pekerjaan sendiri sama ada dengan bekerja sendiri dan perniagaan kecil-kecilan (Mansor & Norasmah, 2011; Norasmah, Nor Hafiza & Rahmah, 2012; Syahrina et al., 2013). Kesedaran tentang perubahan dari segi lanskap penggajian telah menarik perhatian pihak terbabit akan kepentingan melibatkan bidang keusahawanan dalam pengajian bidang-bidang bukan perniagaan. (Shinnar, Pruett & Toney, 2008; Nab e al., 2009 as cited in Lans et al., 2013). 1.3 Pendidikan keusahawanan di universiti dan bagi pelajar bukan bidang perniagaan Universiti-universiti adalah ejen yang amat sesuai dalam melengkapi bakal graduan dengan kemahiran dan ciri-ciri keusahawanan serta mengasah potensi mereka dalam bidang keusahawanan (Norasmah, Nor Hafiza & Rahmah, 2012; Louis, 1993 as cited in Syahrina et al., 2013). Pendidikan keusahawanan telah bercambah dengan pesat sejak pengenalannya pada akhir 1940-an di mana bidang ini telah ditawarkan di institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi terutamanya di negara-negara maju seperti Amerika Syarikat, Kanada, negara-negara Eropah dan Australia (Mars & Metcalfe, 2009). Bidang pendidikan sering dikaitkan dengan kejayaan dalam cabaran keusahawanan (Chilosi, 2001). Antara tujuan-tujuan pendidikan keusahawanan ialah membekalkan graduan dengan kemahiran asas keusahawanan (Guven, 2013), memupuk kualiti-kualiti keusahawanan di kalangan graduan seperti inisiatif, kreatif, dan kebolehan menyelesaikan masalah dan menggalakkan mereka untuk menceburi perniagaan masing-masing (Ries, 2011) serta mengubah pemikiran mereka (Wilson, 2008 seperti disebut dalam Guven, 2013). Laporan Pengajian Tinggi ASHE tahun 2009 menekankan bahawa terdapat usaha-usaha untuk menyepadukan pendidikan keusahawanan dengan bidang-bidang bukan perniagaan (termasuk bidang pendidikan) demi menyediakan graduan yang bukan dari bidang perniagaan untuk mencapai kejayaan dan pendidikan keusahawanan silang disiplin itu sebenarnya mempromosikan pembangunan ekonomi dalam ekonomi pengetahuan (Mars & Metcalfe, 2009). Bidang keusahawanan adalah satu bidang yang signifikan bagi pelajar- pelajar bukan bidang perniagaan disebabkan berlakunya perubahan dalam pasaran buruh dan ia turut menggalakkan pembelajaran sepanjang hayat (Nab et al., 2009 seperti disebut dalam Lans et al., 2013). Cansiz (2007 seperti disebut dalam Guven, 2013) mendapati pelajar-pelajar (secara umumnya) mempunyai potensi dalam bidang keusahawanan tetapi mereka menghadapi kesukaran dalam menonjolkan potensi mereka. Justeru itu, pendidikan keusahawanan dapat membantu pelajar-pelajar menyedari bakat terpendam mereka. Yang menariknya, Hynes (1996 seperti yang disebut dalam Mars &Metcalfe, 2009) membahaskan bahawa pelajar-pelajar bukan bidang perniagaan adalah lebih berdaya inovasi daripada mereka yang mempelajari bidang bisnes. Maka, ini menunjukkan bahawa menyepadukan pendidikan keusahawanan dengan kursus-kursus bukan perniagaan mempunyai dasar yang kukuh.
- 45. 44 Sewajarnya, institusi pengajiantinggi di Malaysia telah diberi mandat yang besar dalam pembangunan ekonomi nasional. Perkembangan peranan universiti-universiti sekarang melibatkan pembentukan dalam kemahiran dan semangat keusahawanan di kalangan pelajar. Pada tahun 2007, keusahawanan dijadikan subjek wajib di universiti-universiti awam (Norasmah, Nor Hafiza & Rahmah, 2012) dan terkini, keusahawanan dikategorikan sebagai salah satu Projek Agenda Kritikal bagi fasa kedua dalam Pelan Tindakan Pengajian Tinggi Kebangsaan 2011-2015 (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi, 2012). Oleh itu, pihak universiti perlu mencari jalan yang kreatif dalam melaksanakan pendidikan keusahawanan bagi pelajar-pelajar dari pelbagai bidang. Salah satunya adalah dengan menerapkan atau menyepadukan elemen-elemen keusahawanan dalam subjek-subjek yang ditawarkan. 1.4 EDU 630 Matlamat dan Struktur Kursus EDU 630: Pembangunan Profesional (PD) ialah satu kursus wajib bagi semua pelajar tahun akhir di Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi MARA. Kursus ini merupakan kursus bukan perniagaan yang meliputi bahagian-bahagian yang mengetengahkan peranan dan harapan guru-guru, cabaran-cabaran profesion perguruan dan kepentingan pembangunan profesional dan personal yang berterusan. Di akhir sesi pembelajaran, setiap kelas perlu melaksanakan seminar Pembangunan Profesional (PD). Seminar tersebut mencakupi apa jua isu atau topik atau tema yang dipilih oleh pelajar-pelajar berhubungan dengan pembangunan profesional perguruan. Penceramah-penceramah dijemput untuk berkongsi ilmu dan pengalaman bersama pelajar-pelajar. Seminar ini membawa 30% daripada gred akhir pelajar. Penilaian yang diberi gred termasuk pembentangan, esei individu dan jurnal refleksi tentang proses keseluruhan dalam menguruskan seminar PD dan bagaimana proses tersebut dikaitkan dengan apa yang dipelajari dan dibincangkan di dalam kelas. Kursus itu menerapkan nilai-nilai keusahawanan (yang merupakan salah satu objektif kursus) melalui struktur kursus yang menggalakkan pelajar menjana dana untuk seminar secara kreatif. Sepanjang minggu-minggu yang menghampiri tarikh seminar, pelajar-pelajar bekerjasama dalam membuat perancangan dan menguruskan acara atau aktiviti yang menjana dana. Antara usaha-usaha yang telah dijalankan ialah mengadakan jualan longgok „jumble sale‟, gerai makanan dan minuman, barangan ditempah khas „custom made‟ seperti kemeja-T dan lencana butang dan pesta buku serta gajet komputer (yang mana dijemput pembekal luar). Peluang keemasan seperti ini membolehkan pelajar mengasah kemahiran keusahawanan melalui pembelajaran secara praktikal. Tugas pensyarah adalah untuk membantu dan menyelia pelajar. Mereka sering diperlukan untuk nasihat dan tunjuk ajar. 1.5 Objektif Kajian Kajian ini bertujuan mengetahui persepsi guru-guru pelatih sama ada elemen-elemen keusahawanan yang diterapkan dalam kursus memberi impak yang positif kepada pembelajaran mereka secara umum, sikap mereka terhadap bidang keusahawanan dan juga terhadap peluang pekerjaan selepas graduasi.
- 46. 45 2. Kaedah Kajian Corakkajian ini adalah berdasarkan eksplorasi di mana peserta kajian ditanya beberapa soalan melalui emel. Lima orang bekas pelajar yang telah mengambil kursus dan telah tamat pengajian (tidak melebihi dua tahun) diambil sebagai peserta bagi kajian ini. Dua orang pelajar tersebut merupakan pengurus projek bagi seminar PD yang lalu manakala tiga orang pelajar lagi dipilih berdasarkan tugas dan fungsi mereka sebagai ahli majlis tertinggi. Dua orang pensyarah yang telah mengajar kursus tersebut turut dipilih sebagai peserta. Perancangan telah dibuat dengan para peserta sebelum soalan-soalan diajukan kepada mereka melalui emel. Peserta-peserta dikehendaki membuat refleksi berkenaan dengan pengalaman pembelajaran mereka sepanjang aktiviti mengumpul dana dan semasa proses menguruskan seminar PD. Hasil kutipan data dikumpulkan adalah dalam bentuk refleksi para peserta secara bertulis yang dihantar melalui emel, yang kemudiannya dianalisis secara kualitatif. 2.1 Hasil Kajian dan Perbincangan 2.1.1 Nilai pembelajaran melalui pengalaman Struktur bagi kursus yang memerlukan pelajar-pelajar menceburi aktiviti-aktiviti keusahawanan untuk mengumpul dana bagi seminar PD telah membuka peluang kepada para pelajar membuat hubungkait antara teori dan amali. Contohnya, sewaktu menguruskan aktiviti mengumpul dana, pelajar dapat membuat hubungkait tentang kemahiran komunikasi yang dipelajari dalam kelas dengan apabila berurusan dengan ahli kumpulan dan pelanggan. Aktiviti yang melibatkan situasi sebenar dan pembelajaran melalui pengalaman seperti ini dianggap penting oleh para pelajar. Mereka mendapati bahawa menguruskan aktiviti mengumpul dana dan seminar PD merupakan satu peluang belajar yang menyeronokkan dan dihargai berbanding dengan hanya berada di dalam kelas. Sifat praktikal kursus ini dalam menanamkan sikap keusahawanan sejajar dengan pendapat pakar yang menekankan pendidikan keusahawanan yang berteraskan pembelajaran melalui aktiviti, yang menarik minat dan menggalakkan penyertaan pelajar (Riese, 2011). Walaupun pedagogi dan kurikulum pendidikan keusahawanan masih berkembang, dipercayai bahawa pelajar perlu diberi peluang untuk menyertai aktiviti-aktiviti keusahawanan sebagai sebahagian daripada proses pembelajaran. (Metcalfe, 2009). Melalui perspektif pensyarah pula, mereka menyatakan bahawa pelajar bermotivasi dalam melaksanakan aktiviti-aktiviti mengumpul dana dan seminar PD. Beberapa pelajar menggunakan kepakaran dan minat mereka (apabila membuat pilihan akan aktiviti keusahawanan yang diceburi) manakala pelajar lain pula belajar kemahiran baru yang lain dari ahli-ahli kumpulan. Pensyarah-pensyarah pula perlu memastikan bahawa pelajar- pelajar “melaksanakannya mengikut peraturan.” Mereka berasakan pelajar akan mempelajari sesuatu yang baru tentang kesukaran dalam menghadapi birokrasi di universiti dan prosedur. Sebagai contoh, pelajar perlu memohon kebenaran fakulti sebelum membuat sebarang aktiviti keusahawanan. Pensyarah juga berperanan memberi nasihat dan bantuan kepada pelajar berkenaan perkara-perkara yang pelajar tidak ketahui tetapi sebahagian besarnya, pelajar yang menentukan kejayaan sesuatu perancangan dan aktiviti. Berlaku beberapa insiden di mana pelajar-pelajar gagal merancang dengan baik yang
- 47. 46 mengakibatkan aktiviti mengumpuldana kurang berjaya. Pembelajaran seperti ini dianggap penting bagi pensyarah dalam menyediakan pelajar mengharungi dunia sebenar. 2.1.2 Menggarap kemahiran dan sikap keusahawanan serta kualiti-kualiti berkaitan Pensyarah menyatakan bahawa pelajar-pelajar ada mempamerkan kemahiran dan ciri-ciri keusahawanan. Walaupun mereka bukan dari bidang perniagaan, mereka amat bersemangat melaksanakan aktiviti keusahawanan dan mampu menghasilkan konsep dan perancangan perniagaan yang munasabah. Biasanya, sebahagian daripada waktu kelas dikhaskan untuk pelajar-pelajar bermusyawarah manakala pensyarah pula membantu proses tersebut, namun begitu, pelajar-pelajar masih diberi kebebasan dan autonomi. Pada waktu ini, pensyarah melihat bahawa pelajar-pelajar bersepakat dalam membuat keputusan. Pelajar-pelajar juga mampu berdialog secara harmoni berkenaan isu-isu yang ditimbulkan, dan belajar bersetuju dan tidak bersetuju secara professional. Mereka juga mampu menyelesaikan cabaran perniagaan dengan cara yang sama. Sesetengah pelajar tidak berpengalaman dalam mengendalikan aktiviti keusahawanan tetapi perkara ini tidak menghalang mereka daripada mengekalkan sikap positif dan minat terhadap bidang keusahawanan. Seorang pelajar menyatakan bahawa latihan mengumpul dana telah membantunya mengatasi sifat malu dan rendah diri. Kesan daripada pengalaman tersebut telah memberikannya motivasi untuk memulakan perniagaannya sendiri selepas tamat belajar. Daripada seorang yang pemalu untuk berniaga, kini saya ialah seorang CEO dalam syarikat saya sendiri…disamping melaksanakan tugas saya sebagai seorang guru. Ya, minda saya tidak dapat berhenti memikirkan cara-cara menjana pendapatan! Kenyataan ini menunjukkan bahawa sikap dan minat boleh dipupuk dalam jiwa mereka yang tidak mempunyai pengalaman dalam bidang keusahawanan jika diberi peluang untuk menceburi bidang ini. Sememangnya, pakar-pakar telah menyatakan bahawa salah satu cara terbaik dalam memupuk sifat keusahawanan adalah dengan menyepadukan proses menjalankan sesuatu perniagaan dengan proses pembelajaran (Lans et al., 2013). Aktiviti- aktiviti menjana dana telah membantu menjernihkan pandangan pelajar yang salah tentang konsep keusahawanan sebelum ini. Seorang pelajar berkata: Pemikiran tradisional masyarakat yang mengatakan bahawa untuk memulakan sesuatu perniagaan memerlukan jumlah wang yang besar adalah tidak tepat jadi.. kami menjadi takut untuk mencuba memulakan sesuatu perniagaan… Perkara ini menggambarkan kenyataan Wilson (2007 seperti yang disebut dalam Guven, 2013) bahawa pendidikan keusahawanan adalah berkenaan dengan mengubah mentality pelajar. Pelajar secara umumnya mempunyai modal yang terhad untuk memulakan aktiviti mengumpul dana maka mereka biasanya akan dicabar untuk menjadi lebih pandai dan kreatif mencari jalan dalam aspek itu. Sepanjang kursus, pelajar boleh menjana pendapatan dan mempamerkan kemahiran keusahawanan tanpa modal permulaan yang besar. Seperti yang disebut dalam ulasan penulisan, antara tujuan-tujuan pendidikan keusahawanan
- 48. 47 termasuklah membangunkan ciri-ciriyang berkait rapat dengan bidang keusahawanan dalam diri setiap pelajar. Selain ciri-ciri kebijaksanaan dalam mencari jalan dan kreativiti, kemahiran berkomunikasi turut diasah agar pelajar dapat menggunakan cara yang pelbagai dalam menghadapi audiens yang berbeza: ahli kumpulan, pelanggan, penceramah dan pihak pengurusan. Pelajar juga berasakan penyampaian mesej secara jelas adalah amat penting. Sehubungan itu, pensyarah menyuarakan bahawa komunikasi yang tidak jelas merupakan salah satu cabaran yang perlu diatasi oleh pelajar. Pelajar juga telah mengenalpasti akan keperluan untuk mengubah cara mereka berkomunikasi. Seorang pelajar menyatakan: “Saya ialah seorang yang gemar bercakap tetapi saya perlu belajar untuk mendengar.” Kualiti-kualiti lain yang perlu dibangunkan ialah kemahiran kepimpinan, kemahiran pengurusan, dan kemahiran bekerja dalam kumpulan. Pemilihan ahli-ahli kumpulan adalah penting dan perlu berdasarkan kepercayaan. Mereka menyedari yang menguruskan orang tidak mudah dan mereka turut mengakui kemahiran interpersonal (hubungan dengan individu lain) sewaktu berkomunikasi amat penting dalam memastikan ahli-ahli kumpulan lain dapat menjalankan tugas dengan cekap. Berkenaan dengan isu menghargai individu lain, seorang pelajar berkata: Pengalaman bermakna…setiap individu dicipta untuk sebab yang berbeza… perbezaan- perbezaan ini yang menjadikan sesebuah kumpulan bekerja dengan baik Para pelajar berasakan bahawa mereka telah mempelajari kemahiran “survival”, iaitu kebolehan menghadapi cabaran dan mengambil risiko, dan bersikap cekal dan tidak putus asa. Mereka menganggap bahawa kemahiran-kemahiran ini akan membantu mereka mendapat pekerjaan kelak. 3. Konklusi dan Cadangan Kajian ini mendapati bahawa elemen-elemen keusahawanan yang disepadukan dalam kursus diterima baik oleh para pelajar. Berdasarkan hasil kajian, pelajar dilaporkan telah mendapat manfaat daripada pengalaman mereka menguruskan aktiviti-aktiviti menjana dana dan seminar PD. Beberapa kemahiran yang dikenalpasti ialah kemahiran berkomunikasi, kemahiran bekerja dalam kumpulan, kemahiran mengurus dan kemahiran memimpin. Pengalaman ini juga telah membantu pelajar mengatasi kelemahan mereka dalam menceburi bidang keusahawanan dan menyediakan mereka dengan pengalaman belajar yang tulen yang telah membetulkan kefahaman mereka yang kurang tepat tentang perniagaan. Pensyarah menganggap pembelajaran melalui pengalaman amat berharga bagi pelajar kerana memberi mereka peluang mempelajari ilmu kehidupan yang penting dan kemahiran keusahawanan yang hanya boleh didapati melalui aktiviti-aktiviti keusahawanan. Pelajar juga berasakan kemahiran yang didapati melalui pengalaman ini telah menjadikan satu aset bagi mereka untuk bekerja kelak. Oleh itu, kajian ini mencadangkan pengajaran dan pembelajaran di universiti perlu mengambil langkah yang lebih berinovasi dalam membentuk pemikiran dan kebolehan keusahawanan dalam diri pelajar. Ia juga turut mencadangkan agar teknik-teknik yang kreatif digunakan dalam
- 49. 48 pendidikan keusahawanan bagikursus bukan perniagaaan supaya pelajar menyertai aktiviti- aktiviti keusahawanan disamping membekalkan pelajar dengan kemahiran yang berguna untuk menyediakan mereka dalam mengharungi pasaran penggajian di masa akan datang. Rujukan Ariff Mohamed & Syarisa Yanti Abubakar. (2002). Strengthening entrepreneurship in Malaysia. Malaysian Economic Outlook: 1st Quarter 2002 Update (2002): 1-22. Baumol, W.J., Litan, R.E & Schramm, C.J. (2007). Good capitalism, bad capitalism, and he economics of growth and prosperity. Yale University Press: Michigan. Chilosi, A. (2001). Entrepreneurship and transition. MOST: Economic Policy in Transitional Economies, 11(4): 327-357. Fargion, S., Gevorgianiene, V. & Lievens, P. (2011). Developing entrepreneurship in social work through international education: reflections on a European intensive programme. Social Work Education, 30(8), Dec 2011: 964-980 Guven, S. (2013). Determining vocational education undergraduate students‟ educational needs for entrepreneurship. International Journal of Academic Research. 5(3): 379-383. Lans, T., Oganisjana, K., Taks, M & Popov, V. (2013). Learning for entrepreneurship in heterogeneous groups: experiences from an international interdisciplinary higher education student programme. TRAMES, 17 (67/62) (4): 383-399. Lingelbach, D. C., De La Viňa, L., & Asel, P. (2005). What's distinctive about growth-oriented entrepreneurship in developing countries?. UTSA College of Business Center for Global Entrepreneurship Working Paper, (1). Mars, M.M & Metcalfe, A.S. (2009). The entrepreneurial domains of American higher education: ASHE higher education report 2009, 34(5): 63-73. Mayhew, M.J., Simonoff, J.S., Baumol, W.J., Wiesenfeld, B.M. & Klein, M.W. (2012). Exploring innovative entrepreneurship and its ties to higher educational experiences. Res High Educ 2012, 53:831-859 Mazura Mansor and Norasmah Othman. (2011). CoBLAS: Inculcating entrepreneurial culture among higher education institutions‟ students. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 1(1): 86-91. Ministry of Higher Education (2012). The national higher education action plan: phase 2 (2011- 2015). Retrieved from http://www.mohe.gov.my/transformasi/fasa2/psptn2-eng.pdf Minniti, M. & Lévesque, M. (2008). Recent developments in the economics of entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 23 (2008): 603-612. Norasmah Othman, Nor Hafiza Othman & Rahmah Ismail. (2012). Impact of globalization on entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial skills in higher education institutions. IPEDR, 36. Prime Minister‟s Office of Malaysia (2010). Malaysia as a fully developed country. Retrieved from http://www.pmo.gov.my/?menu=page&page=1898 Riese, H. (2011). Enacting entrepreneurship education: The interaction of personal and professional interests in mini-enterprises. Cambridge Journal of Education, 41(4), Dec 2011: 445-460. Shinnar, R., Pruett, M. & Toney, B. (2008). Entrepreneurship education: Attitudes across campus. Journal of Education for Business, Jan/Feb 2009: 151-158. Syahrina Abdullah, Armanurah Mohamad, Habshah Bakar, Norashidah Hashim, & Ooi, Y. K (2013). Tracer study of bachelor in entrepreneurship program: The case of Universiti Utara Malaysia. International Journal of Education and Research, 1(9), Sept 2013: 1-10.
- 50. 49 Konsep Kewirausahaan diPerguruan Tinggi Nuning Sri Sukandari Latar Belakang: Kewirausahaan sudah menjadi sebuah perbincangan yang selalu dibicarakan di berbagai penelitian, seminar, dan berbagai media diskusi lainnya di dunia. Kemajuan dunia yang tercermin dalam globalisasi menjadi sebuah alasan yang mendasari pengembangan kewirausahaan yang berkelanjutan demi meningkatkan kualitas kehidupan masyarakat yang lebih baik. Pengembangan kewirausahaan, sayangnya, tidak semudah membalikkan tangan. Demi menumbuhkan jiwa kewirausahaan yang mumpuni, para entrepreneur tidak akan begitu saja muncul dari 250 juta rakyat Indonesia. Para wirausahawan yang berpotensi meningkatkan perekonomian negara itu masih tenggelam dalam pencari pekerjaan yang bersaing untuk mendapatkan pekerjaan yang telah tersedia, bukan pekerjaan yang mereka ciptakan. Hal inilah yang kemudian memunculkan pertanyaan, dimanakah peran perguruan tinggi dalam mengakomodasi ilmu pengetahuan yang telah dipelajari dalam prakteknya di masyarakat? 1. Pendahuluan Dalam proses penerapan kewirausahaan di masyarakat, perguruan tinggi menjadi salah satu aktor yang turut memainkan peran yang sangat penting dalam mengembangkan pengetahuan, inovasi, dan sumber daya manusia untuk meningkatkan tingkat persaingan dalam sebuah ekonomi berbasis pengetahuan (Mora, Detmer, & Vieira, 2010). Perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan yang sangat pesat menjadikan perguruan tinggi sebagai konsentrasi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan yang menuntut lulusannya untuk memberikan kontribusi pada peningkatan mutu ekonomi yang didasarkan pada jiwa kewirausahaan yang dimiliki dan harus terus dikembangkan. Perguruan tinggi bukanlah pendidikan yang terpisah dari apa yang telah dipelajari di tingkat-tingkat sebelumnya. Secara ideal, berbagai bentuk pembelajaran yang telah diberikan dalam pendidikan di tingkat dasar, menengah pertama, dan menengah atas telah membentuk pribadi siswa yang memiliki dasar-dasar kewirausahaan yang secara kasat mata masih belum terasah dengan baik. Tugas dari perguruan tinggi adalah untuk mengembangkan dasar-dasar kewirausahaan yang telah terbentuk dalam pribadi siswa. Sayangnya, pembelajaran kewirausahaan masih menjadi sebuah pelajaran yang eksklusif untuk diajarkan dan dibentuk pada siswa di tingkat-tingkat sebelum perguruan tinggi. Meskipun kewirausahaan menjadi sebuah lahan pendidikan yang memiliki prospek yang sangat baik bagi perkembangan ekonomi, perguruan tinggi tetap menjadi penentu dalam menentukan tujuan-tujuan dan praktek pendidikan yang dianut dengan menyesuaikan lingkungan politik dan ekonomi dimana perguruan tinggi itu berada (Krimsky, 1988). Pola pendidikan dalam perguruan tinggi haruslah mencerminkan bagaimana negara itu akan direalisasikan oleh lulusannya. Sayangnya, pendidikan kewirausahaan masih dianggap sebagai sebuah pendidikan eksklusif yang hanya disediakan oleh perguruan tinggi tertentu dan terpisah dari integrasi dengan program studi yang secara spesifik menyediakan pendidikan kewirausahaan. Pembelajaran kewirausahaan yang ada saat ini seharusnya berubah dari anggapan bahwa pendidikan kewirausahaan adalah tempat eksklusif dimana para siswanya secara khusus mempelajari ilmu bisnis dan ekonomi umum, dengan tujuan untuk mempromosikan kreativitas, inovasi, dan lahan pekerjaan yang dikelola sendiri (European Commission, 2008).
- 51. 50 Lebih lanjut, berdasarkanlaporan dari European Commission (2008), lulusan dari semua bidang studi, termasuk bidang studi humaniora, seni dan kreatif dapat memperoleh keuntungan dari belajar dan mendapatkan pengalaman dari kewirausahaan. Pemikiran, pengetahuan dan kemampuan entrepreneurial akan memberikan keuntungan yang sangat banyak bagi pemuda di kehidupan pribadi dan di lapangan pekerjaan yang mereka geluti. Dalam skala Small Medium Enterprise (SME), dimana di Indonesia dikenal dengan istilah Usaha Kecil dan Menengah (UKM), pendidikan kewirausahaan menjadi sebuah kontribusi utama dalam perkembangan perusahaan yang signifikan (Charney & Libecap, n/a). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pendidikan kewirausahaan menjadi sebuah investasi yang sangat menjanjikan dalam menyediakan peluang bekerja yang lebih baik. Berdasarkan pemaparan di atas, pendidikan kewirausahaan menjadi sebuah peluang yang baik bagi perguruan tinggi dalam mempersiapkan lulusannya ke dunia kerja. Tanpa terpaku pada ketersediaan lapangan kerja yang ada, mereka akan mampu berkontribusi dengan segala keterbatasan yang mereka miliki di awal sebagai titian menuju kesuksesan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan. Mengacu pada pentingnya pendidikan kewirausahaan di tingkat perguruan tinggi, pembahasan lebih lanjut akan peran signifikan perguruan tinggi dalam menyediakan pendidikan kewirausahaan terintegrasi dalam pembelajaran di setiap program studi yang disediakan. 1.2 Rumusan masalah Berdasarkan uraian di atas, makalah ini akan membahas permasalahan berikut: 1. Bagaimana peran perguruan tinggi dalam mendidik mahasiswanya dalam mengembangkan jiwa kewirausahaan dalam mempersiapkan diri menuju dunia kerja? 2. Apa kontribusi pendidikan kewirausahaan di pendidikan tinggi pada kelangsungan UKM? 1.3 Tujuan Makalah ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui peran perguruan tinggi dalam mendidik mahasiswanya dalam mengembangkan jiwa kewirausahaan dalam mempersiapkan diri menuju dunia kerja dan kontribusi pendidikan kewirausahaan di pendidikan tinggi pada kelangsungan UKM. 2. Pembahasan 2.1 Konsep Kewirausahaan di Perguruan Tinggi Wirausaha, yang orang awam kenal, adalah pemimpin dalam berbagai pertumbuhan ekonomi, yang muncul di biografi pebisnis sebagai seorang pendiri perusahaan yang karismatik, di penelitian-penelitian industri sebagai innovator yang cemerlang, atau seorang figur pemimpin di asosiasi perdagangan, atau dalam sejarah bisnis umum sebagai satu dari ribuan pemilik bisnis kecil yang dikembangkan sendiri (Casson & Godley, 2005). Hébert & Link (1982, dalam Veciana, 2007) telah mendefinisikan wirausahawan sebagai (1) seseorang yang selalu mengambil resiko yang berhubungan dengan ketidakpastian, (2) seorang supplier perekonomian negara, (3) seorang inovator, (4) seorang pengambil
- 52. 51 keputusan, (5) seorangpemimpin industri, (6) seorang manajer atau atasan, (7) seorang koordinator sumber daya ekonomi, (8) seorang pemilik perusahaan, (9) seorang pekerja dari faktor-faktor produksi, (10) seorang kontraktor, (11) seorang arbitrageur, dan (12) seseorang yang mengalokasikan berbagai sumber daya untuk penggunaan alternatif. Definisi wirausaha yang sederhana itu memberikan gambaran bahwa wirausaha merupakan sebuah investasi yang menjanjikan untuk ditekuni oleh setiap orang, termasuk lulusan perguruan tinggi. Tidak akan ada perusahaan multinasional jika tidak ada yang mendirikan. Jika tidak ada perusahaan, orang-orang tidak akan memiliki pekerjaan. Dilihat dari konsep yang sederhana ini, seorang wirausaha memiliki peran sentral yang sangat penting dalam perekonomian sebuah negara. Dalam prakteknya, wirausahawan yang baik harus mampu berpikir kreatif, menjadi pengambil keputusan yang efektif, menganalisa sebuah ide bisnis dengan objektif, dan berkomunikasi, membentuk jaringan, memimpin, dan mengevaluasi setiap proyek yang diberikan. Hal ini diberikan di program studi yang secara spesifik mendidik mahasiswa menjadi seorang wirausahawan. Mahasiswa akan diterjunkan di berbagai situasi yang menuntut pola pikir dan kerjasama yang ekstra untuk mencapai target dengan memanfaatkan segala sarana dan prasarana yang tersedia. Hal ini dimaksudkan agar mereka mampu menguji berbagai ide bisnis mereka di lingkungan dunia kerja yang keras. Sayangnya, wirausaha adalah sebuah kompetensi untuk semua orang, dimana kompetensi ini akan membantu para pemuda untuk menjadi lebih kreatif dan percaya diri di situasi apa pun yang mereka hadapi (European Commission, 2008). Wirausaha didefinisikan sebagai sebuah penerapan kemampuan-kemampuan perusahaan yang secara spesifik digunakan untuk menciptakan dan mengembangkan berbagai organisasi yang ada untuk mengidentifikasi dan mengembangkan kesempatan-kesempatan yang ada (The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, 2012). Wirausahawan harus mampu merealisasikan bagaimana sebuah permasalahan yang ada menjadi sebuah kontribusi positif bagi kemajuan perusahaan. Kewirausahaan, tentunya, menjadi sebuah konsep yang terus disuarakan oleh pemerintah sebagai penanggungjawab akan kesejahteraan masyarakatnya. Kontras dengan apa yang diharapkan pemerintah, permasalahan yang justru muncul dari masyarakat adalah banyaknya lulusan-lulusan perguruan tinggi yang berpotensi untuk menjadi wirausahawan justru bekerja di perusahaan-perusahaan besar yang mampu memberikan tunjangan-tunjangan yang besar, menyediakan keuntungan yang tinggi, dan menyediakan kesempatan untuk maju di dalam perusahaan. Banyaknya para pemuda pemudi yang potensial ke perusahaan yang sudah maju justru menjadikan perusahaan kelas kecil atau menengah kekurangan pekerja yang potensial itu (Delgado, 2004). Meskipun UKM di Indonesia sebagai perusahaan kelas kecil dan menengah terus berkembang setiap tahunnya, hanya sedikit UKM yang mampu menunjukkan pola entrepreneurship dan intrapreneurship yang baik dalam pengelolaan perusahaan. Hal ini tentunya berdampak serius pada perkembangan ekonomi negara secara signifikan, karena keterbatasan sumber daya manusia yang potensial dalam pengembangan ekonomi UKM yang masih terus berkembang. 2.2 Pentingnya Peran Perguruan Tinggi dalam Perkembangan UKM di Indonesia Perguruan tinggi memiliki peran yang penting dalam memecahkan permasalahan ini, dimana mayoritas mahasiswa di tingkat sarjana adalah pemuda pemudi yang berpotensial untuk menjadi wirausahawan. Para pemuda pemudi ini memiliki aset dan harapan untuk
- 53. 52 masa depan yanglebih baik, dimana perkembangan diri mereka tidak bisa secara eksklusif terfokus pada masa muda mereka (Delgado, 2004). Komunitas dimana mereka berada, dalam hal ini perguruan tinggi, harus mampu membentuk pengembangan kaum muda yang terkonseptualisasi dengan baik. Di tingkat yang lebih bawah, siswa siswi SMP dan SMA/SMK telah banyak meminati pendidikan kewirausahaan yang disediakan lingkungan pendidikan mereka (Karnita, 2008). Tentunya, hal ini tidak bisa disia-siakan oleh perguruan tinggi yang hanya berfokus pada pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan yang terpisah dari pendidikan kewirausahaan. Dalam pengembangan UKM di Indonesia, perguruan tinggi harus mampu mengkontribusikan dua hal yang sangat penting dalam kelangsungan industri UKM yang berbasis ilmu pengetahuan (Mitra, 2008). Pertama, perguruan tinggi harus mampu menyediakan pendidikan kewirausahaan yang berfokus pada pengembangan kemampuan kewirausahaan dan bagaimana mereka nanti mengkontribusikan pada pembentukan UKM yang baru dibentuk dan manajemen perusahaan kelas kecil dan menengah. Kedua, penerapan ilmu pengetahuan dari perguruan tinggi ke UKM yang membutuhkan mekanisme khusus yang digunakan oleh perguruan tinggi untuk membuat para lulusannya mampu menerapkan ilmu pengetahuan yang dipelajari di perguruan tinggi pada UKM di daerah dimana mereka berada. Kedua hal ini menunjukkan sebuah kompleksitas yang muncul antara hubungan perguruan tinggi dan UKM dalam perkembangan perekonomian nasional. Peran serta pemerintah dalam mengatur hubungan ini sangat diperlukan untuk mampu menjembatani bagaimana perguruan tinggi dan UKM dapat berinteraksi dua arah demi sebuah kemajuan ekonomi yang berbasis ilmu pengetahuan. Pentingnya peran perguruan tinggi dalam menyediakan lulusan-lulusan yang berpotensi sebagai wirausahawan tentunya menjadi beban tersendiri bagi perguruan tinggi. Di samping melakukan berbagai aktivitas akademik, konsep tridarma perguruan tinggi di Indonesia harus dilakukan untuk menyeimbangkan antara kontribusi akademik dan sosial di masyarakat sekitar daerah perguruan tinggi tersebut berada. Keberadaan pandangan kepribadian insititusi ganda dalam perguruan tinggi dimana pengetahuan adalah sebuah kebaikan, pengetahuan adalah produktifitas, pengetahuan adalah keamanan, dan pengetahuan adalah kesejahteraan manusia justru menjadi beban dalam penerapan pendidikan kewirausahaan yang integrative (Kimsky, 1988). Oleh karena itu, peran serta pemerintah sebagai aktor utama yang menentukan kemana pendidikan itu diarahkan sangatlah diperlukan untuk menjembatani berbagai pandangan kepribadian institusi yang ada di perguruan tinggi. Pendidikan kewirausahaan diharapkan mampu mengkontribusikan kemajuan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan, dimana regenerasi wirausahawan baru akan menyediakan pemain potensial yang mampu mengembangkan perekonomian berbasis ilmu pengetahuan. Jika program pendidikan kewirausahaan ini diterapkan, beberapa hal dibawah ini dapat dicapai: (1) pendidikan kewirausahaan akan menarik perhatian kontribusi keuangan sektor swasta yang penting dalam pengembangannya; (2) pendidikan kewirausahaan akan menghasilkan individu-individu pengusaha yang mumpuni dalam kemampuan; (3) pendidikan kewirausahaan dapat menghasilkan berbagai bisnis yang menguntungkan dan pemimpin- pemimpin industri yang sukses; (4) pendidikan kewirausahaan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan lulusan perguruan tinggi untuk memperbaiki dan meningkatkan taraf
- 54. 53 perekenomian kehidupan mereka;(5) pendidikan kewirausahaan akan menghasilkan juara- juara inovasi; dan, (6) pendidikan kewirausahaan akan membawa perekonomian dengan berbagai kesempatan yang lebih baik dengan teknologi yang terus maju (Charney & Libecap, n/a) 3. Penutup 3.1 Kesimpulan Melihat tinjauan teoritis akan pentingnya peran perguruan tinggi dalam mempersiapkan lulusan yang diharapkan telah memiliki jiwa wirausahawan melalui pendidikan kewirausahaan dan kontribusinya pada perkembangan UKM di Indonesia, beberapa hal di bawah menunjukkan bahwa: 1. Perguruan tinggi menjadi aktor vital dalam memberikan pendidikan kewirausahaan yang mampu mempersiapkan jiwa wirausahawan berbasis ilmu pengetahuan yang siap berkompetisi di pasar nasional dan global 2. Perkembangan industri UKM memiliki sebuah beban dimana jumlah wirausahawan yang potensial akan terus diserap oleh perusahaan-perusahaan yang telah mampu mandiri dan ini menyebabkan perkembangan UKM yang lambat, dimana peran serta perguruan tinggi sangatlah signifikan dalam memacu perkembangan perekonomian UKM. 3.2 Saran-saran Dari tinjauan yang telah dipaparkan di makalah ini, beberapa saran diajukan sebagai berikut: 1. Perguruan tinggi harus menjadi penyedia pendidikan kewirausahaan yang mampu membuat lulusannya mengaplikasikan ilmu pengetahuan yang diterima selama masa studi di dunia kerja 2. Perguruan tinggi juga harus menjadi aktor yang berkontribusi pada kemajuan industri kecil dan menengah dengan mengarahkan lulusannya untuk menjadi pemain vital dunia industri kecil dan menengah References Casson, M., & Godley, A. (2005). Entrepreneurship and Historical Explanation. In Y. Cassis, & I. Minoglou, Entrepreneurship in Theory and History (pp. 25-61). Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Charney, A., & Libecap, G. (n/a). Impact of Entrepreneurship Education. Kansas City, Missouri: Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership. Delgado, M. (2004). Social Youth Entrepreneurship: The Potential for Youth and Community Transformation. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. European Commission. (2008). Entrepreneurship in Higher Education, especially in Non-business Studies. European Commission. Karnita. (2008). Perlukah Kewirausahaan Masuk Kurikulum Pendidikan. Gemari (91). Krimsky, S. (1988). University Entrepreneurship and the Public Purpose. Biotechnology: Professional Issues and Social Concerns, 34-42.
- 55. 54 Mitra, J. (2008).Towards an Analytical Framework for Policy Development. In J. Potter, Entrepreneurship and Higher Education (pp. 17-44). OECD. Mora, J., Detmer, A., & Vieira, M. (2010). Good Practices in University-Enterprise Partnerships GOODUEP. Valencia: Lifelong Learning Programme and GOODUEP. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. (2012). Enterprise and Enterpreneurship Education. QAA.
- 56. 55 Pendidikan IPS diSekolah dalam membimbing siswa berwirausaha untuk menghadapi era globalisasi Tony Mokhamad Taufik Latar Belakang: Kesulitan dan tantangan dalam kehidupan manusia baik yang diakibatkan oleh tantangan yang datang dari dalam maupun dari luar, sering memaksa manusia untuk mencari cara yang memungkinkan mereka untuk keluar dari kesulitan yang dialaminya. Kehidupan bernegara Indonesia berkembang sesuai dengan perubahan-perubahan yang sangat besar terutama kaitan dengan globalisasi dan gerakan reformasi di dalam negri (Kabul,2007:1). Untuk menghadapi tantangan era globalisasi yang telah dan sedang berlangsung cepat sejak dua dasa warsa terakhir menghadirkan sejumlah fenomena baru yang sangat kompleks, menurut Idrus (2013:iii) dalam pengantar global citizens, globalisasi harus dimaknai sebagai suatu keadaan tertentu yang memungkinkan satu orang dan orang lain di seluruh dunia saling tersambung. Hal tersebut akan tergambar dari berbagai aspek kehidupan antara lain: adanya keterbukaan, kebebasan dan saling ketergantungan di semua dimensi kehidupan antar negara-negara dalam hubungan internasional. Hal ini bisa terjadi karena globalisasi itu sendiri menggerakkan suatu proses yang mengarah pada menyatunya masyarakat dunia, saling berhubungan dalam aspek kehidupan seperti: ekonomi, politik, teknologi, sosial, budaya dan lingkungan hidupnya. Bergulirnya proses globalisasi dewasa ini memunculkan fenomena memudarnya aspek-aspek kehidupan nasional, bahkan batas-batas wilayah nasional semakin buram dan rentan terhadap pengaruh proses globalisassi yang terus berlangsung, terutama dalam aspek ekonomi dan politik suatu negara. 1. Introduction Globalisasi yang orientasinya mengarah pada liberalisasi ekonomi dan perdagangan, yang kemudian melebar pada aspek kehidupan politik dan sosial budaya pada hakekatnya merupakan suatu perubahan gaya hidup yang mendasarkan pada persaingan bebas di berbagai aspek kehidupan bangsa-bangsa di dunia. Indonesia sebagai salah satu negara- negara di dunia tidak bisa menghindar dari pengaruh proses globalisasi. Dengan modal teknologi dan SDM serta kondisi sosial budaya yang dimilikinya, bangsa Indonesia harus menghadapi dan masuk pada proses globalisasi, yang setiap waktu mempengaruhi berbagai aspek kehidupan bangsa-bangsa di dunia. Untuk mempersiapkan bangsa Indonesia dalam menghadapi era globalisasi salah satunya dengan melalui sosialisasi kondisi dan pengaruh era globalisasi pada generasi muda, sehingga warga Negara Indonesia memahami proses globalisasi dan pengaruhnya dalam kehidupan di lingkungan sekitarnya. Sosialisasi tersebut disampaikan melalui mata pelajaran Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial sejak di Sekolah Dasar. Dalam penyelenggaraan pendidikan di SMK juga terdapat kelembagaan yang dinamakan Unit Produksi. Penyelenggaraan Unit Produksi adalah pembentukan wadah kegiatan produktif di sekolah yang bertujuan untuk membantu meningkatkan kegiatan belajar berproduksi nyata bagi siswa, sehingga dapat berproduksi sesuai standar dunia kerja serta dapat menanamkan jiwa berbisnis, dan sekaligus membantu sumber dana sekolah. Tujuan diadakan unit produksi adalah sebagaimana tercantum dalam Kepmen Dikbud Nomor 0490/U/1992, Pasal 29, ayat (2), yaitu : 1. Memberi kesempatan kepada siswa dan guru mengerjakan pekerjaan praktik yang berorientasi pada pasar.
- 57. 56 2. Mendorong siswadan guru dalam hal pengembangan wawasan ekonomi dan kewirausahaan. 3. Memperoleh tambahan dana bagi penyelenggaraan pendidikan 4. Meningkatkan pendayagunaan sumberdaya pendidikan yang ada di sekolah. 5. Meningkatkan kreativitas siswa dan guru. Dengan tujuan memadukan (tujuan antara) nilai-nilai kewirausahaan ke dalam semua mata diklat (lintas rumpun), dalam proses pembelajaran sehingga terjadi internalisasi dan personalisasi (mempribadi) nilai-nilai kewirausahaan untuk diketahui, dipahami, dihayati dan dilaksanakan (in action) secara tetap (konsisten). Pengintegrasian nilai-nilai kewirausahaan sejalan dengan konsep Kurikulum berbasis kompetensi yang menekankan pada kemampuan melakukan (kompetensi) berbagai tugas dengan standar performasi tertentu, sehingga hasilnya berupa penguasaan seperangkat kompetensi tertentu, sebagai gabungan pengetahuan, keterampilan, nilai sikap dan minat sebagai hasil belajar yang refleksinya adalah berupa kebiasaan berpikir dan bertindak ekonomis ketika menghadapi masalah. Sejalan dengan hal tersebut mata pelajaran Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial (IPS), siswa diarahkan untuk dapat menjadi warga Negara Indonesia yang demokratis dan bertanggung jawab serta menjadi warga dunia dunia yang cinta damai. Pada kurikulum tingkat satuan pendidikan/KTSP Standar Isi 2006, tujuan pembelajaran Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial (IPS) adalah : Menjadi warga Negara Indonesia dan warga dunia yang efektif, serta mengembangkan potensi siswa agar peka terhadap 3 masalah sosial yang terjadi di masyarakat, memiliki sikap mental positif terhadap perbaikan segala ketimpangan yang terjadi dan melatih ketrampilan untuk mengatasi setiap masalah yang terjadi sehari-hari baik yang menimpa diri sendiri atau masyarakat. merupakan tantangan berat karena masyarakat global selalu mengalami perubahan setiap saat. Untuk itulah, Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial dirancang untuk membangun dan merefleksikan kemampuan siswa dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat yang selalu berubah dan berkembang secara terus menerus. Pada hakikatnya, Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial sebagai suatu mata pelajaran yang menjadi wahana dan alat untuk menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan, antara lain: Siapa diri saya? Pada masyarakat apa saya berada? Persyaratan-persyaratan apa yang diperlukan diri saya untuk menjadi anggota suatu kelompok masyarakat dan bangsa? Apakah artinya menjadi anggota masyarakat bangsa dan dunia? Bagaimanakah kehidupan manusia dan masyarakat berubah dari waktu ke waktu? Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial merupakan mata pelajaran yang mengkaji seperangkat peristiwa, fakta, konsep, dan generalisasi yang berkaitan dengan isu sosial Bahkan secara eksplisit. Jadi mata pelajara IPS dirancang untuk membangun dan merefleksikan kemampuan siswa dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat yang selalu berubah dan berkembang secara terus menerus salah satunya yang harus diantisipasi adalah kegiatan ekonomi dunia meningkat terutama di negara-negara yang kegiatan ekonominya sudah mapan sehingga produktifitasnya semakin meningkat, maka bagai mana IPS mengatasi masalah tersebut melalui pembelajarannya guna membekali siswa untuk mempunyai daya saing dalam menghadapi ekomomi global, salah satu upayanya adalah menumbuh kembangkan jiwa kewirausahaan (entrepreneurship) dalam pembelajaran IPS. 1.1 Rumusan Masalah Dari uraian di atas dikemukakan permasalahan sebagai berikut:
- 58. 57 Bagaimanakah Pendidikan IPSdi Sekolah dalam membimbing siswa berwirausaha untuk menghadapi era globalisasi. 1.2 Tujuan Mengetahui bagaimana Pendidikan IPS di Sekolah dalam membimbing siswa berwirausaha untuk menghadapi era globalisasi. 2. Pembahasan 2.1 Sumber Daya Manusia Indonesia dalam Persaingan Global Sumber daya manusia (SDM) merupakan salah satu faktor kunci dalam meningkatkan kesejahteraan suatu bangsa, yakni bagaimana menciptakan SDM yang berkualitas dan memiliki keterampilan serta berdaya saing tinggi dalam persaingan global. Dalam kaitan tersebut, menurut Tambunan (2004: ii) setidaknya ada dua hal penting menyangkut kondisi SDM Indonesia, yaitu: Pertama, adanya ketimpangan antara jumlah kesempatan kerja dan angkatan kerja. Pasca reformasi terjadi krisis ekonomi tahun 1998 Indonesia mengalami keterpurukan struktur pendidikan angkatan kerja Indonesia masih didominasi pendidikan dasar. Masalah tersebut menunjukkan bahwa ada kelangkaan kesempatan kerja dan rendahnya kualitas angkatan kerja secara nasional di berbagai sektor ekonomi. Lesunya dunia usaha akibat krisis ekonomi yang berkepanjangan sampai saat ini mengakibatkan rendahnya kesempatan kerja terutama bagi lulusan perguruan tinggi. Sementara di sisi lain jumlah angkatan kerja lulusan perguruan tinggi terus meningkat. Ekonomi abad ke-21, yang ditandai dengan globalisasi ekonomi, merupakan suatu proses kegiatan ekonomi dan perdagangan, di mana negara-negara di seluruh dunia menjadi satu kekuatan pasar yang semakin terintegrasi dengan tanpa rintangan batas teritorial negara. Globalisasi yang sudah pasti dihadapi oleh bangsa Indonesia menuntut adanya efisiensi dan daya saing di segala aspek kehidupan, terutama dalam dunia usaha. Dalam globalisasi yang menyangkut hubungan intraregional dan internasional akan terjadi persaingan antarnegara. Indonesia dalam kancah persaingan global menurut World Competitiveness Report (2014) menempati urutan ke-38 cukup rendah bila dibandingkan dengan negara ASEAN yang diantaranya, Singapura (2), Malaysia (24), Brunei (26), dan Thailand (37) www.weforum.org. Perwujudan nyata dari globalisasi ekonomi yang akan dihadapi bangsa Indonesia antara lain terjadi dalam bentuk-bentuk berikut: Produksi, di mana perusahaan berproduksi di berbagai negara, dengan sasaran agar biaya produksi menjadi lebih rendah. Hal ini dilakukan baik karena upah buruh yang rendah, tarif bea masuk yang murah, infrastruktur yang memadai ataupun karena iklim usaha dan politik yang kondusif. Dunia dalam hal ini menjadi lokasi manufaktur global. Perusahaan global akan mampu memanfaatkan tenaga kerja dari seluruh dunia sesuai kelasnya, seperti penggunaan staf profesional diambil dari tenaga kerja yang telah memiliki pengalaman internasional danatau buruh diperoleh dari negara berkembang. Dengan globalisasi maka human movement akan semakin mudah dan bebas. Jaringan informasi. Masyarakat suatu negara dengan mudah dan cepat mendapatkan informasi dari negara-negara di dunia karena kemajuan teknologi, antara lain melalui: TV, radio, media cetak dan lain-lain. Dengan jaringan komunikasi yang semakin maju telah membantu meluasnya pasar ke berbagai
- 59. 58 belahan dunia untukbarang yang sama. Sebagai contoh KFC, Hoka Hoka Bento, Mac Donald, dll melanda pasar di mana-mana. Akibatnya selera masyarakat dunia –baik yang berdomisili di kota maupun di desa– menuju pada selera global. Hal ini terwujud dalam bentuk penurunan dan penyeragaman tarif serta penghapusan berbagai hambatan nontarif. Dengan demikian kegiatan perdagangan dan persaingan menjadi semakin ketat dan fair. Bahkan, transaksi menjadi semakin cepat karena “less papers/documents” dalam perdagangan, tetapi dapat mempergunakan jaringan teknologi telekomunikasi yang semakin canggih. Dengan kegiatan bisnis korporasi (bisnis corporate) di atas dapat dikatakan bahwa globalisasi mengarah pada meningkatnya ketergantungan ekonomi antarnegara melalui peningkatan volume dan keragaman transaksi antarnegara (cross- border transactions) dalam bentuk barang dan jasa, aliran dana internasional (international capital flows), pergerakan tenaga kerja (human movement) dan penyebaran teknologi informasi yang cepat. Sehingga secara sederhana dapat dikemukakan bahwa globalisasi secara hampir pasti telah merupakan salah satu kekuatan yang memberikan pengaruh terhadap bangsa, masyarakat, kehidupan manusia, lingkungan kerja dan kegiatan bisnis corporate di Indonesia. Kekuatan ekonomi global menyebabkan bisnis korporasi perlu melakukan tinjauan ulang terhadap struktur dan strategi usaha serta melandaskan strategi manajemennya dengan basis entrepreneurship, cost efficiency dan competitiveadvantages. 2.2 Menghadapi Globalisasi Masalah daya saing dalam era globalisasi semakin terbuka dan kondisi merupakan isu kunci dan tantangan yang tidak ringan. Menurut pandangan Solehudin(2010:127) era globalisasi yang ditandai pesatnya perkembangan ekonomi, politik, sosial, budaya, dan iptek telah menghadirkan tantangan yang cukup berat bagi bangsa Indonesia, khususnya bagi para pemuda. Maka tanpa dibekali kemampuan dan keunggulan saing yang tinggi niscaya kualitas bangsa suatu negara, termasuk bangsa Indonesia, tidak akan mampu bersaing pada dunia internasional. Bahkan masuknya tenaga ahli impor dapat mengancam posisi tenaga ahli domestik. Dengan kata lain, dalam pasar yang bersaing, keunggulan kompetitif (competitive advantage) merupakan faktor yang desisif dalam meningkatkan kinerja suatu usaha. Oleh karena itu, upaya meningkatkan daya saing dan membangun keunggulan kompetitif bagi SDM Indonesia tidak dapat ditunda-tunda lagi dan sudah selayaknya menjadi perhatian berbagai kalangan, bukan saja bagi para pelaku usaha itu sendiri tetapi juga bagi aparat birokrasi, berbagai organisasi dan anggota masyarakat serta diberbagai aspek kehidupan bernegara dan berbangsa. Realitas globalisasi yang demikian, menurut Nu‟man Somantri (2001) membawa sejumlah implikasi bagi pengembangan SDM di Indonesia salah satu tuntutan globalisasi adalah daya saing daya saing bangsa Indonesia akan terwujud bila didukung oleh SDM yang handal untuk menciptakan SDM berkualitas dan handal yang diperlukan adalah pendidikan Sebab dalam hal ini pendidikan dianggap sebagai mekanisme kelembagaan pokok dalam mengembangkan keahlian dan pengetahuan. Pendidikan merupakan kegiatan investasi di mana pembangunan ekonomi sangat berkepentingan. Sebab bagaimanapun pembangunan nasional membutuhkan kualitas SDM yang unggul baik dalam kapasitas penguasaan IPTEK maupun sikap mental, sehingga dapat menjadi subyek atau pelaku pembangunan yang handal. Dalam kerangka globalisasi, penyiapan pendidikan perlu juga disinergikan dengan tuntutan kompetisi. Oleh karena itu dimensi daya saing dalam SDM semakin
- 60. 59 menjadi faktor pentingsehingga upaya memacu kualitas SDM melalui pendidikan merupakan tuntutan yang harus di kedepankan. Oleh karena itu harus ada perhatian khusus, agar proses pembangunan mampu mendorong terbentuknya berbagai keahlian yang bisa mengolah SDM dan bisa semakin memandirikan struktur ekonomi bangsa. Menurut Ki Hajar Dewantara dalam Solehudin (2010:9) mengemukanan Tri Pusat Pendidikan artinya tiga pusat pendidikan yaitu lingkungan keluarga, sekolah dan masyarakat. maka supaya visi tersebut pun terjadi di berbagai daerah, maka harus ada koreksi total kebijakan pembangunan di tingkat makro dengan berbasiskan kepada pluralitas daerah. Karena itulah untuk apa SDM diciptakan kalau hanya akan menjadi perpanjangan sistem kapitalisme global dengan mengorbankan kepentingan lokal dan nasional. Untuk memoptimalkan peran Pendidikan IPS di Sekolah, maka kurikulum IPS harus memuat materi dan kegiatan pembelajaran yang mengarahkan dan membina siswa menuju peningkatan daya saing dan mampu mengantisipasi persaingan di berbagai aspek kehidupan yang semakin ketat. KTSP 2006, sebagai kurikulum terbaru harus benar-benar mampu membimbing dan membina siswa ke arah peningkatan kualitas SDM dan kemampuan daya saing bangsa Indonesia yang semakin ketat persaingan global khususnya di bidang ekonomi di masa datang salah satunya adalah dengan menumbuhkembangkan minat kewirausahaan (entrepreneurship) dalam pembelajaran IPS. Seperti dikemukakan James A. Banks (2012:327) bahwa dalam study sosial akan mencegah chaos dan instabilitas destruktif di dalam masyarakat dan saat yang sama menyediakan sarana dan metoda dengan mana generasi-generasi baru dapat menemukan menemukan martabat mereka sendiri. Dalam hal ini bagai mana pembelajaran IPS dapat menarik minat siswa dalam berwirausaha, minat adalah rasa lebih suka dan rasa ketertarikan pada suatu hal atau aktivitas, tanpa ada yang menyuruh. Minat pada dasarnya adalah penerimaan akan suatu hubungan antara diri sendiri dengan sesuatu di luar dirinya. Jika seseorang telah melaksanakan kesungguhannya kepada suatu objek maka minat ini akan menuntun seseorang untuk memperhatikan lebih rinci dan mempunyai keinginan untuk ikut atau memiliki objek tersebut. Ada nilai-nilai entrepreneurship yang perlu diketahui dan dimengerti yang bisa diinternalisasikan dalam diri peserta didik pada proses pembelajaran di kelas. Nilai-nilai tersebut yaitu: mandiri, kreatif, berani mengambil resiko, berorientasi pada tindakan, kepemimpinan, kerja keras, jujur, disiplin, inovatif, tanggung jawab, kerjasama, pantang menyerah, komitmen, realistis, rasa ingin tahu, komunikatif, dan motivasi kuat untuk sukses (Kemendiknas, 2010: 10-11). Pembelajaran adalah proses fasilitasi yang dilakukan oleh pendidik kepada peserta didik agar bisa belajar dengan mudah sekaligus setiap potensi yang dimiliki bisa berkembang dengan baik. Seiring dengan ini, kelas sebagai salah satu tempat berlangsungnya proses pembelajaran tentu perlu dikelola dengan baik pula sehingga keberadaannya menjadi faktor pendukung tercapainya tujuan pembelajaran yaitu tercapainya kompetensi dan terinternalisasikannya nilai-nilai karakter pada diri peserta didik. Dengan penanaman nilai-nilai tersebut peserta didik akan mempunyai dorongan yang kuat untuk berwirausaha apabila menaruh minat yang besar terhadap kegiatan wirausaha. Dengan adanya minat akan mendorong siswa untuk melakukan suatu aktivitas tertentu, karena di dalam minat terkandung unsur motivasi atau dorongan yang menyebabkan siswa melakukan aktivitas sesuai dengan tujuan kuatnya dorongan bagi diri seseorang dapat berubah-ubah sewaktu-waktu. Perubahan tersebut terjadi karena kepuasan kebutuhan yakni seseorang telah mencapai kepuasan atas kebutuhannya. Dengan demikian
- 61. 60 dorongan kuat untukmelakukan kegiatan berhubungan dengan pemenuhan kebutuhan. Apabila kebutuhan terpenuhi, maka akan timbul kepuasan, sedangkan kepuasan itu sendiri sifatnya menyenangkan. Hal ini berarti bahwa dorongan untuk berhubungan lebih aktif dengan obyek yang menarik ini disertai dengan perasaan senang. Untuk mendorong keberhasilan pendidikan IPS dalam menarik minat kewirausahaan di SMK, yaitu dengan memberikan mereka life skills. Life skills dalam pendidikan kewirausahaan adalah interaksi berbagai pengetahuan dan kecakapan yang sangat penting dimiliki oleh siswa sehingga mereka dapat hidup mandiri sebagai wirausahawan. Maka empat prinsip penting dalam menjalankan pembelajaran kewirausahaan sebagai life skills tidak boleh ditinggalkan, yaitu Learning to know (belajar untuk mengetahui kewirausahaan), learning to do(belajar untuk melakukan kegiatan wirausaha), learning to be (belajar untuk mempraktekkan kegiatan wirausaha), and learning to live together (belajar untuk bersama dengan yang lain dalam interaksi sosial dalam berwirausaha). kewirausahaan pada dasarnya merupakan proses pembelajaran penanaman nilai kewirausahaan melalui pembiasaan dan pemeliharaan perilaku dan sikap. Metode pembelajaran pendidikan kewirausahaan adalah menanamkan sikap, pembukaan wawasan dan pembekalan pengalaman awal yang dalam proses pembelajarannya bukan sekedar hafalan atau target kognitif, tetapi dipelajari melalui penenanaman kebiasaan yang harus dikerjakan atau dilakukan sendiri secara berulang-ulang dan tidak sekedar hanya mengerti dan mengalami. Soemahamijaya (dalam Suryana1997:14-15), mengungkapkankemampuanseseorang yang menjadi objek kewirausahaan meliputi: 1. Kemampuan merumuskan tujuan hidup/usaha. 2. Kemampuan memotivasi diri untuk melahirkan suatu tekad kemauan yang menyala- nyala. 3. Kemampuan untuk berinisiatif. 4. Kemampuan berinovasi, yang melahirkan kreativitas (daya cipta) setelah dilakukan berulang-ulang akan melahirkan motivasi. 5. Kemampuan untuk membentuk modal uang atau barang modal (capital goods). 6. Kemampuan untuk mengatur waktu dan membiasakan diri tepat waktu dalam segala tindakan melalui kebiasaan yang selalu tidak menunda pekerjaan. 7. Kemampuan mental yang dilandasi dengan agama. 8. Kemampuan untuk membiasakan diri dalam mengambil hikmah daripengalaman yang baik maupun menyakitkan. Menanamkan minat kewirausahaan sejalan dengan tujuan diselenggarakannya Pendidikan IPS yakni mengatasi segala bentuk permasalahan termasuk didalamnya adalah masalah persaingan ekonomi global, menurut Nu‟man ada beberapa keuntungan mempelajari IPS untuk siswa yaitu dapat mempelajari masalah masalah sosial yang perlu mendapatkan pemecahannya, sifat pengajaran akan mencerminkan suasana yang mengarah pada prospek kehidupan yang demokratis, dapat berlatih berbeda pendapat suatuhal yang sangat penting dalam memperkuat asas demokratis, bahan yang tabu sering sekali dekat kegunaanya dengan kebutuhan pribadi maupun masyarakat(2001:261), dalam hal ini dalam pembelajaran IPS di persekolahan memungkinkan peserta didik untuk mampu memecahkan masalah baik masalah pribadi masalah di masyarakat dan juga mengatasi
- 62. 61 masalah global melaluimengembangkan jiwa kewirausahaan dalam pembelajaran IPS di persekolahan. 3. Penutup 3.1 Simpulan Berdasarkan uraian dan analisis dalam tulisan ini dapat dikemukakan kesimpulan sebagai berikut: 1. Kemampuan daya saing bangsa Indonesia masih sangat perlu ditingkatkan agar mampu mengantisipasi kehidupan di era globalisasi yang tingkat persaingannya semakin ketat di masa depan. Paling tidak dalam menghadapi persaingan antara sesama negara di kawasan ASEAN salah satu jalannya adalah menarik minat generasi muda untuk berwirausaha melalui pendekatan pembelajaran IPS di Sekolah. 2. Pendidikan IPS di Sekolah sebagai wahana untuk membimbing dan mengarahkan siswa memasuki era globalisasi, perlu dikembangkan kurikulum dan sarana penunjang pelaksanaannya untuk memberi wawasan global dan keterampilan kewirausahaan dalam menghadapi permasalahan yang muncul dari persaingan ekonomi global khususnya seperti sulitnya mendapatkan pekerjaan siswa diharapkan mampu memecahkan masalah tersebut dengan berwirausaha.effort in establishing a standard theory and model in guiding this process, it is still remain as minimal. One of the prominent theories that can be linked to the context of VAE subject area is the Career Identity Theory (Meijers, 1998). It is defined as individual‟s work and career, reflecting motivations, personal meaning, and their values, the Career Identity Theory (CIT) has a strong influence on career-related behavior, which acts as a cognitive compass that direct his/hers learning and career-related actions (Fugate et al., 2004). In line with this understanding, Bridstock & Hearn (2011) has introduced three stages in promoting visual art entrepreneurship activities into teachers‟ training institution, as shown in Figure 1.1. 3.1 Saran-saran Dari kesimpulan tersebut di atas dikemukakan saran-saran sebagai berikut: 1. Perlu Perlu adanya pengintegrasian nilai-nilai entrepreneurship ke dalam pembelajaran IPS di kelas sangat penting karena sejalan dengan pentingnya pendidikan karakter. Dengan pengintegrasian nilai-nilai entrepreneurship ke dalam pembelajaran di kelas berarti dua “keuntungan” bisa diraih sekaligus; pengalaman pendidikan entrepreneurship dan pendidikan karakter telah dimiliki peserta didik, dan selanjutnya lahirlah academic entrepreneur yang berkarakter untuk menghadapi tangtangan globalisasi. 2. Pendidikan IPS di Sekolah sebagai wahana untuk membimbing dan mengarahkan siswa memasuki era globalisasi, perlu menjalin kerjasama dengan mata pelajaran lain yang terkait dengan persaingan global, seperti: Kewirausahaan, Matematika, Sains dan Bahasa Inggris, untuk memberi wawasan global dan keterampilan dalam menghadapi masalah yang muncul dari persaingan global.
- 63. 62 Daftar Pustaka Buku Bank, J.A. (2012). Strategi Mengajar IPS . Bandung: Mutiara Pres. Budiono, K. (2007). Nilai-Nilai Kepribadian dan Kejuangan Bangsa Indonesia. Bandung: Alfabeta. Gerzon, M. (2013). Global Citizzens. Bandung: Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. Sholehuddin. (2010). Pendidikan Sebagai Basis Penguatan Kerukunan Masyarakat. Depok: Bina Muda. Somantri, N. (2001). Menggaas Pembaharuan IPS. Bandung: PT.Remaja Rosda Karya. Sunarya. (1997). Kewirausahaan. Jakarta: Salemba 4. Tulus, T. (2004). Globalisasi dan Perdagangan Internasional. Bogor: Ghalia. Dokumen Undang-Undang Kemendikbud No. 0490/U/1992 tentang Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Kemendiknas Rencana Aksi Nasional 2010 tentang Pendidikan Karakter KTSP 2006 tentang Standar Isi Internet www.weforum.org (didownload Pukul 13.00 Tanggal 8 Maret 2014 )
- 64. 63 Kurikulum kewirausahaan yangmampu membentuk generasi muda atau para lulusan, baik SMA, SMK, SMP Esih Kurniawati Latar Belakang: Saat ini, budaya globalisasi telah melanda hampir seluruh bidang kehidupan manusia. Akibatnya, tidak dapat dielekan lagi, budaya global telah merubah perilaku pemuda- pemuda Indonesia. Dari jantung kota hingga pelosok pedesaan, semua mempunyai irama hampir sama tentang gaya dan budaya yang sedang tren dimusimnya. Pengaruh budaya ini telah menggiring masa depan generasi muda pada titik buram. Padahal ditangan mereka nasib bangsa ini digantungkan. Dilihat dari bangunan fisikologisnya, pemuda memang memiliki karakter mental yang labil dalam kondisi rentan seperti in, mereka mudah tercoret warna-warni pergaulan negatif. Namun, jika didada pemuda ini tertancab keyakinan teguh terhadap suatu tatanan nilai dan prinsip hidup, pemuda akan menjadi tombak tajam bagi pelaksanaan perubahan. Dengan keyakinan positif merekan akan menjadi sebuah kekuatan besar yang dapat menggetarkan dunia. 1. Pendahuluan Ketrlibatan pemuda dalam pembangunan ekonomi sangat besar. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari tingkat partisipasi angkatan kerja yang merupakan salah satu idikator yang biasa digunakan dalam ketenagakejaan. Pada umumnya, pemuda berpendidikan tinggi, yaitu setingkat SMA atau Perguruan Tinggi cenderung bekerja menjadi karyawan. Diantara mereka sangat sedikit yang berusaha sendiri atau berwira usaha. Sebaliknya pemuda berpendidikan rendah atau bahkan tidak bersekolah, cenderung berusahan sendiri. Hal ini terjadi karena pemuda berpendidikan rendah lebih mempunyai kesempatan bila berusaha sendiri dibandingkan untuk menjadi pegawai. Pengangguran menjadi masalah besar bagi sebagian pemuda. Pemuda yang menganggur di sini adalah pemuda yang tidak bekerja atau sedang mencari pekerjaan. Tingkat pengangguran ditingkat pedesaan lebih rendah dari pada di daerah perkotaan. Keadaan ini berkaitan dengan jenis pekerjaan di daerah pedesaan yang pada umumnya bersifat informal, sementara pekerjaan di perkotaan umumnya bersifat formal, yang memerlukan syarat- syarat tertentu. 1.2 Perumusan Masalah -Bagaimana tentang Kurikulum kewirausahaan yang mampu membentuk generasi muda atau bagi para lulusan, baik SMA, SMK, SMP. -Bagaimana tidak lanjut yang harus dilakukan agar semua pihak terkait termasuk masyarakat/stakeholder memiliki komitmen tinggi terhadap kewirausahaan yang mampu menjadikan generasi muda berjiwa kewirausahaan dan mandiri. 1.3 Tujuan Penulisan - Untuk mendeskripsikan kurikulum kewirausahaan yang mampu membentuk wirausaha- wirausaha baru bagi generasi muda dan atau bagi para lulusan, baik SMA/MA/SMK/MAK/SMP/MTS.
- 65. 64 - Untuk mendeskripsikantindak lanjut yang harus dilakukan agar semua pihak terkait termasuk masyarakat/stakeholder memiliki komitmen tinggi terhadap pengembangan kewirausahaan yang mampu menjadikan jiwa kewirausahaan tinggi bagi generasi muda. 1.4 Manfaat Penulisan Diharapkan makalah/proshiding ini dapat memberikan manfaat untuk mengembangkan kurikulum pendidikan kewirausahaan agar mampu mencetak generasi wirausaha-wirausaha baru yang handal dan mandiri. 2. Pembahasan 2.1 Pengertian Kewirausahaan Kewirausahaan berasal dari istilah entrepreneurship, sedangkan wirausaha berasal dari kata entrepreneur. Kata entrepreneur, secara tertulis digunakan pertama kali oleh Savary pada tahun 1723 dalam bukunya "Kamus Dagang'. Entrepreneur adalah orang yang membeli barang dengan harga pasti, meskipun orang itu belum mengetahui berapa harga barang (atau guna ekonomi) itu akan dijual. Wirausaha adalah seorang pembuat keputusan yang membantu terbentuknya sistem ekonomi perusahaan yang bebas. Sebagaian besar pendorong perubahan, inovasi, dan kemajuan di perkonomian kita akan datang dari para wirausaha; orang-orang yang memiliki kemampuan untuk mengambil reasiko dan mempercepat pertumbuhan ekonomi. Pengertian kewirausahaan relatif berbeda-beda antar para ahli/sumber acuan dengan titik berat perhatian atau penekanan yang berbeda-beda, diantaranya adalah penciptaan organisasi baru (Gartner, 1988), menjalankan kombinasi (kegiatan) yang baru (Schumpeter, 1934), ekplorasi berbagai peluang (Kirzner, 1973), menghadapi ketidakpastian (Knight, 1921), dan mendapatkan secara bersama faktor-faktor produksi (Say, 1803). Beberapa definisi tentang kewirausahaan tersebut diantaranya adalah sebagai berikut: Richard Cantillon (1775) Kewirausahaan didefinisikan sebagai bekerja sendiri (self-employment). Seorang wirausahawan membeli barang saat ini pada harga tertentu dan menjualnya pada masa yang akan datang dengan harga tidak menentu. Jadi definisi ini lebih menekankan pada bagaimana seseorang menghadapi resiko atau ketidakpastian. Jean Baptista Say (1816) Seorang wirausahawan adalah agen yang menyatukan berbagai alat-alat produksi dan menemukan nilai dari produksinya. Frank Knight (1921) Wirausahawan mencoba untuk memprediksi dan menyikapi perubahan pasar. Definisi ini menekankan pada peranan wirausahawan dalam menghadapi ketidakpastian pada dinamika pasar. Seorang worausahawan disyaratkan untuk melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi manajerial mendasar seperti pengarahan dan pengawasan
- 66. 65 Joseph Schumpeter(1934) Wirausahawan adalah seorang inovator yang mengimplementasikan perubahanperubahan di dalam pasar melalui kombinasi-kombinasi baru. Kombinasi baru tersebut bisa dalam bentuk (1) memperkenalkan produk baru atau dengan kualitas baru, (2) memperkenalkan metoda produksi baru, (3) membuka pasar yang baru (new market), (4) Memperoleh sumber pasokan baru dari bahan atau komponen baru, atau (5) menjalankan organisasi baru pada suatu industri. Schumpeter mengkaitkan wirausaha dengan konsep inovasi yang diterapkan dalam konteks bisnis serta mengkaitkannya dengan kombinasi sumber daya. Penrose (1963) Kegiatan kewirausahaan mencakup indentifikasi peluang-peluang di dalam system ekonomi. Kapasitas atau kemampuan manajerial berbeda dengan kapasitas kewirausahaan. Harvey Leibenstein (1968, 1979) Kewirausahaan mencakup kegiatan-kegiatann yang dibutuhkan untuk menciptakan atau melaksanakan perusahaan pada saat semua pasar belum terbentuk atau belum teridentifikasi dengan jelas, atau komponen fungsi produksinya belum diketahui sepenuhnya. Israel Kirzner (1979) Wirausahawan mengenali dan bertindak terhadap peluang pasar. Entrepreneurship Center at Miami University of Ohio Kewirausahaan sebagai proses mengidentifikasi, mengembangkaan, dan membawa visi ke dalam kehidupan. Visi tersebut bisa berupa ide inovatif, peluang, cara yang lebih baik dalam menjalankan sesuatu. Hasila akhir dari proses tersebut adalah penciptaan usaha baru yang dibentuk pada kondisi resiko atau ketidakpastian. Peter F. Drucker Kewirausahaan merupakan kemampuan dalam menciptakan sesuatu yang baru dan berbeda. Pengertian ini mengandung maksud bahwa seorang wirausahan adalah orang yang memiliki kemampuan untuk menciptakan sesuatu yang baru, berbeda dari yang lain. Atau mampu menciptakan sesuatu yang berbeda dengan yang sudah ada sebelumnya. Zimmerer Kewirausahaan sebagai suatu proses penerapan kreativitas dan inovasi dalam memecahkan persoalan dan menemukan peluang untuk memperbaiki kehidupan (usaha). Salah satu kesimpulan yang bisa ditarik dari berbagai pengertian tersebut adalah bahwa kewirausahaan dipandang sebagai fungsi yang mencakup eksploitasi peluangpeluang yang muncul di pasar. Eksploitasi tersebut sebagian besar berhubungan dengan pengarahan dan atau kombinasi input yang produktif. Seorang wirausahawan selalu diharuskan menghadapi resiko atau peluang yang muncul, serta sering dikaitkan dengan tindakan yang kreatif dan innovatif. Wirausahawan adalah orang yang merubah nilai sumber daya, tenaga kerja, bahan dan faktor produksi lainnya menjadi lebih besar daripada sebelumnya dan juga orang
- 67. 66 yang melakukan perubahan,inovasi dan cara-cara baru. Selain itu, seorang wirausahawan menjalankan peranan manajerial dalam kegiatannya, tetapi manajemen rutin pada operasi yang sedang berjalan tidak digolongkan sebagai kewirausahaan. Seorang individu mungkin menunjukkan fungsi kewirausahaan ketika membentuk sebuah organisasi, tetapi selanjutnya menjalankan fungsi manajerial tanpa menjalankan fungsi kewirausahaannya. Jadi kewirausahaan bias bersifat sementara atau kondisional. Kesimpulan lain dari kewirausahaan adalah proses penciptaan sesuatu yang berbeda nilainya dengan menggunakan usaha dan waktu yang diperlukan, memikul resiko finansial, psikologi dan sosial yang menyertainya, serta menerima balas jasa moneter dan kepuasan pribadi. Istilah wirausaha muncul kemudian setelah dan sebagai padanan wiraswasta yang sejak awal sebagian orang masih kurang sreg dengan kata swasta. Persepsi tentang wirausaha sama dengan wiraswasta sebagai padanan entrepreneur. Perbedaannya adalah pada penekanan pada kemandirian (swasta) pada wiraswasta dan pada usaha (bisnis) pada wirausaha. Istilah wirausaha kini makin banyak digunakan orang terutama karena memang penekanan pada segi bisnisnya. Walaupun demikian mengingat tantangan yang dihadapi oleh generasi muda pada saat ini banyak pada bidang lapangan kerja, maka pendidikan wiraswasta mengarah untuk survival dan kemandirian seharusnya lebih ditonjolkan. Sedikit perbedaan persepsi wirausaha dan wiraswasta harus dipahami, terutama oleh para pengajar agar arah dan tujuan pendidikan yang diberikan tidak salah. Jika yang diharapkan dari pendidikan yang diberikan adalah sosok atau individu yang lebih bermental baja atau dengan kata lain lebih memiliki kecerdasan emosional (EQ) dan kecerdasarn advirsity (AQ) yang berperan untuk hidup (menghadapi tantangan hidup dan kehidupan) maka pendidikan wiraswasta yang lebih tepat. Sebaliknya jika arah dan tujuan pendidikan adalah untuk menghasilkan sosok individu yang lebih lihai dalam bisnis atau uang, atau agar lebih memiliki kecerdasan finansial (FQ) maka yang lebih tepat adalah pendidikan wirausaha. Karena kedua aspek itu sama pentingnya, maka pendidikan yang diberikan sekarang lebih cenderung kedua aspek itu dengan menggunakan kata wirausaha. Persepsi wirausaha kini mencakup baik aspek financial maupun personal, sosial, dan profesional (Soesarsono, 2002 : 48) 2.2 Manfaat Kewirausahaan Dari beerapa penelitian mengedintifikasi bahwa pemilik bisnis mikro, kecil, atau percaya bahwa mereka cenderung bekerja lebih keras, menghasilkan lebih banyak uang, dan lebih membanggakan daripada bekerja di suatu perusahaan besar. Sebelum mendirikan usaha, setiap calon wirausaha sebaiknya mempertimbangkan manfaatkepemilikikan bisnis mikro, kecil atau menengah. Thomas W Zimmerer et al. (2005) merumuskan manfaat kewirausahaan adalah sebagai berikut: 1. Memberi peluang dan kebebasan untuk mengendalikan nasib sendiri memiliki usaha sendiri akan memberikan kebebasan dan peluang bagi pebisnis untuk mencapai tujuan hidupnya. Pebisnis akan mencoba memenangkan hidup mereka dan memungkinkan mereka untuk memanfaatkan bisnisnya guna untuk untuk mewujudkan cita-citanya. 2. Memberi peluang melakukan perubahan. Semakin banyak bisnis yang memulai usahanya karena mereka dapat menagkap peluang untuk melakukan berbagai perubahan yang menurut mereka sangat penting. Mungkin berupa penyediaan perumahan sederhana yang sehat dan layak pakai, dan mendirikan daur ulang limbah untuk melestarikan
- 68. 67 sumber daya alamyang terbatas, pebisnis kini menemukan cara untuk mengombinasikan wujud kepedulian mereka terhadap berbagai masalah ekonomi dengan sosial dengan harapan untuk menjalani hidup yang lebih baik. 3. Memberi peluang untuk mencapai potensi diri sepenuhnya. Banyak orang menyadari bahwa bekerja di suatu perusahaan seringkali membosanka, kurang menantang dan tidak ada daya tarik. Hal ini tentu tidak berlaku bagi seorang wirausahawan, bagi mereka tidak banyak perbedaan antara bekerja atau menyalurkan hobi atau bermain, keduanya sama saja. Bisnis-bisnis yang dimiliki oleh wirausahawan merupakan alat untuk menyatakan aktualisasidiri. Keberhasilan mereka adalah suatu hal yang ditentukan oleh kreativitas, antusias, inovasi, dan visi mereka sendiri. Memiliki usaha atau perusahaan sendiri memberikan kekuasaan kepada mereka, kebangkitan spiritual dan mampu mengikuti minat atau hobinya sendiri. 4. Memiliki peluang untruk meraih keuntungan. Walaupun pada tahap awal uang bukan daya tarik utama bagi wirausahawan, keuntungan berwirausahawan merupakan faktor motivasi yang penting untuk mendirikan usaha sendiri, kebanyakan pebisnis tidak ingin menjadi kaya raya, tetapi kebanyakan diantara mereka yang menang menjadi berkecukupan. Hampir 75% yang termasuk dalam daftar orang terkaya (Majalah Forbes) merupakan wirausahawan generasi pertama. Menurut hasil penelitian, Thomas stanley dan William Danko, pemilik perusahaan sendiri mencapai 2/3dari jutawan Amerika serika. “Orang-orang yang bekerja memiliki perusahaan sendiri empat kali lebih besar untuk menjadi jutawan daripada orang-orang yang bekerja untuk orang lain (karyawan perusahaan lain). 5. Memiliki peluang untuk berperan aktif dalam masyarakan dan mendapatkan pengakuan atas usahanya. Pengusaha atau pemilik usaha kecil seringkali merupakan warga masyarakat yang paling dihormati dan dipercaya. Kesepakatan bisnis berdasarkan kepercayaan dan saling merhormati adalah ciri pengusaha kecil.Pemilik menyukai kepercayaan dan pengakuan yang diterima dari pelanggan yang telah dilayani dengan setia selam bertahun-tahun. Peran penting yang dimainkan dalam sistem bisnis dilingkungan setempat serta kesadaran bahwa kerja memilki dampak nyata dalam melancarkan fungsi sosial dan ekonomi nasional adalah merupakan imbalan bagi manajer perusaan kecil. 6. Memiliki peluang untuk melakukan sesuatu yang disukai dan menumbuhkan rasa senang dalam mengerjakan. Hal yang didasarkan oleh pengusaha kecil atau pemilik perusahaan kecil adalah bahwa kegiatan usaha mereka sesungguhnya bukan kerja. Kebanyakan kewierausahawan yang berhasil memilih masuk dalam bisnis tertententu, sebab mereka tertarik dan mrenyukai pekerjaan tersebut. Mereka menyalurkan hobi atau kegemaran mereka menjadi pekerjaan mereka dan mereka senang bahwa mereka melakukannya. Wirausahawan harus mengikutu nasihat Harvey McKey. Menurut McKey: “Carilah dan dirikan usaha yang anda sukai dan anda tidak akan penrnah terpaksa harus bekerja sehari pun dalam hidup anda” Hal ini yang menjadi penghargaan terbesar bagi pebisnis/wirausahawan bukan tujuannya, melainkan lebih kepada proses atau perjalanannya. Dengan beberapa manfaat berkewirausahaan tersebut diatas jelas bahwa menjadi usahawan lebih memiliki berbagai kebebasan yang tidak mungkin diperoleh jika seseorang menjadi karyawan atau menjadi orang gajian atau menjadi pekerja bagi para pemilik perusahaan.
- 69. 68 2.3 Program PendidikanKewirausahaan Disekolah 2.3.1. Pendidikan Kewirausahaan Terintegrasi Dalam Seluruh Mata Pelajaran Yang dimaksud dengan pendidikan kewirausahaan terintegrasi di dalam proses pembelajaran adalah penginternalisasian nilai-nilai kewirausahaan ke dalam pembelajaran sehingga hasilnya diperolehnya kesadaran akan pentingnya nilai-nilai, terbentuknya karakter wirausaha dan pembiasaan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan ke dalam tingkah laku peserta didik sehari-hari melalui proses pembelajaran baik yang berlangsung di dalam maupun di luar kelas pada semua mata pelajaran. Pada dasarnya kegiatan pembelajaran, selain untuk menjadikan peserta didik menguasai kompetensi (materi) yang ditargetkan, juga dirancang dan dilakukan untuk menjadikan peserta didik mengenal, menyadari/peduli, dan menginternalisasi nilai-nilai kewirausahaan dan menjadikannya perilaku. Langkah ini dilakukan dengan cara mengintegrasikan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan ke dalam pembelajaran di seluruh mata pelajaran yang ada di sekolah. Langkah pengintegrasian ini bisa dilakukan pada saat menyampaikan materi, melalui metode pembelajaran maupun melalui sistem penilaian. Dalam pengintegrasian nilai-nilai kewirausahaan ada banyak nilai yang dapat ditanamkan pada peserta didik. Apabila semua nilai-nilai kewirausahaan tersebut harus ditanamkan dengan intensitas yang sama pada semua mata pelajaran, maka penanaman nilai tersebut menjadi sangat berat. Oleh karena itu penanaman nilainilai kewirausahaan dilakukan secara bertahap dengan cara memilih sejumlah nilai pokok sebagai pangkal tolak bagi penanaman nilai-nilai lainnya. Selanjutnya nilai-nilai pokok tersebut diintegrasikan pada semua mata pelajaran. Dengan demikian setiap mata pelajaran memfokuskan pada penanaman nilai- nilai pokok tertentu yang paling dekat dengan karakteristik mata pelajaran yang bersangkutan. Nilai-nilai pokok kewirausahaan yang diintegrasikan ke semua mata pelajaran pada langkah awal ada 6 (enam) nilai pokok yaitu: mandiri, kreatif pengambil resiko, kepemimpinan, orientasi pada tindakan dan kerja keras. Integrasi pendidikan kewirausahaan di dalam mata pelajaran dilaksanakan mulai dari tahap perencanaan, pelaksanaan, dan evaluasi pembelajaran pada semua mata pelajaran. Pada tahap perencanaan, silabus dan RPP dirancang agar muatan maupun kegiatan pembelajarannya memfasilitasi untuk mengintegrasikan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan. Cara menyusun silabus yang terintegrsi nilai-nilai kewirausahaan dilakukan dengan mengadaptasi silabus yang telah ada dengan menambahkan satu kolom dalam silabus untuk mewadahi nilai-nilai kewirausahaan yang akan diintegrasikan. Sedangkan cara menyususn RPP yang terintegrasi dengan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan dilakukan dengan cara mengadaptasi RPP yang sudah ada dengan menambahkan pana materi, langkah-langkah pembelajaran atau penilaian dengan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan. Prinsip pembelajaran yang digunakan dalam pengembangan pendidikan kewirausahaan mengusahakan agar peserta didik mengenal dan menerima nilai-nilai kewirausahaan sebagai milik mereka dan bertanggung jawab atas keputusan yang diambilnya melalui tahapan mengenal pilihan, menilai pilihan, menentukan pendirian, dan selanjutnya menjadikan suatu nilai sesuai dengan keyakinan diri.Dengan prinsip ini, peserta didik belajar melalui proses berpikir, bersikap, dan berbuat. Ketiga proses ini dimaksudkan untuk mengembangkan kemampuan peserta didik dalam melakukan kegiatan yang terkait dengan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan.
- 70. 69 Pengintegrasian nilai-nilai kewirausahaandalam silabus dan RPP dapat dilakukan melalui langkah-langkah berikut: • Mengkaji SK dan KD untuk menentukan apakah nilai-nilai kewirausahaan sudah tercakup didalamnya. • Mencantumkan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan yang sudah tercantum di dalam SKdan KD kedalam silabus. • Mengembangkan langkah pembelajaran peserta didik aktif yang memungkinkan peserta didik memiliki kesempatan melakukan integrasi nilai dan menunjukkannya dalam perilaku. • Memasukan langkah pembelajaran aktif yang terintegrasi nilai-nilai kewirausahaan ke dalam RPP. 2.3.2. Pendidikan Kewirausahaan yang Terpadu Dalam Kegiatan Ekstra Kurikuler Kegiatan Ekstra Kurikuler adalah kegiatan pendidikan di luar mata pelajaran dan pelayanan konseling untuk membantu pengembangan peserta didik sesuai dengan kebutuhan, potensi, bakat, dan minat mereka melalui kegiatan yang secara khusus diselenggarakan oleh pendidik dan atau tenaga kependidikan yang berkemampuan dan berkewenangan di sekolah/madrasah. Visi kegiatan ekstra kurikuler adalah berkembangnya potensi, bakat dan minat secara optimal, serta tumbuhnya kemandirian dan kebahagiaan peserta didik yang berguna untuk diri sendiri, keluarga dan masyarakat. Misi ekstra kurikuler adalah (1) menyediakan sejumlah kegiatan yang dapat dipilih oleh peserta didik sesuai dengan kebutuhan, potensi, bakat, dan minat mereka; (2) menyelenggarakan kegiatan yang memberikan kesempatan peserta didik mengespresikan diri secara bebas melalui kegiatan mandiri dan atau kelompok. 2.3.3. Pendidikan Kewirausahaan Melalui Pengembangan Diri Pengembangan diri merupakan kegiatan pendidikan di luar mata pelajaran sebagai bagian integral dari kurikulum sekolah/madrasah. Kegiatan pengembangan diri merupakan upaya pembentukan karakter termasuk karakter wirausaha dan kepribadian peserta didik yang dilakukan melalui kegiatan pelayanan konseling berkenaan dengan masalah pribadi dan kehidupan sosial, kegiatan belajar, dan pengembangan karir, serta kegiatan ekstra kurikuler. Pengembangan diri yang dilakukan dalam bentuk kegiatan pengembangan kompetensi dan kebiasaan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari peserta didik. Pengembangan diri bertujuan memberikan kesempatan kepada peserta didik untuk mengembangkan dan mengekspresikan diri sesuai dengan kebutuhan, potensi, bakat, minat, kondisi dan perkembangan peserta didik, dengan memperhatikan kondisi sekolah/madrasah. Pengembangan diri secara khusus bertujuan menunjang pendidikan peserta didik dalam mengembangkan: bakat, minat, kreativitas, kompetensi, dan kebiasaan dalam kehidupan, kemampuan kehidupan keagamaan, kemampuan sosial, kemampuan belajar, wawasan dan perencanaan karir, kemampuan pemecahan masalah, dan kemandirian. Pengembangan diri meliputi kegiatan terprogram dan tidak terprogram. Kegiatan terprogram direncanakan secara khusus dan diikuti oleh peserta didik sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan kondisi pribadinya. Kegiatan tidak terprogram dilaksanakan secara langsung oleh pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan di sekolah/madrasah yang diikuti oleh semua peserta didik. Dalam program pengembangan diri, perencanaan dan pelaksanaan pendidikan kewirausahaan
- 71. 70 dapat dilakukan melaluipengintegrasian kedalam kegiatan sehari-hari sekolah misalnya kegiatan „business day‟ (bazar, karya peserta didik, dll) 2.3.4. Perubahan Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran Kewirausahaan dari Teori ke Praktik Dengan cara ini, pembelajaran kewirausahaan diarahkan pada pencapaian tiga kompetansi yang meliputi penanaman karakter wirausaha, pemahaman konsep dan skill, dengan bobot yang lebih besar pada pencapaian kompetensi jiwa dan skill dibandingkan dengan pemahaman konsep. Dalam struktur kurikulum SMA, pada mata pelajaran ekonomi ada beberapa Kompetensi Dasar yang terkait langsung dengan pengembangan pendidikan kewirausahaan. Mata pelajaran tersebut merupakan mata pelajaran yang secara langsung (eksplisit) mengenalkan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan, dan sampai taraf tertentu menjadikan peserta didik peduli dan menginternalisasi nilai-nilai tersebut. Salah satu contoh model pembelajaran kewirausahaan yang mampu menumbuhkan karakter dan perilaku wirausaha dapat dilakukan dengan cara mendirikan kantin kejujuran, dsb. 2.3.5. Pengintegrasian Pendidikan Kewirausahaan ke dalam Bahan/Buku Ajar Bahan/buku ajar merupakan komponen pembelajaran yang paling berpengaruh terhadap apa yang sesungguhnya terjadi pada proses pembelajaran. Banyak guru yang mengajar dengan semata-mata mengikuti urutan penyajian dan k egiatan-kegiatan pembelajaran (task) yang telah dirancang oleh penulis buku ajar, tanpa melakukan adaptasi yang berarti. Penginternalisasian nilai-nilai kewirausahaan dapat dilakukan ke dalam bahan ajar baik dalam pemaparan materi, tugas maupun evaluasi. 2.3.6. Pengintegrasian Pendidikan Kewirausahaan melalui Kultur Sekolah Budaya/kultur sekolah adalah suasana kehidupan sekolah dimana peserta didik berinteraksi dengan sesamanya, guru dengan guru, konselor dengan sesamanya, pegawai administrasi dengan sesamanya, dan antar anggota kelompok masyarakat sekolah. Pengembangan nilai-nilai dalam pendidikan kewirausahaan dalam budaya sekolah mencakup kegiatan-kegiatan yang dilakukan kepala sekolah, guru, konselor, tenaga administrasi ketika berkomunikasi dengan peserta didik dan mengunakan fasilitas sekolah, seperti kejujuran, tanggung jawab, disiplin, komitmen dan budaya berwirausaha di lingkungan sekolah (seluruh warga sekolah melakukan aktivitas berwirausaha di lngkungan sekolah). 2.3.7. Pengintegrasian Pendidikan Kewirausahaan melalui Muatan Lokal Mata pelajaran ini memberikan peluang kepada peserta didik untuk mengembangkan kemampuannya yang dianggap perlu oleh daerah yang bersangkutan. Oleh karena itu mata pelajaran muatan lokal harus memuat karakteristik budaya lokal, keterampilan, nilai-nilai luhur budaya setempat dan mengangkat permasalahan sosial dan lingkungan yang pada akhirnya mampu membekali peserta didik dengan keterampilan dasar (life skill) sebagai bekal dalam kehidupan sehingga dapat menciptakan lapangan pekerjaan. Contoh anak yang berada di ingkungan sekitar pantai, harus bisa menangkap potensi lokal sebagai peluang untuk mengelola menjadi produk yang memiliki nilai tambah, yang kemudian diharapkan anak mampu menjual dalam rangka untuk memperoleh pendapatan.
- 72. 71 Integrasi pendidikan kewirausahaandi dalam mulok, hampir sama dengan integrasi pendidikan kewirausahaan terintegrasi di dalam mata pelajaran dilaksanakan mulai dari tahap perencanaan, pelaksanaan, dan evaluasi pembelajaran pada semua mata pelajaran. Pada tahap perencanaan ini, RPP dirancang agar muatan maupun kegiatan pembelajarannya MULOK memfasilitasi untuk mengintegrasikan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan. Cara menyusun RPP MULOK yang terintegrasi dengan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan dilakukan dengan cara mengadaptasi RPP MULOK yang sudah ada dengan menambahkan pada materi, langkah- langkah pembelajaran atau penilaian dengan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan. Prinsip pembelajaran yang digunakan dalam pengembangan pendidikan kewirausahaan mengusahakan agar peserta didik mengenal dan menerima nilai-nilai kewirausahaan sebagai milik mereka dan bertanggung jawab atas keputusan yang diambilnya melalui tahapan mengenal pilihan, menilai pilihan, menentukan pendirian, dan selanjutnya menjadikan suatu nilai sesuai dengan keyakinan diri. Dengan prinsip ini peserta didik belajar melalui proses berpikir, bersikap, dan berbuat. Ketiga proses ini dimaksudkan untuk mengembangkan kemampuan peserta didik dalam melakukan kegiatan yang terkait dengan nilai-nilai kewirausahaan. 2.4 Peran Pendidikan Kewirausahaan Dalam Pembentukan Karakter Bangsa Karakteristik sikap yang harus dimiliki oleh seorang wirausahawan, sikap-sikap itu antara lain : - Memiliki rasa percaya diri - Memiliki daya kreatifitas - Menghargai waktu - Menganggap perbuatan sebagai modal - Bertindak cekatan - Memiliki inisiatif dan disiplin tinggi - Berpikir positif 2.5 Program Pendidikan Kewirausahaan Dimasyarakat 2.5.1. Kegiatan Produktif dan Ekonomis Salah satu cara mengurangi pengangguran di Indonesia adalah memberi kesempatan seluas- luasnya kepada generasi muda sebagai tenaga yang produkltif secara umum di Indonesia terdapat dua persoalan kesempatan kerja. Pertama, bagaimana agar sumber daya manusia di Indonesia mampu memasuki pasar tenaga kerja. Kedua, bagaimana agar sumberdaya manusia Indonesia mampu menciptakan lapangan kerja baik untuk dirinya sendiri maupun orang lain. Bedrkaitan dengan hal tersebut, diperlukan langkah-langkah konkrit agar masalah ketenagkerjaan di Indonesia dapat diatasi. Berikut ini beberapa contoh kegiatan yang dapat dilaksanakan dalam organisasi kepemudaan untuk mendorong daya kreatifitas dan memberikan peluang usaha yang cukup menjanjikan, diantaranya : 1. Kegiatan industri kecil 2. Usha peternakan 3. Usaha perikanan dan pemancingan 4. Usahan budi daya tanaman hias 2.5.2. Kegiatan melalui pendidikan dan pelatihan
- 73. 72 Berikut ini beberapacontoh pendidikan dan pelatihan yang dapat diselenggarakan dalam organisasi pemuda 1. Pelatihan mekanik 2. Pelatihan merakit teknologi tepat guna 3. Penutup 3.1 Kesimpulan Sebagai generasi penerus bangsa maka peran dan kiprah nyata para pemuda, diharapkan ikut andil dalam menyukseskan pembangunan bidang kesejahteraan sosial ekonomi. Generasi muda diera globalisasi sekarang ini harus bangkit karena banyak tantangan yang akan dihadapi. Untuk itu generasi muda hendaknya dapat segera mempersiapkan diri meningkatkan kualitas mental agar dapat bersaing dan siap menyongsong era global dengan lebih siap. Berbagai pengetahuan teknis, keterampilan dan sikap mental positif yang tinggi akan menjadi kunco utama untuk memperoleh keberhasilan dalam pembangunan bangsa dimasa yang akan datang. 3.2 Saran Kewirausahaan dalam pendidikan agar lebih seimbang di perlukannya interaksi sosial yang memerlukan usaha serta waktu yang cukup. Sedikit perbedaan persepsi wirausaha dan wiraswasta harus dipahami, terutama oleh para pengajar agar arah dan tujuan pendidikan yang diberikan tidak salah. Jika yang diharapkan dari pendidikan yang diberikan adalah sosok atau individu yang lebih bermental baja atau dengan kata lain lebih memiliki kecerdasan emosional (EQ) dan kecerdasan advirsity (AQ) yang berperan untuk hidup (menghadapi tantangan hidup dan kehidupan) maka pendidikan wiraswasta yang lebih tepat. References Djaja Wahyudi, (2007) Pemuda Harapan Bangsa, Cepaka Putih http://viewcomputer.wordpress.com/kewirausahaan/ http://idegilabisnis.blogspot.com/2011/07/wirausaha.html http://www.sukses-wirausaha.com/2013/01/selalu-fokus-pada-nilai-tambah.html http://radioassalaam.com/wp/?p=530 www.google.com
- 74. 73 Pendidikan Guru DiMuzium Dan Galeri Seni: Satu Pendekatan Badrul Isa, Mohamad Azmi Adnan, Sumardianshah Silah & Raiha Shahanaz Redzuan Abstrak: Latihan praktikum merupakan komponen penting di dalam latihan perguruan. Komponen ini dianggap sebagai pelengkap kepada proses melahirkan guru. Terdapat pelbagai cara dan kaedah yang digunakan bagi institusi latihan perguruan bagi tujuan menguji dan melihat kemampuan guru- guru pelatih mempersembahkan pengajaran mereka. Bagi guru-guru pelatih Program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM, cabaran menjalani latihan praktikum di sekolah sedikit berbeza kerana guru-guru pelatih dikehendaki menganjurkan program lawatan akademik ke Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Lawatan wajib ke Muzium dan Galeri Seni yang di anjurkan hendaklah di susuli dengan proses pengajaran di dalam muzium dan galeri seni. Kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan proses pelaksanaan dan cabaran yang di lalui oleh guru-guru pelatih UiTM di dalam melaksanakan kaedah ini. Kata kunci: Inovasi Dalam Pendidikan Guru. 1. Pendahuluan Kerta kerja ini secara ringkas akan membincangkan pengalaman proses pelaksanaan pengajaran matapelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual oleh guru-guru pelatih Program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka, Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM yang mengadakan lawatan akademik ke Muzium dan Galeri Seni sebagai sebahagian daripada program menjalani latihan praktikum. Aktiviti utama lawatan akademik ini adalah proses mengajar yang dikendalikan sendiri oleh guru-guru pelatih Pendidikan Seni Visual. Kaedah ini merupakan inovasi pendidikan guru yang bertujuan untuk memperkayakan pengalaman guru pelatih semasa menjalani praktikum disamping mempelbagaikan strategi pengajaran khususnya matapelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual. Kaedah ini berbeza dari kaedah tradisional praktikum yang biasanya diamalkan di dalam pendidikan guru kerana kaedah ini menjadikan institusi pendidikan tidak formal iaitu Muzium dan Galeri Seni sebagai lokasi pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Melalui pendekatan ini guru-guru pelatih berpeluang untuk mengalami sendiri cabaran menganjurkan lawatan dan pengajaran di luar sekolah selain enjadikan pengajaran lebih efektif. 1.1 Muzium, Galeri Seni dan Pendidikan Guru Idea menggunakan institusi pendidikan tidak formal seperti Muzium dan Galeri Seni bagi tujuan pendidikan bukanlah perkara baru. Ini kerana Muzium dan Galeri Seni sememangnya menjadi destinasi popular yang dikunjungi oleh masyarakat tanpa mengira umur dan latarbelakang bagi memperkayakan pengalaman dan meluaskan pengetahuan. Kumpulan pelajar dari pelbagai peringkat merupakan golongan yang kerap mengunjungi Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Keadaan ini disebabkan oleh kekuatan Muzium dan Galeri Seni yang terletak pada bahan pameran dan koleksinya yang unik (Badrul Isa, 2006). Golongan pelajar memanipulasi dan menggunakan bahan pameran untuk pelbagai tujuan seperti penyelidikan, mendapatkan ilham dan idea seterusnya menjadikan Muzium dan Galeri Seni
- 75. 74 sebuah insitusi pentingdi dalam menyediakan sumber rujukan di peringkat rendah sehingga ke peringkat pengajian tinggi. Jika di buat perbandingan, terdapat persamaan di antara Muzium dan Galeri Seni dengan institusi pendidikan formal seperti sekolah dan universiti. Kedua-dua institusi ini berkongsi matlamat dan tujuan yang sama iaitu komited terhadap pendidikan. Melalui persamaan ini kedua-dua intitusi ini boleh bekerjasama memainkan peranan aktif di dalam menyuburkan aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Sebagai contoh latihan praktikum boleh diperluaskan sehingga ke Muzium dan Galeri Seni sebagai alternatif kepada suasana dan amalan biasa yang di jalankan disekolah. Pendidikan guru di negara kita masih menjadikan sekolah sebagai medan latihan praktikum dan berlainan pula dengan amalan di beberapa buah negara seperti Australia dan Amerika Syarikat yang kini sudah mula mengorak langkah memperluaskan latihan praktikum mereka ke luar sekolah. Pendekatan ini dilihat sebagai satu usaha untuk melihat kerangka pendidikan guru dalam konteks yang lebih, selain bertujuan meningkatkan kesedaran bahawa tugas sebagai pendidik tidak terhad kepada sekolah semata-mata malahan peranan sebagai pendidik boleh disalurkan ke luar sekolah seperti program kemasyarakatan dan kerja-kerja sosial. Sebagai contoh Australian Catholic University Sydney, di Australia menjadikan khidmat komuniti yang dikenali sebagai The Community Outreach Social Analysis and Action Program (COP) sebagai sebahagian daripada program praktikum mereka. Setiap pelajar perlu memenuhi peruntukan 80 jam latihan di agensi bantuan sosial terpilih (Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, & Le Cornu, 2006). Di Amerika Syarikat penggunaan Muzium dan Galeri Seni sebagai lokasi latihan dan rujukan oleh guru-guru pra-perkhidmatan bagi semua matapelajaran dinyatakan secara jelas di dalam standard guru yang di bangunkan oleh National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). Standard ini kemudiannya menjadi panduan asas kepada standard matapelajaran lain termasuk matapelajaran pendidikan seni visual (Henry, 2004). Standard for Art Teacher Preparation kemudiannya di bangunkan oleh National Art Education Association (NAEA) yang jelas menyatakan Muzium dan Pusat Komuniti Seni hendaklah dijadikan sebagai sumber bagi penyediaan guru-guru pendidikan seni visual (http://www.naea- reston.org/research/NAEA_Teacher_Prep_Stds.pdf). Keadaan ini sejajar dengan perkembangan dan perubahan semasa yang turut mendorong bidang pendidikan guru untuk melihat kembali pendekatan yang lebih fleksibel yang menguntungkan guru–guru pelatih. Kesan hasil daripada latihan yang diperolehi semasa mereka menjalani latihan pendidikan guru boleh dilihat apabila mereka mula berkhidmat sebagai guru. Pengetahuan teori dan pedagogi sudah pasti dijadikan sandaran di dalam memastikan guru dan pengajarannya supaya lebih efektif (Zuraimi Zakaria & Care, in press). Justeru adalah penting pendidikan guru menggunakan sepenuhnya ruang dan peluang mengatur strategi dengan mempelbagaikan usaha seiring dengan keperluan semasa seterusnya menjadikan latihan pendidikan guru berkesan. 1.2 Kaedah Pelaksanaan oleh Program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka, Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM Idea dan cadangan penggunaan Muzium dan Galeri Seni sebagai lokasi praktikum yang dilaksanakan oleh program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka, Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM
- 76. 75 didorong oleh duafaktor. Faktor pertama didorong oleh usaha untuk mempelbagaikan kaedah pengajaran bersesuaian dengan konsep kreativiti dan inovasi dalam pendidikan. Selain itu, pelaksanaanya boleh membantu guru untuk menimba pengalaman unik dalam pengajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual serta memperluaskan konsep pengajaran dengan lebih meluas dan tidak terikat kepada suasana di dalam kelas semata-mata. Usaha ini juga di harap menjadi nilai tambah dan pemangkin melahirkan guru yang serba boleh, fleksibel, kreatif dan inovatif sejajar dengan matlamat Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM yang ingin melahirkan guru yang holistik, peka kepada keperluan pengajaran dan berkemahiran tinggi (http://education.uitm.edu.my/). Faktor kedua di dorong oleh faktor persekitaran dimana suasana yang kaya dengan sumber budaya dan visual amat sesuai di jadikan rujukan bagi matapelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual. Sukatan Pendidikan Seni Visual turut mengesa agar guru menggunapakai persekitaran yang kaya dan berkualiti seperti Muzium dan Galeri Seni sebagai lokasi pembelajaran melalui siri lawatan akademik. Kaedah mengajar menggunakan sumber dari Muzium dan Galeri Seni mampu menajamkan daya persepsi dan membina pertimbangan estetik pelajar (Badrul Isa, Abdul Shukor Hashim, Zuraimi Zakaria, Mohd Khairezan Rahmat, & Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud, 2007; Badrul Isa & Zuraimi Zakaria, 2007; Wittmann, 1966) Kedua-dua faktor ini menjadi faktor pendorong kearah pelaksanaan kaedah ini. 2. Proses Pelaksanaan Proses pelaksanaan pengajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual di Muzium dan Galeri Seni oleh guru-guru pelatih program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM di Muzium dan Galeri Seni secara umumnya boleh dibahagikan kepada tiga peringkat. Rajah 1: Carta Aliran Proses I, dibawah menjelaskan proses pelaksanaan yang mengandungi tiga peringkat utama iaitu:
- 77. 76 Rajah 1: CartaAliran Proses I 2.1 PERINGKAT PERTAMA:Penawaran Matapelajaran Art Education Museum /Gallery Proses pertama pelaksanaan kaedah ini dimulakan dengan pengenalan kepada aspek pendidikan di Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Guru-guru pelatih didedahkan dengan aspek Pendidikan di Muzium dan Galleri Seni melalui matapelajaran Art Education Museum /Gallery yang di perkenalkan seawal semester dua pengajian. Matapelajaran ini merupakan matapelajaran teras dan wajib di ambil sebagai sebahagian daripada syarat program. Matapelajaran ini di tawarkan 3 jam kredit yang mengandungi pelbagai maklumat berkaitan strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual di Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Kuliah di sampaikan melalui dua pendekatan iaitu pendekatan teori yang menyentuh mengenai sejarah, falsafah, kurikulum dan teori pendidikan yang sesuai digunakan. Pendekatan kedua tertumpu aktiviti praktikal iaitu menerusi kajian artifak, objek dan karya seni tampak selain menumpukan dua latihan mikro yang perlu disempurnakan setiap satu di Muzium dan di Galeri Seni sebagai komponen utama penilaian yang dijalankan pada akhir kursus. Penekanan kepada matapelajaran ini adalah menerusi pengajaran mikro yang merupakan komponen utama kepada tahap kecekapan dan kemampuan pelajar mengendalikan program dan aktivtiti pendidikan di Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Pada peringkat ini juga guru-guru pelatih turut di maklumkan kepentingan matapelajaran ini dan aplikasinya semasa mereka akan menjalani latihan praktikum kelak. Di peringkat pendidikan guru, program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka, Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM merupakan satu-satunya universiti awam yang menawarkan matapelajaran ini yang ditawarkan di peringkat Ijazah Sarjana Muda Pendidikan.
- 78. 77 2.2 PERINGKAT KEDUA:MenghadiriSeminar pra-praktikum Seminar pra-praktikum ini merupakan seminar yang wajib dihadiri oleh guru-guru pelatih sebelum mereka dtempatkan disekolah. Seminar ini bertujuan untuk memberikan maklumat akhir berkaitan dengan persediaan guru-guru pelatih selain membincangkan isu-isu berkaitan dengan penempatan mereka. Seminar ini mengandungi beberapa slot khusus yang membincangkan isu-isu seperti persediaan guru pelatih, prosedur cerapan, kekerapan cerapan, peranan penyelia dan guru mentor yang merangkumi proses penyeliaan dan tanggungjawab guru pelatih terhadap sekolah serta keperluan praktikum lain. Pada seminar ini juga penjelasan dan huraian pelaksanaan lawatan dan pengajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual di Muzium dan Galeri Seni turut di adakan. Penjelasan merangkumi isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaannya yang merangkumi prosedur dan urusan rasmi yang perlu di lalui oleh guru pelatih. Guru-guru pelatih dibekalkan dengan Buku Panduan Pelaksanaan Pengajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual di Muzium dan Galeri Seni yang disediakan khusus bagi guru-guru pelatih Program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM yang mengandungi panduan dan maklumat mengenai proses pelaksanaan kaedah ini (Badrul Isa, n.d.). 2.3 PERINGKAT KETIGA:Proses Pelaksanaan Melibatkan Tiga peringkat Proses pelaksanaan pada peringkat ini terbahagi kepada 3 peringkat kecil yang melibatkan proses sebelum lawatan, semasa lawatan dan selepas lawatan. Sila rujuk rajah 2: Carta Aliran Proses II Rajah 2: Carta Aliran Proses II
- 79. 78 . 2.3.1 Sebelum Lawatan Persediaan Mendapatkan Kelulusan Peringkat awal ini merupakan peringkat persediaan bagi mendapatkan kelulusan. Gerakerja pertama yang akan di lakukan oleh guru pelatih adalah mengadakan perbincangan dan mesyuarat bersama jawatankuasa matapelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual yang terdiri daripada guru panitia, ketua bidang, dan juga guru-guru pendidikan seni visual. Mesyuarat diadakan bertujuan untuk menjelaskan cadangan program lawatan ke Muzium dan Galeri Seni selain mendapatkan persetujuan dan pandangan jawatankuasa berkenaan dengan pelaksanaan aktiviti ini. Perbincangan bersama jawatankuasa ini turut meliputi agenda seperti keperluan mengadakan lawatan sebagai sebahagian daripada penilaian praktikum, tujuan lawatan, aktiviti-aktiviti pembelajaran yang dirancang, jumlah peserta serta impak program lawatan kepada pelajar. Setelah mendapat kelulusan dari pihak jawatankuasa, guru pelatih dikehendaki menyiapkan kertas kerja bagi mendapatkan kelulusan rasmi dari pihak sekolah. Sekiranya penempatan guru pleatih di aturkan secara berkumpulan, memadai lawatan ini di anjurkan secara muafakat di kalangan guru-guru pelatih itu sendiri dengan membentuk sebuah jawatnkuasa kecil bagi menguruskan program ini. Sekiranya hanya seorang guru pelatih sahaja di tempatkan disekolah, jawatankuasa kecil lawatan boleh di bentuk dengan bantuan guru- guru senior sebagai ahli. Kebenaran Mengadakan Lawatan dan Mengurus Hal-Hal Logistik Setelah mendapat kelulusan pihak sekolah, guru pelatih kemudiannya perlu menguruskan hal-hal logistik seperti pengangkutan, kebajikan pelajar dan keselamatan pelajar sebelum, semasa dan selepas lawatan. Urusan membawa pelajar keluar dari sekolah akan dibantu oleh guru mentor kerana urusan membawa pelajar keluar sekolah memerlukan prosedur tertentu seperti kebenaran ibu bapa dan kebenaran pihak pejabat pelajaran daerah. Guru mentor akan membantu guru pelatih berkenaan dengan prosedur lawatan ini. Pada peringkat ini juga permohonan rasmi mengadakan lawatan ke muzium dan galeri yang terpilih boleh di pohon melalui pihak sekolah. Di sini kemahiran komunikasi guru pelatih diuji kerana mereka akan berurusan dengan pihak luar yang memerlukan kemahiran komunikasi yang baik. Guru pelatih perlu sentiasa membuat susulan dengan pihak terbabit bagi memastikan kelulusan permohonan mengadakan lawatan ke institusi terbabit diperolehi secepat mungkin bagi meneruskan proses yang lain. Persediaan Guru Pelatih dengan Bahan Pengajaran Proses berikutnya merupakan persediaan guru pelatih dengan bahan pengajaran yang akan digunakan di Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Guru pelatih akan membuat lawatan awal ke Muzium dan Galeri Seni terpilih sebelum rombongan bersama pelajar. Lawatan persendirian ini penting bagi mendapatkan gambaran awal dan memilih bahan atau ruang yang boleh di gunakan bagi tujuan mengajar. Kemahiran mengenalpasti bahan, objek dan
- 80. 79 ruangan yang sesuaiini telah pun di lalui oleh pelajar semasa mereka menjalani latihan pengajaran mikro di Muzium dan Galeri Seni semasa berada di semester dua pengajian. Penyediaan rancangan mengajar di sediakan mengikut keadaan biasa seperti mana di sekolah dengan perubahan hanya melibatkan lokasi pembelajaran. Persediaan bahan bantu mengajar disediakan bersesuaian dengan pemilihan topik dan bahan yang terdapat di Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Pada peringkat ini juga guru pelatih akan memaklumkan kepada pelajar yang terlibat dengan lawatan ini untuk turut membuat persediaan bahan dan peralatan yang diperlukan. Guru pelatih kemudiannya akan menyampaikan taklimat ringkas mengenai tujuan dan aktiviti yang bakal di jalankan semasa lawatan serta isu-isu keselamatan yang perlu di patuhi. 2.3.2 Semasa Lawatan Pelaksanaan pengajaran Pelaksanaan pengajaran di mulakan dengan guru pelatih perlu mengatur kedudukan pelajar supaya mereka selesa serta berupaya melihat dengan jelas bahan pameran dan pengajaran yang disampaikan oleh guru. Sesi pengajaran di mulakan sepertimana yang telah dirancang di dalam buku rancangan mengajar. Pembelajaran di Muzium dan Galeri Seni bersifat tidak formal, dan tempoh masa bagi satu-satu sesi pengajaran bergantung tidak terikat kepada jadual waktu dan bergantung kepada rancangan mengajar yang dirancang oleh guru pelatih sepenuhnya. Sesi apresiasi seni dan kritikan dijalankan pada penghujung proses pembelajaran. Pada sesi ini guru pelatih akan memberikan ruang dan masa yang bersesuaian bagi memberikan peluang yang lebih kepada pelajar untuk menyampaikan maklumat mengenai aktiviti dan hasilan yang mereka hasilkan. Guru pelatih bertindak sebagai moderator aktif dan soalan hendaklah sebaiknya bersifat provokasi bagi meningkatkan keupayaan berfikir pelajar. Setelah selesai semua aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran, pelajar di kumpulkan dan di persiapkan untuk kembali semula ke sekolah. 2.3.3 Selepas Lawatan Mengadakan Sesi Refleksi di Sekolah Pengajaran guru pelatih tidak terhenti dengan tamatnya sesi pengajaran di Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Sesi refleksi di teruskan di sesi persekolahan biasa dengan menumpukan pengalaman dan hasil karya pelajar untuk dibentangkan dan dibincangkan. Menyiapkan laporan lawatan Guru pelatih akan menyiapkan laporan lawatan untuk diserahkan kepada pihak pengetua, guru pembimbing dan pensyarah untuk disemak dan diteliti. Laporan tersebut mengandungi semua butiran berkenaan dengan perjalanan lawatan dan aktiviti yang telah di laksanakan. 2.4 Selepas Lawatan
- 81. 80 Setiap guru-guru pelatihyang menjalani program praktikum sudah pasti melalui pelbagai cabaran dan dugaan tidak kira lokasi dan suasana. Bagi guru-guru pelatih program pendidikan seni dan senireka yang melaksanakan lawatan akademik ke Muzium dan Galeri Seni, cabaran pelaksnaan kaedah ini memberikan mereka gambaran bahawa kerjaya sebagai guru sememangnya memerlukan komitmen tinggi untuk terus bertahan. Secara ringkas, antara cabaran yang dihadapi oleh guru guru pelatih adalah: a. Cabaran Mengurus, Menganjur, Mentadbir Aktiviti Dan Program Penganjuran aktiviti di luar sekolah memerlukan peracangan teliti. Justeru, cabaran melaksanakan program ini bermula seawal melangkahkan kaki ke sekolah. Guru-guru pelatih mempersiapkan diri dengan kemahiran menguruskan dan menganjurkan program dan aktiviti. Cabaran ini merupakan satu cabaran biasa bagi guru-guru pelatih yang aktif semasa di kampus dan telah sebati dengan aktiviti kepimpinan dan pengurusan aktiviti dan pengalaman ini boleh di anggap sebagai kelebihan di dalam melaksanakan aktiviti ini. Pelaksanaanya ini merangkumi cabaran seperti menyiapkan kertas kerja, mendapatkan kebenaran dari pihak sekolah dan agensi luar, belanjawan dan pengendalian aktiviti pembelajaran. b. Cabaran Mengendalikan Pelajar di Luar Sekolah Mengendalikan pelajar disekolah merupakan tugas yang sukar dan mencabar lebih-lebih lagi apabila mereka di luar sekolah. Bagi guru-guru pelatih, pengalaman mengendalikan pelajar dengan bantuan dan bimbingan guru mentor sememangnya pengalaman berharga. Kemahiran mengendalikan pelajar memerlukan masa untuk dikuasai. Pelaksanaan pendekatan ini mendedahkan guru pelatih cabaran mengendalikan pelajar di dalam sekolah dan di luar sekolah. c. Cabaran Dalam Bentuk Birokrasi Cabaran seterusnya terletak pada keupayaan guru menyakinkan pihak pengurusan sekolah terutamanya pengetua mengenai kepentingan melaksankan aktiviti ini. Cabaran ini memerlukan guru untuk menggunakan kemahiran komunikasi yang baik. Guru pelatih perlu menghadapi cabaran mendapatkan kebenaran dari pihak sekolah, agensi berkaitan dan ibu bapa pelajar. Cabaran ini mendedahkan guru-guru pelatih mengenai prosedur dan peraturan yang perlu dipatuhi. Lawatan keluar bersama pelajar-pelajar biasanya memerlukan kebenaran daripada pihak tertentu contohya PPD (Pejabat Pelajaran Daerah) yang biasa memerlukan masa yang panjang untuk tempoh permohonan keluar. Guru perlu mengatur strategi lebih awal untuk memastikan program sebegini dapat dianjurkan. 3. Rumusan Secara keseluruhanya, pelaksanaan pengajaran pendidikan seni visual oleh guru-guru pelatih program Pendidikan Seni Visual di Muzium dan Galeri Seni ini di sambut baik dan
- 82. 81 mendapat sokongan olehguru- pihak sekolah, guru pelatih sendiri dan pihak Muzium dan Galeri Seni. Walaupun perlaksanaanya memakan masa yang panjang, perancangan yang teliti dan komitmen yang tinggi bagi melaksanakannya, namun semua proses ini bertujuan untuk memberikan sebanyak mungkin pengalaman mengurus dan mentadbir aktiviti pengajaran. Pelaksanaannya memberikan input tambahan kepada guru-guru pelatih Pendidikan Seni Visual Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM apabila mereka memulakan kerjaya sebagai guru kelak. Pelaksanaan pendekatan ini jelas membuktikan komitmen serius yang di mainkan oleh pihak UiTM untuk melahirkan graduan perguruan bumiputera yang kreatif, inovatif, holistik dan serba boleh. Walaubagaimanapun, pelaksanaan kaedah ini masih memerlukan pandangan dan cadangan bagi tujuan penambaikan dan untuk itu Program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka sentiasa terbuka menerima pandangan bernas dan membina bagi meningkatkan perjalanan kaedah ini. 3.1 Cadangan Kejayaan Pelaksanaan pengajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual di Muzium dan Galeri Seni yang di pelopori oleh program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM ini merupakan usaha bersepadu dari banyak pihak. Justeru, kertas kerja ini ingin membuat beberapa cadangan seperti berikut: 1. Mencadangkan agar program praktikum diperluaskan ke luar sekolah bagi memberikan kepelbagaian pengalaman kepada guru-guru pelatih. 2. Mencadangkan agar Muzium dan Galeri Seni serta lokasi-lokasi pendidikan tidak formal seperti Taman-Taman Botani, Pusat Sains, dan lain-lain lokasi yang sesuai perlu di manfaatkan sepenuhnya bagi tujuan pendidikan supaya lokasi ini dapat di imarahkan dengan aktiviti menyebarkan ilmu. 3. Mencadangkan agar Fakulti Pendidikan IPTA, IPG dan institusi latihan guru mempertimbangkan idea pelaksanaan ini untuk diserapkan ke program pendidikan guru mereka serta memperluaskan latihan ke lokasi-lokasi tidak formal supaya guru-guru dapat menimba pengalaman dan mempelbagaikan strategi pengajaran mereka. Rujukan Badrul Isa. (2006). Pendidikan seni visual di muzium dan galeri seni. Dewan Budaya, 28-31. Badrul Isa. (n.d.). Panduan Pelaksanaan Pengajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual di Muzium dan Galeri Seni bagi Guru-Guru Pelatih Program Pendidikan Seni dan Senireka Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM. (Manuscript in preparation). Badrul Isa, Abdul Shukor Hashim, Zuraimi Zakaria, Mohd Khairezan Rahmat, & Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud. (2007). Pendekatan menggunakan objek dan artifak muzium sebagai sumber pembelajaran Pendidikan Seni Visual di Fakulti Pendidikan UiTM. Paper presented at the Seminar Kebangsaan Isu-Isu Pendidikan Negara Ke-3 Dasar dan Pelaksanaan
- 83. 82 Badrul Isa, &Zuraimi Zakaria. (2007). Museum and Education: Theoretical Approaches and Implications for Asian Universities. Asian Journal of University Education (AJUE), 2(1), 93- 110 Groundwater-Smith, S., Ewing, R., & Le Cornu, R. (2006). Teaching : challenges & dilemmas (3RD ed.). South Melbourne: Thomson. Henry, C. (2004). The Art Museum and the University in Preservice Education. Art Education, 57, 35-40. NAEA. (2009). Standards for Art Teacher Preparation Retrieved July 14, 2010, from http://www.naea-reston.org/research/NAEA_Teacher_Prep_Stds.pdf UiTM. (2010, 16 March 2010 ). ED222 - B.Ed (Hons) Art & Design Education Retrieved 23 June 2010, from http://education.uitm.edu.my/ Wittmann, O. (1966). The Museum and Its Role in Art Education. Art Education, 19, 3-6. Zuraimi Zakaria, & Care, E. (in press). Resolving Issues and Concerns of ESL Reading Teachers Through Professional Collaborative Practices. In F. A. Majid & I. S. Ismail (Eds.), Readings on ESL Reading and Writing Instructions. Shah Alam: Unit Penerbitan Universiti (UPENA) Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM).
- 84. 83 Pengamatan Estetika TerhadapReka Bentuk Pakaian: Keselesaan Dan Pergerakan Fizikal Muhamad Firdaus Ramli & Mohammad Mubarrak Mohd Yusof azwhyec@gmail.com mubarrak@salam.uitm.edu.my Abstrak: Penyelidikan ini mengungkap pengamatan estetika seni reka fesyen dan persepsi yang membawa kepada faktor keselesaan dalam pembuatan pakaian. Ianya juga melibatkan aspek kinestetik (pergerakan fizikal) dalam aktiviti dan sensetiviti pengguna. Tujuan utama penyelidikan ini adalah untuk membangunkan konsep dan prinsip seni reka bentuk terhadap keperluan pengguna. pergerakan yang berasaskan interaksi fizikal telah mendorong aktiviti penjanaan emosi dengan memberi tumpuan kepada pola pakaian yang digunakan. Penyelidikan ini dapat mengaplikasikan teori dan amalan reka bentuk dan pengamalan ilmiah yang sedia ada ke dalam faktor keselesaan pakaian pengguna. Imbalan penyelidikan akan mengubah gaya cetusan pereka fesyen untuk menjanakan konsep estetika dan keselesaan pakaian yang lebih wajar. Kata kunci: Seni Reka Fesyen, Estetika dan Interaksi Fizikal. 1. Idea Awalan Dalam Penyelidikan Keselesaan bukan sahaja berdasarkan dari hubungan deria pengguna terhadap bahan dalam pembuatan pakaian. ianya juga ditentukan oleh pelbagai perkara yang melibatkan parameter dalam psikologi, sosial, dan emosi pengguna. Namun, pakaian hendaklah direka bentuk dengan wajar dan Untuk memahami pengalaman keselesaan dan emosi pengguna. Kemungkinan, keselesaan pengguna akan mungkin terjejas oleh gabungan pola pakaian yang kurang efektif. Ini berkaitan dengan kekurangan ruang dalam pemakaian yang memberikan interaksi fizikal yang natural oleh pengguna. Pola pakaian yang telah dimanipulasikan dengan sebaik mungkin oleh pereka akan mewujudkan pengalaman pengguna yang berbeza. Dengan menjalankan Penyelidikan, penyelidik dapat memberi tumpuan kepada estetika dan pengalaman pengguna. Penyelidikan dapat meningkatkan prestasi dan keupayaan yang berkaitan dengan interaksi fizikal terhadap ruang pemakaian: a. Faktor penerimaan dan sensetiviti pengguna terhadap ruang dan fizikal (persekitaran/medium) b. Memahami unsur estetika dan fizikal pengguna serta interaksi (tindakan/mobiliti) c. Aspek manipulasi pola pakaian terhadap pergerakan/interaksi pengguna. Penyelidikan ini melibatkan dengan persoalan yang mengungkap perkara: • Apakah keperluan sensetiviti pengguna untuk memahami keselesaan dan meningkatkan kefahaman estetika pakaian? Keperluan untuk memahami hubungan bahantara yang digunakan juga dititikberatkan dalam pembuatan pakaian. Ini menjadikan kondisi dalam pembuatan pakaian akan bertindakbalas dengan aspek fizikal dan mobiliti pengguna.
- 85. 84 2. Keperluan MenanganiPermasalahan Penyelidikan Seni Reka Pakaian yang direka hendaklah mengikut dimensi/parameter berdasarkan keperluan penguna berserta analisis terhadap faktor kepenggunaan. Menurut (Christensen, 2004), keselesaan pemakaian yang utama boleh dikategorikan berhubung dengan keupayaan seseorang pereka. Selanjutnya, pakaian yang berfungsi dengan telus akan memudahkan ianya digunakan. Melalui pemakaian tersebut, pereka boleh membuat andaian terhadap keperluan peringkat kualiti dan ciri berkaitan dengan artistik. Selanjutnya, keperluan Reka bentuk terhadap sesuatu pakaian dapat menonjolkan cita rasa dan personaliti seseorang pemakai. Dengan berlakunya isu yang berkaitan terhadap keselesaan, kesepaduan pengamatan estetika secara umum pada pakaian dapat dijanakan. Melalui pemakaian, persepsi dan kognisi pengguna dapat digabungkan untuk memahami tindakan luaran fizikal dan aspek sesuatu bahan akan berfungsi. Menurut (Fiore et al., 1996), Dalam perkara yang berlainan, telah menyatakan bahawa cita rasa keselesaan yang melibatkan unsur sentuhan tekstil dalam pakaian tidak berkaitan dengan ilmu tentang prinsip keindahan (astetik). Ini adalah kerana, perkara tersebut akan melibatkan dengan pertingkatan sensasi faktor penyediaan bahan pembuatan dan bukanya dari aspek reka bentuk. Sebaliknya, mereka telah membuahkan tumpuan kepada perkara yang lebih sensasi atau negatif dalam pakaian itu sendiri. Adalah sewajarnya, fungsi dan faktor keselesaan terhadap pakaian yang dijanakan bertindak sebagai elemen (unsur) perlindungan kepada bakal pengguna. Perkara yang disampaikan oleh (Morganosky, 1987), keperluan dan keinginan akan menjadi perkara yang lebih penting dalam penyelidikan pakaian. Ini adalah kerana, keperluan dan keinginan dalam pakaian akan melibatkan pemikiran pengguna dalam membezakan antara perhatian dan keselesaan untuk produk yang berkualiti. Dalam mengungkap aspek estetika, penyelidikan ini akan menunjukkan bahawa keselesaan dalam pakaian adalah dari faktor utama pembuatan produk. Justeru itu, aspek keselesaan adalah berdasarkan dari ilmu (faktor kemanusiaan) dan berkait dengan pembuatan pakaian (produksi). Namun, penyelidik tidak menunjukkan bagaimana sensasi dan rasa keselesaan yang disebutkan dalam bentuk yang nyata (aksi). Ini adalah kerana, tidakan aksi yang terlalu menampakan keterujaan akan membawa kepada emosi yang sukar dikawal. Emosi yang dipengaruhi oleh isu keterujaan adalah berbeza dalam konteks estetika. Jika isu tersebut gagal dikawal dengan rapi, Ianya akan membawa kepada faktor provokasi yang besar kepada umum. 3. Pengamatan dan Manfaat Penyelidikan Bahantara dalam pembuatan pakaian yang digunakan sebagai gentian hendaklah 'selesa'. Ianya hendaklah bersesuaian dengan keperluan pengguna untuk memberikan faktor kehangatan dan mempunyai keupayaan peredaran udara. Selanjutnya, bahan yang bersesuaian hendaklah mempunyai beberapa ciri yang bersifat ketahanan dan lasak. Di dalam perihal ini, ianya juga berfaedah seperti penyerapan atau penebat haba ke tubuh pengguna. Kemungkinan, sebilangan keperluan penyelidikan yang bersifat saintifik digabungkan untuk mengukuhkan faktor kegunaan bahantara yang luar kebiasaan. Namun, beberapa faktor yang berlatarkan dari saintifik dan teknologi akan menjadi kesukaran bagi seseorang penyelidik gugusan kemanusian. Ianya akan menjadi permasalahan terhadap proses penganalisaan data/fakta yang berlainan dari paradigma dan lingkaran penyelidikan
- 86. 85 yang dibawa. Perkarayang telah dicadangkan, penyelidik gugusan kemanusian hanya perlu untuk menggunakan data/fakta daripada hasil penyelidikan saintifik untuk menjanakan reka bentuk pakaian yang diperlukan. Ini menunjukan aspek estetika akan lebih mudah untuk dijanakan dengan memberikan keselesaan yang berkaitan dengan pergerakan fizikal bakal pengguna. 4. Gambaran Rangka Kerja Dalam Memahami Estetika Dan Kinestetik Berdasarkan (Christensen, 2004) dan (Cupchik, 1995), telah membincangkan aspek estetika dalam beberapa domain kreatif. Mereka menyatakan perkara yang berkaitan dengan Visual menonjolkan penampilan dan kualiti pembuatan pakaian. Ianya akan menyentuh penerimaan dan perhatian yang penting dalam peringkat penyelidikan yang berkait dengan kualiti kinestetik. Selanjutnya, (Salem et al., (2006) menyatakan pengamatan produk dalam estetika yang membawa Terma emosi dan keseimbangan pribadi dalaman pengguna. Berikut adalah pernyataan Mereka berkenaan dengan perbezaan pengalaman dalam estetika: a. Persepsi dalam estetika; sejauh mana semua pancaindera umum/pengguna akan berpuas hati dengan penyampaian sesebuah produktiviti, b. Kognisi dalam estetika ; menurut (Cupchik, 1995), membicarakan pengertian yang menjadi keperluan kepada seseorang penyelidik untuk sandarkan kepada sesebuah produk. c. Tindakan dalam estetika; Cara atau perlakuan penyelidik untuk mendapatkan/memahami keselesaan yang menempatkan kepuasan hati/emosi dalam memudahkan tindakan pergerakan fizikal pengguna. Pengamatan ini akan membawa kepada perspektif yang menunjukkan keperluan unsur terhadap pengalaman estetika dalam penyelidikan seni reka. Ianya memerlukan pemahaman mental penyelidik dalam memahami proses tindakan pergerakan fizikal pengguna. secara peribadi, pereka/penyelidik perlu mengkaji ciri ekspresif seseorang pengguna/individu. Berkait dengan perihal tersebut, kepentingan peribadi akan menjadi simbolik kepada keperluan pergerakan fizikal pengguna. Perkara ini akan membentuk ketentuan dan tingkah laku pereka/penyelidik dalam membina pakaian. Oleh yang demikian, adalah amat penting untuk pereka/penyelidik mengenal pasti dan menilai keperluan pengetahuan estetika. Ianya akan berkait dengan perkara hubungan elemen reka bentuk pakaian (iaitu deria, fizikal, tingkah laku/karaktor dan pergerakan). Faktor ini dapat memberikan kelebihan dan ketenangan kepada pereka/penyelidik dalam membina pakaian. Elemen reka bentuk pakaian adalah amat diperlukan dalam usaha untuk membangunkan lanjutan prinsip reka bentuk pakaian yang diperlukan. 5. Pergerakan Fizikal Memahami paras fizikal pengguna dapat mengungkap peranan penting dalam membentuk pakaian berdasarkan keperluan umum. Penyelidik perlu meletakan pemahaman terhadap
- 87. 86 senario kehidupan penggunauntuk membolehkan proses interaksi berlaku. Aspek estetika akan berkait dengan kualiti pakaian dan kehasilan perlakuan pergerakan dilakukan oleh pengguna. Ini menyebabkan cita rasa pakaian akan dipengaruhi oleh pergerakan dan berkait rapat dengan faktor ruang. Oleh yang demikian, pemahaman teori terhadap persepsi dan pemikiran ilmiah akan terkait oleh umum/pengguna. Dalam keadaan yang berbeza, (Merleau-Ponty, 1962) menyatakan penamaan terhadap sifat dan ruang tidak mempunyai penetapan yang (sebenar dan logik). Ini berkait dengan perkara/isu yang perlu diatur kepada posisi dan lokasi yang menjadi keperluan asas pengguna. Kepentingan dan cara komposisi reka bentuk fesyen menjadi keperluan dalam membina pelbagai perkara yang penting untuk pakaian. Tambahan pula, (Merleau-Ponty, 1962) menambah dengan menyatakan ruang yang digambarkan tidak disediakan untuk perbuatan. Ianya hanya sebagai medium gabungan deria seseorang individu secara (subjektif). Dalam aspek tersebut, ianya juga proses pemahaman yang boleh membina (objektif) penyelidikan yang intelek mengikut keutamaan fizikal pengguna. Apa yang menjadi keperluan, persepsi dan pemikiran yang terpakai terhadap reka bentuk pakaian tidak akan hanya menunggu apa yang boleh dilihat sahaja. Ianya hendaklah perlu untuk dijanakan dengan lebih nyata berdasarkan keadaan semasa pengguna. Antara perkara yang boleh disandarkan berkait dengan prosedur kebolehupayaan visual, kinestetik, fabrik (bahantara) dan aspek gunaan. 6. Teori Pergerakan Dan Pengamalan Konsep „pergerakan‟ adalah berkaitan dengan pengalaman umum secara fizikal seseorang individu. Ini akan berkait dengan faktor antropometri yang perlu untuk difahami oleh seseorang pereka. Menurut (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999), menyatakan antropometri adalah perkara umum yang perlu difahami sebagai pelbagai objek di sekeliling kita. Ianya berkaitan dengan kehadiran pengalaman jasmani fizikal yang terkesan daripada interaksi pemikiran responsif. Berdasarkan (Arnheim, 1969), pemikiran (konsep/idea) akan terkesan melalui pemerhatian yang membawa kepada komplikasi fizikal. Perkara tersebut akan melibatkan tingkah laku dan sifat karaktor manusia yang dikaitkan dengan pergerakan. Menurut (Gibson, (1979), dalam teori (kemampuan) telah mencadangkan bahawa kehidupan perlu dinyatakan oleh seseorang individu dengan potensi mengikut perlakuan dan tindakan. Selanjutnya, penyelidik hendaklah melihat kehidupan berhubung dengan pemahaman fizikal yang bersifat intuitif dan boleh dilanjutkan mengikut sesuatu keadaan. Oleh yang demikian, pemahaman gaya kehidupan secara asasnya akan memberi makna kepada fizikal pengguna dan pengerakan mendapatkan akses kepada penyelidikan ilmiah. Tumpuan kepada struktur aktiviti fizikal pungguna akan mengungkap Aspek Luaran keperluan pereka membina pakaian. Manakala, Aspek Dalaman akan tertumpu kepada pemikiran mental dan pergerakan yang berlaku dari 'makna' yang difahami oleh seseorang individu. tingkah perlakuan (karaktor) sesebuah produk boleh diperkayakan dengan pergerakan fizikal pengguna untuk mengoptimumkan prestasi kehasilan pakaian. Dalam peringkat yang sama, melalui penyampaian kehasilan pakaian membentuk sebuah kelansungan komunikasi secara visual yang khusus.
- 88. 87 7. Matlamat PenyelidikanDan Pendekatan Metodologi Untuk Mengenal Pasti faktor keselesaan, aspek kinaesthetic dan aktiviti sensetiviti pengguna hendaklah difahami. Tugasan ini akan memperkuatkan Persepsi pereka dalam membangunkan prinsip reka bentuk. Cetusan Rasa dari pergerakan dan ruang akan bertembung dalam hubungan pakaian dengan fizikal pengguna. Penyelidikan memerlukan pereka Menyesuaikan Peribadi dengan pendekatan pembuatan dan produksi. Rekaan fesyen perlu digabungkan dengan keperluan faktor keselesaan Bahantara dan kesediaan pengguna. Menurut (Nagamachi, 2002), melalui pendekatan seni reka bentuk bertujuan untuk merangkap dan menjangka perasaan pengguna melalui imej dan objek. Selanjutnya, ianya akan menonjolkan keperluan untuk menerapkan emosi ke dalam produk yang bakal dijanakan. Pendekatan dan mekanisma pembuatan pakaian dijanakan untuk mengetahui: a. Pereka dapat memuktamadkan „papan mood‟ dan membina kefahaman dalam „memilih‟ dan „merangka‟ bentuk dapatan (pengetahuan). b. Pereka dapat menyusun (kategori) hubungan antara pengalaman pengguna dengan keperluan pakaian dan sifat-sifatnya. 8. Keberhasilan Perantara Penyelidikan Awalan Seni Reka Fesyen Kaedah (tatacara) dalam membina pakaian akan membuka lembaran kepada kritikan terhadap konsep seni reka bentuk. konsep dan idea reka bentuk boleh diselengara hingga menjadi prototaip dalam konteks „manipulasi pola‟. Dengan pergerakan proses tersebut akan disandarkan sebagai sumber penjanaan kefahaman artistik. Pereka perlu untuk berkerja (menjalankan penyelidikan) mengikut jangkaan masa yang telah ditetapkan. Dengan mengenal pasti bahawa terdapat sumber yang bersepadu dari pengalaman peribadi dalaman pengguna kepada ungkapan luaran penyelidikan. Dengan mengikut keperluan penyelidikan, interaksi fizikal akan terkesan kepada teori mengenai pakaian. Pengesanan pakaian akan berlaku ke dalam bentuk: a. Dimensi dengan cetusan rasa, b. Fungsi estetika, dan c. Interaksi emosi. Kelebihan fungsi pakaian akan menjadi sebahagian daripada ruang peralihan di antara proses penambahan interaksi pengguna dan pergerakannya. Sekiranya, prototaip yang direka bentuk akan dijanakan dengan tujuan untuk merangsang tindak balas emosi dari pemakainya. Prosedur ini adalah sebahagian daripada fasa awalan sesebuah produk pakaian yang bakal digunakan terhadap keperluan pengguna. Berdasarkan kepada konsep (idea), transformasi dari manipulasi pola pakaian akan menentukan penyesuaian diri pengguna terhadap pergerakan fizikal. Keperluan emosi pengguna akan bertindak sejurus transformasi prototaip pakaian berlaku. Ini adalah satu proses perubahan reka bentuk pakaian terhadap „transformasi‟ sebagai medium interaktif.
- 89. 88 9. Kepentingan PengarahanMenjalankan Penyelidikan Pembuatan Pakaian. Perkara yang berkaitan dengan durasi pembuatan pakaian adalah amat penting untuk difikirkan dan menjadi keperluan untuk: a. Menjalankan wawancara untuk mendapatkan data/fakta dengan mengemukakan persoalan kepada responden secara terbuka, b. Pereka/penyelidik perlu membuat pemerhatian secara rakaman video digital. Merakam tingkah pergerakan fizikal untuk mengenal pasti bakal pengguna yang menjadi responden. Memuktamadkan lingkungan (umur)/(jantina), emosi dan tindak balas aksi fizikal setelah mengenakan prototaip. Keperluan prosedur semasa penyelidikan dalam fasa: a. Responden/pengguna akan menentukan pilihan mereka daripada pelbagai pakaian dan imej yang ingin diperlihatkan kepada mereka. responden akan dikehendaki untuk menjawab persoalan yang pendek dan ringkas. Temu bual akan dirakam secara audio dan akan ditranskripsikan untuk rujukan lanjutan. Semasa proses penyelidikan berlangsung: b. Penyelidik/pereka hendaklah membuatkan responden/pengguna berkerjasama untuk menjawab persoalan ringkas dalam tugasan data koleksi. Ini adalah untuk mendapatkan makluman yang terperinci dalam membuat pilihan prototaip awalan. pengguna akan memanipulasi prototaip pakaian mengikut kesesuaian keadaan mereka secara natural. Semasa proses tersebut, dapat menunjukkan bagaimana pengguna akan berinteraksi dengan menggunapakai pakaian sebagai siri latihan yang ditetapkan. Pemerhatian terhadap responden akan dijalankan dengan menggunakan rakaman digital untuk mengkaji ungkapan mereka. 10. Kesimpulan Secara natural, pengguna akan menunjukan tingkah laku dan tindak balas sepanjang proses memakai prototaip ujian. Proses tersebut adalah melibatkan percubaan yang akan didokumenkan untuk tujuan dianalisis. Untuk mencapai ke tahap yang lebih wajar, pereka perlu memahami bentuk penyelidikan akademik. Ini memudahkan umum/pembaca merujuk ilmu yang khusus kepada keperluan sesebuah organisasi produksi pembuatan pakaian. References Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual Thinking, University of California press, Berkeley. Christensen, M. S. (2004). Introducing Excitability. In Proceedings of the Nordic CHI 2004 Workshop, October 24, 2004, Tampere, Finland, pp. 10-13. Cupchik, G. C. (1995). Emotion in Aesthetics: reactive and reflective models, Poetics, vol. 23, pp. 177-188.
- 90. 89 Fiore, A. M.,Kimle, P. A. & Moreno, J. M. (1996). Aesthetics: A comparison of the state of the art outside and inside the field of textiles and clothing, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 97-107. Gibson J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception, Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Hekkert, P. (2006). Design aesthetics: Principles of pleasure in product design, Psychology Science, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 157-172. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the fresh: the embodied mind and its challenge to western thought, Basic Books, New York. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of Perception, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Morganosky, M. A. (1987). Aesthetic, Function, and Fashion Consumer Values: Relationships to Other Values and Demographics, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 15-19. Nagamachi, M. (2002). Kansei engineering as a powerful consumer-oriented technology for product development, Applied Ergonomics, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 289-294. Salem, B., Nakatsu, R. & Rauterberg, M. (2006). Kansei Experience: Aesthetic, emotions, and inner balance.
- 91. 90 The Level ofSelf-Efficacy and Academic Achievement Among Physical And Health Education Students of UiTM Shah Alam Nurshamshida Md Shamsudin, Nur Basyirah Shafei & Mohammad Mubarrak Bin Mohd Yusof Abstract: The purpose of this research is to identify the level of self-efficacy and academic achievement among Physical and Health Education students of UiTM Shah Alam. The objective of the study was (i) to find out the level of self-efficacy among Physical and Health Education students and (ii) to find out the level of academic achievement among Physical and Health Education students. 90 students from Physical and Health Education program were selected randomly to answer the questionnaire. The item in the questionnaire will show the level of self-efficacy and academic achievement of the respondents. The results were analyzed using SPSS 18. It is recommended that if researcher can collect data from all students of Physical and Health Education students, researcher use all the students to become samples, carry out the research with other students from other programs in Faculty of Education that majoring in the other subject such as Mathematics, Arts or TESL. The level of self-efficacy among Physical and Health Education students of UiTM Shah Alam is high. They are able to adapt themselves with all the programs and also be independent in their own way. Majority of Physical and Health Education students of UiTM Shah Alam got higher level in academic achievement and majority of them got moderate level in academic achievement for both gender. 1. Introduction Self-efficacy and confident level is important for every person named „students‟. When students have high level of self-efficacy, they will able to become active students. When they have higher level of self-efficacy, their confident level also increases. Self-efficacy also influences the learning process. During the learning process, it helps students to gain new knowledge especially in acquiring new skills, habits, attitudes and belief. Academic achievement is important during studying time. Indirectly, this achievement will determine the future of a more glorious. It is the measurement of the level of knowledge somebody. Nowadays, our society emphasizes academic achievement as excellent academic result in order to measure a students‟ future career. 1.2 Background of the study Self-efficacy is explained in the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory by Bandura (1997) which stated that human achievement depends on interactions between one‟s behaviors, personal factors and environmental conditions. Self-efficacy is defined as a person‟s judgment of their capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to attain predetermined types of performances. It is concerned not with the skills one has, but rather with the estimation of what one can attain with the skills one currently possesses (Bandura, 1986). Self-concept describes what you know and understand about yourself in terms of your thought and feelings (Choi, 2005).
- 92. 91 Figure 1. 1:Bandura’s concept of triachic reciprocity behavior. The behavior of individual depends largely on early experiences at home. The home environment that stimulates curiosity will help build self-efficacy just as displaying more of that curiosity and exploring activities would invite active and passive reciprocity. This stimulation enhances the cognitive and affective structures of the individual which include his ability to sympathize, learn from others, plan alternative ways and regulate own behavior engage in self-efficacy. Self-efficacy theory postulates that people acquire information to appraise efficacy from their performance accomplishments, vicarious (observational) experiences, forms of persuasion, and physiological indexes. An individual's own performances offer the most reliable guides for assessing efficacy. Successes raise efficacy and failure lowers it, but once a strong sense of efficacy is developed, a failure may not have much impact. High self-efficacy will not produce competent performances when requisite skills are lacking. Outcome expectations, or beliefs concerning the probable outcomes of actions, are important because individuals are not motivated to act in ways they believe will result in negative outcomes. Perceived value of outcomes refers to how much people desire certain outcomes relative to others. Given adequate skills, positive outcome expectations, and personally valued outcomes, self-efficacy is hypothesized to influence the choice and direction of much human behavior (Bandura, 1997). 1.3 Problem Statement Self-efficacy is a temporary and easy to- influence characteristic that is solely situation or task-oriented and not sensed globally (Lenz & Shortridge-Baggett, 2002). In Malaysia, classroom practice is the examination-oriented lesson. It is common for teachers to focus entirely on the examination especially for learners who are sitting for national examinations such as the SPM. One of the main reasons given is that at the end of the day, the school, parents and learners want good grades. Everybody and all schools compete for better grades each year. Malaysian education system is very examination-oriented. Even if there is a change in teachers‟ attitude and they accept any changes in the curriculum employed, they are still compelled by the examination and will teach according to what will be tested. This may cause student have low level in self- confident and soft-skills. Human Development Personal Factors (affective, cognitive) Environmental Factors
- 93. 92 Among the complaintsare often made by employers is the weakness of the graduates in terms of soft skills (soft skills) such as communication skills, proficiency in English and self-confident and so on. Deputy Human Resources Minister Datuk Maznah Mazlan told Parliament, there are 76,200 graduates in the country that has not had a job. She said the Ministry of Human Resources is working to resolve the problem of unemployment among graduates. In 2010 the numbers of unemployed reached 42.955 or 24.62 percent of the graduates are 174.439. Statistics also show a total of 21,248 degree holders still unemployment, while for diploma holders, only three percent of the total unemployed graduates. Below is the Principal Statistic of Labour Force, Malaysia, January 2010 until August 2012.Based on the briefly explanation on self-efficacy, the aim of this study is to find out the relationship between students‟ self-efficacy and their academic achievement. In Malaysia, self-efficacy among students at higher education and graduate is very important to enter the workforce. Students nowadays are lack of self-efficacy and only focus more on academic achievement. Based on this scenario, it is therefore pertinent to find out whether academic achievement is largely determined by their perceived in academic. Specifically, the objectives of this study are: 1. To find out the level of self-efficacy among Physical and Health Education students. 2. To find out the level of academic achievement among Physical and Health Education students. 2. Theory of Self-efficacy Self-efficacy beliefs are not always self-evident. Capable individuals often hold deep insecurities that they will not readily admit. In school, assessing students‟ self-beliefs can provide teachers, counselors, and administrators with important insights about their pupils‟ academic motivation, behavior, and future choices (Pajares, 2005). Nowadays, young people avoid particular academic routes, career opportunities, and life paths because they lack confidence in their capability rather than because they lack competence or capability. Inaccurate self-beliefs, rather than poor knowledge or inadequate skills, are often responsible for people shortchanging themselves personally, socially, and academically. When low self-efficacy is identified early, youngsters can be helped to develop a better understanding of their potential to succeed in a desired path. In such cases, young people can be helped to better understand what abilities and skills a course of action will actually require. Identifying, challenging, and altering low self-efficacy is essential to success and adaptive functioning ( Pajares, 2005). Zimmerman (2009) said self-efficacy judgments specifically refer to future functioning and are assessed before students perform the relevant activities. This antecedent property positions self-efficacy judgments to play a causal role in academic motivation. In relation to educational research, three areas concerning self- efficacy have been examined is efficacy beliefs and college major or minor choices, teacher efficacy and student outcome, and student efficacy, motivation, performance, and academic achievement (Pajares, 2007). Common among most of the self-efficacy research is the not on of trying to explain individual variations in self-efficacy and the implications of these variations. Self-concept (physical, personal, moral and ethical, behavior, social satisfaction and identity), interpersonal communication skills and academic performance can be considered as three separate components. It is easy to assess a student‟s academic performance through the grade achieved in tests and examinations. However, assessing a student‟s self-concept
- 94. 93 which involves feelingsand perceptions of an individual is much more subjective and thus a more difficult task. Interpersonal communication skills of an individual are easier to assess as a student‟s ability to communicate can readily be determined by the way he interacts with his teachers and peers (Claes, M., Lacourse, E.,Bouchard, C., & Perucchini, P. 2003). Specifically, self-efficacy practices (such as the ability to exercise impulse control) play key role in educational self-development. People who are good self-regulators perform much better academically than those who are not, precisely because they have high sense of efficacy for self-regulated learning and academic mastery" (Bandura et al.). With the continuous development and integration of technology and education, students are now educating themselves more than ever before. As stated above, students must be good self- regulators in order to perform well academically, and thus be more successful. Similarly, students who have good pro-social relationships generally have higher senses of efficacy and self-regulation (Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 2003). Self- efficacy are not only conceptually distinctive from closely associated constructs such as outcome expectancies, concept, and perceived control, they have discriminant validity in predicting a variety of academic outcomes (Zimmerman, 2009). 2.1 Theory of Academic Achievement According to Lampert,(2007) people's efficacy beliefs begin to influence future objectives at an early age. Essentially, the higher a person's efficacy level, the more career options he or she will consider later in life, and the better he or she will prepare scholastically for overall success. This may be generalized to other populations such as college students and adults to mean that the higher one‟s level of efficacy, the more overall success and opportunity he or she is likely to experience in life. Academic achievement means excellence in all academic disciplines, in class as well as co- curricular activities. It includes excellence in sporting behavior, confidence, communication skills, punctuality, arts, culture and the like which can be achieved only when an individual is well adjusted (Ganal & Ashraf, 2013) According to Zimmerman, (2009) the greater motivation and self-regulation of learning of self-efficacious students will produces higher academic achievement according to a range of measures. Self-efficacy beliefs increased prediction of academic outcomes as much as 25% of the variance above instructional influences. Clearly, students‟ self-efficacy beliefs are responsive to changes in instructional experience and play a causal role in students‟ development and use of academic competencies. Studies have shown that self-efficacy, inspirational, and other psychosocial influences account for considerable variance in academic achievement through a range of meditational pathways, although no research to date has tested the meditational relationships identified. Academic and self-regulatory efficacy had an indirect negative effect through delinquency and a direct positive effect on academic achievement. Academic and social self-efficacy had positive and negative relationships, respectively, with academic aspiration and academic achievement, however, the relationship between academic aspiration and academic achievement was not significant in the final model. (Carroll et.al,2009).
- 95. 94 2.2 Relationship betweenSelf-Efficacy and Academic Achievement Empirical evidence supports Bandura‟s contention that self-efficacy beliefs touch virtually every aspect of people‟s lives whether they think productively, self-debilitatingly, pessimistically or optimistically; how much effort they expend on an activity; how well they motivate themselves and persevere in the face of adversities; how they regulate their thinking and behavior; and their vulnerability to stress and depression. Typically, they engage in activities in which they feel competent and avoid those in which they do not. This is particularly critical at the high school and college levels, where young people progressively have more academic choices available to them. According to Pajares (2005), self-efficacy beliefs should not be confused with people‟s judgments of the consequences that their behavior will produce. Typically, self-efficacy beliefs help foster precisely the outcome one expects, which is the very heart of the self- fulfilling prophecy. Those confident in their academic skills expect high marks on exams and expect the quality of their work to reap academic benefits. Those who lack confidence in their academic skills envision a low grade before they even begin an exam or enroll in a course. Such self-system provides an individual the capacity to alter his environment and influences his subsequent performance. Therefore, the beliefs they has the key element in exercising control and personal efficacy. This affects behavior in two ways which are either students engaged in tasks they feels competent and confident or avoidance of those that they feels contrary. According to Rahil Mahyuddin et.al (2006), self-efficacy helps to determine how much effort, perseverance and resilience being put on task. Efficacy beliefs also trigger emotional reaction. For example, individuals with low self-efficacy believe that a task is tough and hence build stress, depression and a narrow vision on how to solve the problems. Bandura also believes that it is important for educators to have high levels of self-efficacy. Educators who have a high level of instructional efficacy function on the belief that difficult students are teachable through extra effort and appropriate techniques. They also believe that they can procure family support and overcome negative community influences (Bandura, 1997b). In addition, when educators believe their instruction will have an effect on the student, their belief serves as a model for their students (Crain, 2000). On the other hand, those with high self-efficacy would be more relax in solving difficult tasks. Previous research has established that science self-efficacy is associated with science achievement and science-related choices across grade levels. At the college level, science self-efficacy predicts achievement and persistence in science-related majors and career choices (Gwilliam & Betz, 2001; Lent, Brown, & Larkin, 1984; Luzzo, Hasper, Albert,Bibby, & Martinelli, 1999). In high school students, science self-efficacy correlates with science achievement and is a better predictor of achievement and engagement with science-related activities in and out of the classroom than are gender, ethnicity, and parental background (Kupermintz, 2002; Lau & Roeser, 2002). Among middle school students (Britner & Pajares, 2001; Pajares, Britner,&Valiante, 2000), science self-efficacy predicts science achievement, with girls and White students having higher science grades and stronger self-efficacy than do boys or African American students. Therefore, these influences are strong determinants of the individuals‟ level of achievement. This reported that academic self-efficacy is correlated with academic achievement in examination and quizzes.
- 96. 95 Self-efficacy was enhancedwhen students perceived they are performing well. On the other hand, Bandura et al. (1996) reported that parents‟ academic aspirations for their children, influenced the children‟s academic achievement directly or indirectly by influencing theory self-efficacy. Thus, in academic settings, one should measure academic self-efficacy rather than generalized self-efficacy, where academic self-efficacy refers to students‟ confidence in their ability to carry out such academic tasks as preparing for exams and writing term papers. General self-efficacy measures were not found to be predictive of any college outcomes (Ferrari and Parker, 1992; Lindley and Borgen, 2002), while academic self-efficacy has been consistently shown to predict grades and persistence in college. According to Burton and Dowling, (2005) past experience in similar tasks (previous academic performance) and self-efficacy beliefs have been nonetheless considered the strongest predictors of students‟ performance, and their relevance has been confirmed across various samples. The present study longitudinally examines the effectiveness of a self-efficacy-based intervention among university students and tracks changes in well-being (in terms of burnout and engagement), as well as performance. Bandura‟s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) provides the theoretical justification for the postulation that self-efficacy affects academic success by increasing students‟ sense of well-being and the amount of persistence they demonstrate to master challenging academic tasks, which then results in a more efficient use of acquired knowledge and skills (Bandura,1982).According to Breso et al. (2010) one of the most important sources of efficacy beliefs apart from mastery experience (which refers to past success in comparable tasks), are psychological states. Accordingly, the lower the levels of anxiety, stress, and fatigue are, the higher the levels of self-efficacy will be. When students experience negative thoughts and anxiety with regards their capabilities, these negative affective reactions can themselves further lower perceptions of capability and activate a stress-generating mechanism that reinforces the probability of the inadequate performance they fear. For instance, those students who fear speaking to large groups of people generally develop a lack of confidence in their public speaking skills which leads to poor performance which somewhat falsely justifies and reinforces negative self-efficacy beliefs. Academic performance, self-concept and interpersonal communication skills form the basis of self-confidence. A student‟s confidence and the ability to express him and interact in the classroom are closely related to self-concept. 2.3 Review of Previous Researches Reviews some of the previous research that related to the research conducted. These are some others research conducted by other researchers that related to self-efficacy and academic achievement. Title of Research Aims of Research Participants and Method Result of Discusion Ferla, J. , Valcke, M. & Cai, Y. (2009) Academic Self- efficacy and academic self- concept: Reconsidering Investigates:- 1-Whether academic (math) Self-efficacy and academic self-concept represent two conceptual in empirical distinct psychological construct -the sample was the 2003 PISA-survey (Program for Intrustural Student Assessment) aged 15 years old Belgian students. All PISA –survey cycles Result Indicates that: 1-Math self-efficacy and math self-concept do indeed represent conceptually and empirically different construct, even when
- 97. 96 structural relationship. when studied withinthe same domain. 2-The nature of the relationship existing between both self- constructs. 3-Their medicating and predictive quality for background variables such as gender and prior knowledge and outcome variables such as math performance, math interest and math anxiety. assess student literacy in the reading, mathematics, and science. -The survey focus on mathematical literacy. -Student will complete a mathematical test and questionnaires. studied within the same domain. 2-Students‟ academic self-concept strongly influences their academic self-efficacy reliefs. 3-Academic self-concept is a better predictor (and mediator) for affective- motivation variables, while academic self- efficacy is a better predictor (and mediator) for academic achievement. Title of Research Aim of Research Participant and Method Result and Discussion Downing, K.J. (2009) Self-efficacy and Metacognitive development -To investigates the relationship between academic achievement and metacognitive development over three years of undergraduate study. - The sample were randomly selected (N=300) of participants which consisted 148 male and 152 female students from 2005 undergraduate entry cohort at City University of Hong Kong. -Researcher used the Learning and study Strategies Inventory (LASSI)(2nd ed) ( Weistein & Palmer,2002) -Researcher collected the LASSI score at three test phase (entry, interim, and exit) Entry- when students just prior to the start of their academic performance Interim- after 15 months of study Exit- 3 months before graduation -Result demonstrated : Significant relationship between academic achievement and changes in metacognitive The longitudinal metacognitive profiles observed for high, average and low academic achievers are distinctly different for many LASSI items High anxiety / low expectation of efficacy explanation with the high and average achieving groups showing a decrease in levels of anxiety over three years. Table 1: Summary of previous research
- 98. 97 Title of ResearchAim of Research Participant and Method Result and Discussion Takiah. M.I & Zuraidah. M.S. (2011) Assessing the Effect of Self- Efficacy and Task Complexity on Internal Control Audit Judgment -To examine the effects of self-efficacy and task complexity on audit judgment performance. - The samples comprise 600 auditors who working in small and medium audit firms in Malaysia. The firms were randomly selected from the Malaysian Institute of Accountants (MIA) list of audit firms. - The instrument contained three main sections about concerning self-efficacy, the audit cases for the experiment and the last section is about subjects‟ demographic characteristics. - The instrument was placed in a booklet together with cover letter and prepaid envelope. -This study demonstrates that the important role of self-efficacy in audit judgment performance is moderate by the effect of task complexity. -The findings suggest that the effect of self- efficacy on audit judgment performance depends on the level of task complexity. - Participants with higher self-efficacy can perform better audit judgment than those with lower self-efficacy. - When the task is complex, self-efficacy does not lead to higher audit judgment performance. Table 2: Summary of previous research
- 99. 98 Title of ResearchAim of Research Participant and Method Result and Discussion Hasting, P. (2012) Early Career Teachers, Self-efficacy for Balanced Reading Instruction. -To investigated the specific areas of reading instruction for which Early Career Teachers (ECT)‟s have high level of self- efficacy, as well as the types of professional development which they believed may have increased self-efficacy for specific areas of reading instruction. -Data were acquired through literature and from interiors with four ECT from 3 different schoosl in the Western/Woden area of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn, aged between 21 and 24 years old. -Researcher conducts semi-structured interiors in order to elicit a rich picture of the perspectives held by these practitioners. -Interior questions were developing to elicit specific response about self-efficacy and elements of reading instrument. -Result show‟s that ECT need to have opportunities to achieve mastery experience using an experienced teacher of literacy as coach such as external expert or critical friends. -This may a better understanding of the constraints and support to those perceptions of self- efficacy for reading instruction held by ECT and could also serve as a basis for school to work in situ with effective professional learning and mentoring opportunities suited to their needs. Table 3: Summary of previous research 3. Research Design The methodology that will be use in this study is in the form of descriptive correlational research through questionnaire and interview. 3.1 Research Instrument This research uses questionnaires as an instrument in the study. The items in the questionnaires were adapted from Table 1, “ Factor Loading of Items from Self-Efficacy Scale”, in article title, “ The Self Efficacy Scale: Construction and Validation”, by Shere et.al.A set of questionnaire that will be use is adapted from Table 1, “ Factor Loading of Items from Self-Efficacy Scale”, in article title, “ The Self Efficacy Scale: Construction and Validation”, by Shere et.al. I have made some change from this questionnaires at it scale. Reynolds (1988) noted that although general self-concept has not been found to be a significant predictor of academic success, as measured by GPA, the related construct of academic self-concept should be a much better predictor Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA). 3.2 Population and Sample The research will be done among Physical and Health Education students of Faculty of Education, UiTM Shah Alam. Researcher will select 90 students randomly from part one to part eight students. 3.3 Data Collection To find the data, researcher use questionnaire to gather data from respondent. This is because questionnaire is the quickest way to collect data and information from respondents. The questionnaire is adapted from Table 1, “ Factor Loading of Items from Self-Efficacy Scale”,
- 100. 99 in article title,“ The Self Efficacy Scale: Construction and Validation”, by Shere et.al. The questionnaire has been done in the faculty and given to the Physical and Health Education students randomly. 3.4 Data Analysis This research is relies on quantitative research. Researcher analyzed the questionnaires using frequency and percentage to answer the both research questions. The data collected from the questionnaire will be analyzed by using SPSS software method. All data gathered will be tabulated in the form of percentage and will be transferred into table and bar chart. The conclusion and recommendation will be based on data that have been collected. 3.5 Discussion for Questionnaire From the findings of quantitative data, it is found that Physical and Health Education students have high level of self-efficacy. There are two types of questions used in the questionnaire which are Self-Efficacy Scale by Albert Bandura and College Self-Efficacy Inventory. Besides, the demographic data questions were asked to find the salient finding of the study. The items in Self-Efficacy Scale by Albert Bandura asked about students‟ personal feelings and attitudes. Most of the respondents answered positively on situations given in the questionnaires. The result shows that Physical and Health Education students have high level of self-efficacy. For item in College Self-Efficacy Inventory, the questions were asked about the confident level among college students. Most of respondents also answered positively and lead to the high level of self-efficacy. Both sections answered the first research question which is the level of self-efficacy among Physical and Health Education students. For the second research question, the CGPA show that all respondents have moderate level (2.50- 3.49). The CGPA is asked in the demographic data of the questionnaire. 4. Findings Based on Research Questions 4.1 Research Question 1 ( RQ1): What is the level of self-efficacy among Physical and Health Education students? There are 25 items contain in questionnaire that related to self-efficacy among student. I just selected some items which are highly related to the level of self-efficacy to get the results. Discussion Table shows the level of self-efficacy among Physical and Health Education students of UiTM Shah Alam. For item 1, 41 (45.6%) respondents feel agree that they will keep trying until they able to do the job, 36 (40.0%) strongly agree and 13 (14.4%) neutral. Overall, all the respondents will keep trying to finish the job until they succeed while for item 4, 29 (32.2%) respondents feel neutral in avoiding facing difficulties. They will face the problems and try to solve it. Then, for item 5, 50 (55.6%) respondents agree that they will go right to work on it when they decide to do something. They will not drag time to handle the problems. For item 9, 38 (42.2%) respondents agree that they are self-reliant person. They were not depend on other person to do something and try to do it themselves. Then, for item 10, 32 (35.6%) respondents disagree that they are gives up easily. This shows that their independence level is high.
- 101. 100 In section C,items is to finds the confident level of college students. For item 4, 40 (44.4%) respondents often join an intramural sports team. then, for item 9, 41 (45.6%) respondent often manage their time effectively. Then, for item 11, 31 (34.4%) respondent often join a students‟ organization. For item 12, 31 (34.4%) respondent often ask questions in a class. Next, for item 13, 50 (55.6%) respondent often participate in class discussions. Then, for item 11, 31 (34.4%) respondent often join a students‟ organization. Lastly, for item 15, 34 (37.8%) respondent often volunteer to help lead a group or organization. By taking average in percentage from these items, it was found that all Physical and Health Education students were in higher level of self-efficacy. 4.2 Research Question 2 (RQ2): What is the level of academic achievement among Physical and Health Education students? The item which answered this research question is CGPA. CGPA is the measurement for level of academic achievement. CGPA were divided into three level which are low (0.00- 2.49), moderate (2.50-3.49) and higher (3.50-4.00). Discussion Most of the respondents have range of CGPA from 2.50 to 3.49 which 61 respondents or 67.8%. Then, 28 (31.1%) have the range 3.50 to 4.00 and only one (1.1%) respondent in the range of CGPA between 0.00 to 2.49. This range of CGPA shows that level of academic achievement among Physical and Health Education students is in moderate which is between 2.50 to 3.49 and answered the second research question. Most of the respondents were male students. Female students got higher level in CGPA (3.50 to 4.00) rather than male students. Male students got moderate level in CGPA (2.50 to 3.49) rather than female students. The level of self-efficacy was same for both genders. Respondents who staying at hostel got moderate level in CGPA (2.50 to 3.49) rather than who are staying in rent house. But, those who are staying at rent house got higher level in CGPA (3.50 to 4.00) more than those who are staying at hostel. The level of self-efficacy for those who are staying at hostel, rent house and own house also same. 5. Conclusion Based on the discussion and the summary of the result, a few conclusions The level of self- efficacy among Physical and Health Education students of UiTM Shah Alam is high. They are able to adapt themselves with all the programs and also be independent in their own way. Only 32% of Physical and Health Education students of UiTM Shah Alam got higher level in academic achievement and majority of them got moderate level in academic achievement for both gender. References Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., and Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted impact of self efficacy beliefs on academic functioning. Child Development, 67, 1206–1222. Bandura, A. (1989). Multidimensional scales of perceived self-efficacy. Unpublish- ed test, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1017-1028. Corno, L. (1989). Self-regulated learning: A volitional analysis. In B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schunk (Eds.) Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 111-141). New York: Springer Verlag
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- 103. 102 Utilizing of ConceptMapping for Teaching Biodiversity to Lower Secondary Students in Science Classroom Nurshamshida Md Shamsudin, Aisyah Binti Anuar, Siti Fairuz Dalim & Mohammad Mubarrak Bin Mohd Yusof Abstract: The objective of this study was to examine the implication of concept mapping on student achievement in science learning. It is intended to make a comparison between the use of concept maps in the traditional method of learning and student achievement in science. Samples taken were 60 students representing the two classes of form 2. One of a class is taken as the experimental group and the other class taken as a control group. Topic 3 which is biodiversity is taken to be the topic of testing in this study to test the effectiveness of concept mapping in learning science. Therefore, the experimental group was taught using concept maps while the control group taught by traditional method. Before using 2 different ways to the students, they are required to answer the questions to test their knowledge in this topic. After learning about this topic using two different ways, students are required to answer the same questions to test the effectiveness of concept maps in science learning achievement, thus helping to make the comparison between the use of concept maps and traditional ways. From this study, the effective use of concept maps that students can make the classification of living organisms, to make comparisons between monocotyledons and dicotyledons, considering the common characteristics of each group of animals and plants and can apply the understanding in every situations. This clearly proves that the concept map is very effective in learning science. Recommendations for future research are also discussed. In addition, biodiversity concept map book has been to help teachers and students learn more effectively.. 1. Introduction Science is a subject that many of students think it is too tough and they are trying to avoid taking this subject or try not to choose this subject as their major in learning (Hussin R. , 2008). This phenomenon arises in every school in Malaysia where there is only two or three classes that learn especially science pure compared the class take the other subject. Many factors will influence or attract them to interest in science field. One of the factors is the ways how teachers delivered the content of science in the classroom for example are teacher shows the video, picture or group work. In the other hand, many of students think that every single term or sentence in science need to memorize if they want to success in learning science and get a good result (Douglas Barton, Edward Seung, Dorjee Sun, 2002). For developing country like Malaysia, we need to produce many students in science field to make sure our country achievement in Science and Technology is higher to compete with the other develop countries. Our target also in “Wawasan 2020” must be achieved on that time. Wawasan 2020 or Vision 2020 is a Malaysian ideal introduced by the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr.Mahathir bin Mohamad during the tabling of the Sixth Malaysia Plan in 1991. The vision calls for the nation to achieve a self-sufficient industrialized nation by the year 2020, encompasses all aspects of life, from economic prosperity, social well-being, educational world class, political stability, as well as psychological balance. In the sixth element of this vision state that the establishment of scientific and progressive society, a society that is innovative and forward-looking, one that is not only a consumer of technology but also a contributor to the scientific and technological civilization of the future. It is prove that by the development of science and technology, our country will be a developing country at that time. According to Ministry of Education, the purpose for the establishment of science curriculum in Malaysia is to provide the knowledge and the skill in science and technology to the
- 104. 103 student. The curriculumalso aims to train the students to solve problems and make decisions in everyday life based on scientific attitudes and noble values. It can also enable the students to continue formal and informal further education in science and technology (Curriculum Development Centre, 2005). Science was first introduced to students early at primary school where students in standard 1 until standard 6. In standard 6 they had first introduced with a Primary School Evaluation Test or Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) where science is one compulsory subject to all students to proceed for the secondary school. In secondary school, science is divided in two parts in lower secondary school and upper secondary school. In lower secondary school, topic in science subject are overall and general like in primary school, but when in upper secondary school, science is divided into three parts which is Biology, Physics and Chemistry or called as a pure science. The three parts of science are narrow and specific by topic learn. The three parts of science pure gives the many challenges to teachers to deliver the content. For students, it seems like they need to learn new subjects and the subjects is tougher compared to science in the lower secondary school. By that, teacher must take a bigger role to attract them in learning science. However, the frequent changes in curriculum for science and mathematics subject have become an issue where it has affects all teachers and students. In 2003, Ministry of Education Malaysia had introduced learning science and mathematics in English (ETeMS). The overall aim is to enhance the English language skills of Mathematics and Science teachers to enable them to reach effectively using English as the medium of instruction. However many negative feedbacks from the school especially in rural school where the achievement in science and the total number students choose science is decreasing than before. The big problem is come from the teacher because not all science teachers able to deliver their teaching in English and it look like students are more confuse and get misconceptions in science. By that, the Ministry of Education changes the policy of teaching science into Bahasa Melayu instead of English.In October 2011, the Ministry of Education launched a comprehensive review of the education system in Malaysia in order to develop a new National Education Blueprint. This decision was made in the context of rising international education standards, the Government‟s aspiration of better preparing Malaysia‟s children for the needs of the 21st century, and increased public and parental expectations of education policy. The result is a preliminary Blueprint that evaluates the performance of Malaysia‟s education system against historical starting points and international benchmarks. The Blueprint also offers a vision of the education system and students that Malaysia both needs and deserves, and suggests 11 strategic and operational shifts that would be required to achieve that vision. The Ministry hopes that this effort will inform the national discussion on how to fundamentally transform Malaysia‟s education system, and will seek feedback from across the community on this preliminary effort before finalizing the Blueprint in December 2012. The objective of the blueprint which is want to produce world class students ensure our country become inventors, innovators, movers and idea busters and not mere responders to other people‟s ideas and thought (New Straits Times, 2013). By that, many changes have done for example introduce of School Based Assessment (SBA) which is eliminate the exam- oriented system to the on-going assessment. Other than that, It appears more viable and comprehensive than Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) in primary schools and Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (KSSM) in secondary schools implemented in 1982 (FA Majid, 2011). Despite many challenges and difficulties in teaching and learning sciences will be overcome using concept mapping techniques. Teachers and students should cooperate together to make
- 105. 104 sure the achievementof this subject is increasing and achieve the 2020 mission by the launching of a new system education in our country. 1.2 Background of Study In one research by Paulette GreeneI in 2011, In order for students to increase their learning, instruction must be presented in a manner that assists in organizing, storing, and retrieving information in the brain. One goal of education is to promote the transfer of knowledge and skills within learning situations (Ausubel, 2000). This concepts need our brain to shaping or relate all information. Fact connected with the concept of the fact information or data that helps to think, build and develop a concept. One goal of education is to promote the transfer of knowledge and skills within learning situations (Ausubel, 2000). This involves the ability to access one‟s own knowledge into relevant situations (Ausubel, 2000; Novak & Cañas, 2008). The first idea to build concept mapping is based on Ausubel‟s theory of learning which emphasized the difference between meaningful and rote learning. Ausubel argued that meaningful learning builds one‟s cognitive structure by adding new concepts into one‟s existing conceptual structure. Novak confirmed Ausubel‟s stand when he stated that concept mapping is a major methodological tool of Ausubel‟s assimilation theory of meaningful learning (Ajaja O. Patrick, 2011). In addition, Novak and Musonda suggested that researchers use concept maps to assess conceptual understanding of students. Novak and Musonda focused on hierarchical maps featuring central concepts that act as superordinates and several other concepts that act as subordinates to the central concepts. The various concepts form nodes and connect through linking phrases (Ziad Shaker, 2012).Concept mapping is a method to visualize the structure of knowledge. Since the knowledge expressed in the maps is mostly semantic, concept maps are sometimes called semantic networks. Often it is claimed that concept mapping bears a similarity to the structure of long-term memory. Instead of describing all concepts and their relations in text, one may choose to draw a map indicating concepts and relations in a graph or network. Visual representation has several advantages. Visual symbols are quickly and easily recognized, and this can be demonstrated by considering the large amount of logos, maps, arrows, road signs, and icons that most of us can recall with little effort. Visual representation also allows the development of a holistic understanding that words alone cannot convey, because the graphical form allows representations of parts and whole in a way that is not available in sequential structure of text (Lawson, 1994 cited in Askin Asan, 2007). Moreover, concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge (Novak & Cañas, 2008). The concepts are presented in a hierarchical manner with general concepts at the top of the map and the more specific, less general concepts arranged hierarchically below (Gurlitt & Renkl, 2010;Novak & Cañas, 2008). This process in the hierarchically arrangement allows for learning new material as it relates to new ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, nonverbatim basis (Novak & Cañas, 2008). Subsequently, meaningful learning is improved by concept mapping as the learner engages in graphically representing concepts in a hierarchically arranged structure progressively differentiating among concepts (Ricon, 2010; Tsien, 2007 cited in Paulette Greene, 2011). In the traditional ways of teaching, teachers teach the students only using chalk and talk technique. Teacher will write the content of learning on the blackboard and students just copy all the content on their books. Teachers always refer their lesson on the textbooks only. It is not interesting to attract students in learning especially in science. By time changes, the revolution of science and technologies around the world, the learning environment process is
- 106. 105 changes suitable withthe new generation nowadays, teacher cannot use the old method anymore and concept mapping is one of the new teaching styles, with the helping of concept mapping, all the information in their brain will be connected with each other. In science education, concept mapping has been widely recommended and used in a variety of ways. According to research by Askin Asan, 2007 “ students better remember information when it's represented and learned both visually and verbally. Concept mapping tools are based on proven visual learning methodologies that help students think, learn and achieve. Visual learning is absorbing information from illustrations, photos, diagrams, graphs, symbols, icons and other visual models. By representing information spatially and with images, students are able to focus in meaning and recognize and group similar ideas easily. The use of concept mapping as a learning tool should therefore be more widely encouraged”. Lastly, students enrolled in urban school districts that are underperforming in their science classes are likely to face challenges related to their academic careers. Students achieving below the basic performance level in middle school are often unprepared for rigorous high school science courses that are aimed to prepare them in furthering their education in science related fields (Ruby, 2006). As teachers work towards raising students‟ science achievement, under-prepared students enrolled in urban school districts continue to fall behind (cited in Dr. Navdeep Kaur Dosanjh, 2011). In other study, showed the problem-solving strategy improved significantly the achievement of students in genetics more than the students exposed to the traditional lecture method of teaching. This can be attributed to the fact that problem solving strategy equips students with both conceptual scientific knowledge and procedural knowledge on how to solve problems (Nnamdi S. Okoye and Okechukwu, 2006). 1.3 Statement of Research Problem Students always think science as a difficult subject because it requires learners to employ variety of methods to understand the concepts. Once learners get the concept, it is easier to them understand and apply the concepts in their learning. Science for example physics involves the calculations, so that students must understand the principal to apply in the calculations. Science also involves the experiments. Experiments as the practical way on the theory that students learn in class. Here, teachers can evaluate how far students understand the lessons. It is necessary for science educators to expose students to strategies designed to help them become clearer concerning their perceptions as they relate to accepted scientific understanding (Kerlin, McDonald, & Kelly, 2009; O‟Reilly & McNamara, 2007). Students, especially those having difficulty comprehending new material, may need to be shown how to make connections between known and new information and also need to be shown how ideas are logically connected in text. Many students have difficulty understanding science text materials (Yore & Craig, 1990 cited in E. Francine Guastello, T. Mark Beasley and Richard C. Sinatra, 2000). This is show that many of students have a big problem to relate the existing information they have with the new information they gain. In addition to science instruction being neglected in favor of the tested subjects of mathematic and reading or language arts, there are a few other reasons why students may be experiencing difficulty learning science. First, science is a subject that contains more of rules and principles (Ueckert & Newsome, 2008). If students lack an understanding of these rules and principles they will struggle to understand the scientific information. Moreover, these rules and principles are often presented to students as isolated ideas or concepts. Second, students frequently enter the science classroom with previously established scientific misconceptions (Thompson & Logue, 2007). These students experience difficulty replacing
- 107. 106 the erroneous scientificinformation with true scientific facts. Lastly, to understand multifaceted science topics, students must have a well-established foundation of prior science learning (Buntting, Coll, & Campbell, 2006). Since science is a subject that builds on itself, if students fail to acquire basic science content, they will likely struggle with the more complex scientific concepts that follow. Moreover, some science instructors still hold traditional teacher-directed teaching philosophies that place the learner in a passive learning role. In these teacher-directed classrooms, students do not actively participate in the acquisition of scientific knowledge by engaging in meaningful learning (Hill, 2005). Dr. Navdeep Kaur Dosanjh, 2011 cited that “Ausubel described meaningful learning as the establishment of non-arbitrary relations among concepts in the learner‟s mind. Meaningful learning is achieved if learners are provided the opportunity to relate new information to ideas they already know and to do so learners need to be placed in active rather than passive learning roles”. Unfortunately, students oftentimes are expected to learn through rote memorization. This type of learning weakens learners because they do not actively make connections to their prior knowledge (BouJaoude & Attieh, 2008). In addition, information learned by rote memorization is frequently forgotten (Cardellini, 2004). Hence, it is important for students to engage in scientific learning that facilitates meaningful learning. Furthermore, the concept mapping learning strategy is beneficial in understanding students‟ misconceptions. Student generated concept maps reveal students‟ level of understanding. Teachers and students can analyze concept maps and identify deficiencies, allowing teachers to show the deficiencies before students attempt to build scientific knowledge based on inaccurate information. Compared with the old trend of writing notes, its look like students just write in essays form or point form, teachers cannot detect the student misconceptions and how far students get the information. Therefore, the students with the lower ability in learning especially in science founds that they are difficult to understand the concept compared to the higher ability students. From several of the studies reviewed, there is indication that concept mapping may be particularly beneficial for lower ability learners, partly because it does induce the active, inquiring, orderly approach to learning that is likely a more natural part of the higher ability student‟s approach to learning (Alberto J. Cañas, 2003). On the other hand, when learners are not yet facile with constructing concept maps, there is some indication that the cognitive load of creating maps from scratch may hinder learning. When students are new mappers, other “scaffolded” ways of interacting with concept maps, for example, filling in the blank content nodes of a concept map already containing the labeled relationships of a completed concept map, may be beneficial. According to the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025 launched by the Deputy Prime Minister and Education Minister Tan Sri Muhyiddin Yassin, the risks were reflected through the latest study of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Based on the last published cycle of TIMSS results 2011, thirty-five and 38 per cent of Malaysian students failed to meet the minimum proficiency level in Science and Mathematics, which is two to four fold up from seven per cent and 13%, respectively, in 1999. In addition, almost 60 per cent of the 15 years old Malaysian students who participated in PISA failed to meet the minimum proficiency level in Mathematics, while 44 and 43 per cent did not meet the minimum proficiency levels in reading and science, respectively (Bernama, 2006). In the level of university, for example in Faculty of Education who are taking the bachelor of education in science show there are the minority group compare to the other‟s education subjects.
- 108. 107 This is happenbecause science is orthodox and taught in traditional approach especially in Malaysia. Many teachers are using traditional method to deliver the content of science to students. Concept includes in science sometimes is difficult to understand, if the teacher only using the traditional ways to deliver the content, it makes students not understand the concept and get misconception on the information (Paulette Greene, 2011). Science actually is an enjoyable subject hence teacher must change the traditional method of teaching to the attractive ways for example using movies, using role model to relate with the process of science or make a field trip to experience the real situations of science. 1.4 Purpose of Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of using concept mapping towards the achievement in biodiversity science form 2. The result will be compare with the traditional method of teaching. The independent variable was defined as instruction using concept maps. This study attempt to identify effective approach in science teaching, so this will help teacher, students, parents, school and stakeholder to enhance the quality of science education. 1.5 Research Objectives The objectives for this study are: 1. To identify the effectiveness of concept mapping towards students‟ achievement in biodiversity science form 2. 2. To compare the achievement in science using concept mapping with the traditional method for form 2 students.results suggest that the proposition identifying concept map may not be a useful learning strategy for learning vocabulary and identification terms (Dosanjh, 2011). 2. Transfer and Metacognition When students learn about something new and get the new information, they did not know how to arrange it well in their brain, how to connect the new information with the existing information before because all the information in their brain not arranged well. When to recall it back, it so hard to them to take out the correct information. “In the terminology of Novak (1998), if learners learn meaningfully, the transferability of knowledge is high. According to Salomon and Perkins (1989), transfer occurs when previous learning affects subsequent performance on a different task. Whether what is learned can be applied across many settings or whether learning is always context-specific are issues raised about transfer. Mayer & Wittrock (1996) have reviewed different views of transfer. They put their emphasis on the approach of the specific transfer of general skills and the metacognitive transfer view”( cited in E.Francine Guastello, T.Mark Beasley, Richard C. Sinatra,2012). In a research by Ajaja O. Patrick,2011 said that meta cognition which is a strategy used in self directed learning are mental processes that assist learners to reflect on their thinking by internalizing, understanding, and recalling the content to be learned (Borich, 2004). They include invisible thinking skills such as self-interrogation, self-checking, self-monitoring, and analyzing, as well as memory aids (called mnemonics) for classifying and recalling content. Metacognitive strategies are most easily conveyed to learners through a process called mental modeling (Duffy et al. 1988; Rekrut 1999). Mental modeling helps students internalize, recall, and then generalize problem solutions to different content at a later time.
- 109. 108 In addition, thecognitive perspective on learning can be traced back to early Greek philosophers‟ views on how the mind obtains knowledge and reasoning (Driscoll, 2005). During the early and middle 1900s, cognitive research accumulated evidence focused towards behaviorism, individuals responding to reinforcement and punishment in order to change behavior, skills, and habits (Driscoll, 2005). Continued research in the field of cognition provided evidence that learning is an active mental process whereby the individual‟s use of mental representations involved a selective interaction between new learning materials and preexisting ideas (Ozel, 2009; Taylor & MacKenny, 2008). In the other research by Odom and Kelly (2001) examined the effects of concept mapping instruction and learning cycle on students‟ understanding of diffusion and osmosis in biology among high school students and found that the success of learning concept mapping was more efficient as a result of combining both procedures together. While in the study by Tekkaya (2003) investigated the effect of combining contextual change text and concept mapping strategy with ninth grade biology students and results verified the high effect of concept mapping in overcoming students‟ misconceptions. 2.1 Concept Mapping Concept maps are representative of concepts and their interrelationships that are intended to represent the knowledge structures that humans store in their minds (Jonassen, Beissner, & Yacci, 1993 cited in Askin Asan, 2007). Besides that, concept maps are diagrams indicating inter-relationships among concepts as representation of meaning or educational framework specific to a domain of knowledge (Novak, 1990). Okebukola (1997) believed that the maps can be applied to any subject matter or to any level within the subject (Nnamdi S. Okoye and Okechukwu,2006). In the other research by Diana C. Rice, Joseph M. Ryan, Sara M. Samson, 2007 said that “concept mapping as a “metalearning strategy”, the development of which can be traced back to the well-known work of Ausubel, Novak, and Gowin. The research base on concept mapping shows that the use of concept maps is not limited to any particular group of learners. Children as young as primary grades have been found to be capable of developing and explaining concept maps (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Novak, 1990; White & Gunstone, 1992). A number of researchers have reported the successful development of concept maps by middle school–age children (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Novak et al., 1983; Symington & Novak, 1982; White & Gunstone, 1992; Willerman & Mac Harg, 1991). The works of Anderson and Huang and Novak et al. have also shown that students of varying ability can become good concept mappers”.On the other side, one such graphical representation of knowledge comprised of concepts and the relationships between them, is concept maps. Concept maps consist of concepts enclosed in circles or boxes, with relationships between concepts indicated by connecting lines that link them together (Kinchin & Cabot, 2007; Trochim & Trochim, 2006). Words on the linking lines, referred to as linking words or linking phases depict the relationship between the concepts (Novak & Cañas, 2006). Concept maps contain “propositions that include two or more concepts connected, using linking words or phrases to form a meaningful statement” (Novak & Cañas, 2006). Concept maps include cross-links, described as relationships or links between concepts in different segments or domains of knowledge in the concept map, helping to distinguish the relationship between a concept in one domain as related to another domain shown on the map (Novak & Cañas, 2006; Robley, Whittle, & Murdock-Eaton, 2005). A key feature of concept maps is that they can be graphically constructed to represent text structure patterns. Such graphic plans would serve to help students form mental constructs or schemata of how texts are organized. By mapping ideas onto maps designed to model text
- 110. 109 structure patterns, teachershelp students visualize relationships and learn text structures (Bos & Anders, 1990 cited in E. Francine Guastello, T. Mark Beasley and Richard C. Sinatra,2000). In addition, Alaiyemola & Okebukola (2005) conduct a study on the effect of concept mapping on students‟ achievement in biology. The results show that the experimental group achieved significantly better than the control group. The study suggests that the concept mapping strategy enhanced learning in biology more effectively than traditional expository teaching. Also, the concept mapping strategy led to a significantly greater reduction in anxiety level.At last but not least, from the other researcher found that, educators may use concept maps as formative or summative assessment procedures to assess students‟ understanding of a unit, modify curriculum, and assign grades (Plummer, 2008). In the Wallace and Mintzes (2003) study involving pretest and posttest results of concept maps based on marine life zones, findings after instruction indicated small increases on the objective posttest by the experimental group. However, in Hollenbeck, Twyman, and Tindal‟s (2006) research with sixth grade science students, results indicated concept maps were not beneficial as an alternative for assessment in content area domain due to low predictive validity between the mapping and essay scores. 2.2 The effectiveness of Using Concept Mapping in Learning From the past study, findings show that using concept mapping give much effectiveness to the students‟ achievement in learning. One of the examples from the other study is using concept map outlines with heterogeneously grouped fifth graders in a public school by Askin Asan, (2007) which formed three groups: a concept mapping, cooperative learning group consisting of three smaller groups with 3 students each a standard concept mapping group of 11 students and a control group of 20 students. Students in all three groups read the same science unit, but students in the two mapping groups used concept map outlines. Control group students received general classroom instruction, but without the use of mapping and cooperative learning techniques. The standard mapping group was guided by the teacher in following procedural steps for mapping the content, and the cooperative students were told to complete their maps by contributing to a group effort. She found that students in both the cooperative and standard mapping groups achieved higher scores than control group students on weekly vocabulary tests and on a final unit test. She also noted that the high achievers in the cooperative learning groups were able to use their textbooks to gain information to place in their concept maps, and the low achievers did not use their textbooks well and performed very poorly. In the other research by E. Francine Guastello, T. Mark Beasley and Richard C. Sinatra, (2000) found that low-achieving seventh-grade students from an urban parochial school were randomly assigned to two equally sized groups. One group was taught by a reading and discuss, teacher-directed method, and the second group, given the same type of introductory lesson as the first, followed a model of concept mapping that connected major and minor concept ideas. A criterion-referenced test based on the content of a science chapter served as the dependent variable. Prior to any teaching, a pretest was administered. An analysis of covariance with pretest scores as the covariate showed a statistically significant difference in comprehension between the pretest and posttest for the experimental group. Effect size estimates revealed that concept mapping can be expected to improve comprehension scores of low-achieving seventh graders by approximately six standard deviations over a traditional instructional technique. When students lack background information on a topic to aid comprehension, the active participation in constructing semantic or concept maps may help students form a cognitive schema to assimilate and relate the new
- 111. 110 topic information.Despite theapparent effectiveness of using concept mapping as a learning strategy, there is still a need for additional research cited in Dr. Navdeep Kaur Dosanjh, (2011). Some studies have revealed that not all variations of the concept mapping learning strategy are equally effective (Wang & Dwyer, 2006). There are four types of concept maps are teacher generated, student generated, concept identifying, and proposition identifying. Teacher generated concept maps are created entirely by the teacher and given to the students as a study tool (Lim., 2009). In contrast, student generated concept maps are created entirely by the students (Harpaz, Balik, & Ehrenfeld, 2004). Concept identifying concept maps are partially completed concept maps that students complete by finding the correct concepts to place in the nodes (Wang & Dwyer, 2006). Similarly, proposition identifying concept maps are also partially completed maps, however rather than finding the correct concepts to place in the nodes, students complete them by providing linking words between concepts in order to create propositions or node-link networks (Wang & Dwyer, 2006). The other research shows the effectiveness of using concept mapping is provide students with a better understanding of how ideas of science are connected and organized to important concepts, transferrable from one context to another, and in distinguishing misconceptions of science ideas (Novak & Cañas, 2006). Besides that, concept mapping is a meaningful learning aid in the retention of information, and in maintaining the availability of acquired information which may be accessed later. Immediately following the initial meaningful learning, new information is easily accessible (Novak, 2010). Concept mapping also teaching students to learn and remember by using learning tactics and strategies are important applications of cognitive theories (Wehry & Goudy, 2006). According to the other research, concept mapping is a essential components of learning are the organization of the information to be learned, the learner‟s prior knowledge, and the processes involved in perceiving, comprehending, and storing information (Garner, 2007; Jensen, 2005). Perspectives within the cognitive theory include the memory system is an active, organized processor of information (Terry, 2006), prior knowledge plays an important role in learning (Gredler, 2005), and concept mapping strategies assist in the processing of information (Novak & Cañas, 2008). On top of that, the various applications of concept mapping include its use as an instructional tool, an assessment tool and a learning tool. In order to develop a better organization and sequence in instruction, concept mapping has been used to define content‟s domain and organization in syllabus and curriculum planning (Starr & Krajcik, 2005) as well as content and task analysis (Jonassen, Tessmer & Hannum, 2010). Willerman and Mac Harg (2000) verify the effectiveness of concept mapping as an advance organizer at the start of a unit of instruction. Also, with its ability to reveal conceptual structures in learners‟ mind, concept mapping has been proven to be a useful tool to assess the learner‟s achievement (Wallace & Mintzes, 2007; Markham, Mintzes, & Jones, 2005) or detect learners‟ misconceptions (Ross & Munby, 2008). The other effectiveness of using concept mapping in teaching strategies is teacher will explore the new method in teaching that have she or he can found it is very attractive and interesting method to make students understand well in class on what topic they learn (Ruíz- Primo, 2000; Ruíz -Primo & Shavelson, 1996; Yin, Vanides, Ruíz-Primo, Ayala, & Shavelson, 2005).Using concept mapping also, the data or information to transfer to student will be simplify just give them an important data that they need to know and for more understanding teacher also need to elaborate the keyword on the concept mapping that she or he give to students Stoddart‟s, Abrams‟s, Gasper‟s, and Canaday‟s (2000). Other than that, teacher also can attract students by color the diagram and draw it with something new like flower or in animal shapeDawkins, Dickerson, McKinnet, and Butler (2008).
- 112. 111 Other than that,the concept mapping is useful to the students who have low ability. Several theorists have proposed that students with low prior knowledge benefit more from concept maps than those with high prior knowledge (Snead & Young, 2003). There is also evidence that low ability students, specifically those with low verbal ability, obtain greater benefits with graphic representations than high ability students due to students with low verbal ability being able to construct and understand concept maps better than deciphering and writing scholarly text (O‟Donnell, 2002). However, when young students are not adequately capable of constructing concept maps, there is indication that the cognitive load of creating concept maps from scratch may hinder learning (Novak & Cañas, 2006). By having students fill in the blank content nodes of the concept map which already display the labeled relationships of a completed concept map may assist in better understanding of the relationships (Novak & Cañas, 2006). Furthermore, a concept map can be utilized as an advance organizer presented at the beginning of a textbook chapter or other instructional unit, or used as a guide for a lecture that is presented in class (Coffey, 2003). Willerman and MacHarg (1991) described the significance of concept maps as advance organizers in improving the science achievement of eighth grade chemistry students. The important relationships between concept mapping and its grounding in Ausubel‟s (1968) assimilation theory of learning, acting as advance organizers in bridging the gap between the learners‟ existing knowledge structure and newly acquired knowledge, and in fostering meaningful learning, presents the benefits of concept mapping in the area of learning. Lastly, students may be asked to generate concept maps as an effective method, encouraging organizing and systematizing of knowledge (Kim & Olaciregui, 2008). In education, concept mapping is recognized as a means to support learning, intellectual analysis, teaching, research, and organization of knowledge resources (Fisher, Wandersee, & Wideman, 2000). Concept mapping reflects the idea of tapping into and mimicking the systematic workings of the brain, especially the areas of short and long term memory, by stimulating and supporting students‟ intelligent use of innate resources and influencing their prior knowledge (Fisher, 2000). 3. Design of Study The research design used for this research is experimental research. Therefore, this study applied quantitative research method to obtain the data. This experimental research method included a pretest and posttest design using an experimental and control group to examine the effects of the independent variable (concept mapping) on the dependent variable (student achievement in science). One class will take as an experimental group (using concept mapping) while the other class will take as control group (traditional method). Each group completed a pretest and posttest (same test) to assess knowledge of one topic in science concepts. Following this phase, the experimental group became teach by concept mapping of biodiversity topic. During the same time, the control group received study sheets related to biodiversity topic, without concept mapping. Details of the assessments are described in the instrumentation and materials section of the study. 3.1 Study Population and Sampling The population for this research is involved form 2 students and only science subject will be taken. The sample will be chosen by nonrandom sample from two selected class in form 2. This group chosen because of the topic is under science subject form 2 that which is
- 113. 112 biodiversity. The populationwill be given the valid data about the application of concept mapping technique in learning science subject in secondary school. 3.2 Instruments The research instrument for this research is concept mapping and a test question use to define the students‟ achievement using the concept mapping method. The test question is divided into 3 section which are Section A, Section B, Section C and section D. Section A was contain the questions on the classification of living things that is fill in the blank. Section B was contain the questions on the comparison between the two groups of plants. While, Section C includes the questions what are the common characteristics for each of the two groups of animals and plants. The last part is Section D where the questions was the multiple choices questions, the questions contains on more to the critical thinking to make sure students understand well on this topic. The concept mapping will be used for the one group which is experimental group. At first, all students from this group will be exposed by new teaching method which is use concept mapping for the third topic of science form 2 which is biodiversity. This topic includes only one subtopic which is organisms and their classification. Then, the other group will be teaching by the traditional teaching method without using concept mapping. Before this, the two group of students were had a pretest to know about their knowledge on this topic. Then, the posttest will be distributed to both of the two groups. The test given same with the pretest before. The questions need students to memorize the classification of living things that had learned in the class before. The questions of identify the similarities of the animals or plants given need students to understand the concept of the classification of each groups of animals and plants. Here, we can see if the students use the concept mapping technique they will remember and understand all the categories of living things and the characteristics of each type following the diagram in concept mapping provided by teacher. Then, the results from the two groups will analyze to show the relationships of concept mapping towards students‟ achievement in learning science. 4. Findings And Discussions This instrument is designed and analyzed to help the researcher to answer both research question 1 and research question 2. The data were analyzed according to the section of questions answered by respondents. The instrument consists of 4 sections of questions and the 4 sections of questions were answered research question 1 and the achievement (marks) of pre-test and post-test using traditional method and concept mapping method then compared to answer research question 2. They were organized based on the area as follows:
- 114. 113 Questions under Instrument Sectionof Questions Types of Questions No of Research Questions A (Completing of chart) Classification of living things RQ 1 B (Completing of tables) Comparisons between monocotyledons and dicotyledons C (Define the common characteristics between two group of living organisms) Common characteristics for groups of living things D (1-20 Questions) Multiple choices questions Marks for control group and experimental group RQ 2 4.1 Findings based on Instrument This findings will answered the two research questions. Section A, Section B, Section C and Section D for the experimental group using concept mapping will answered the first research question. While, the comparison of achievement between the experimental group and control group will answered the second research question. RQ 1: What is the effectiveness of concept mapping to the students‟ achievement in biodiversity science form 2? Section A In this section, students need to complete 13 blank spaces in the chart about the classification of living organisms. Living organisms classified into two which are animals and plants.
- 115. 114 Table 4.2: Frequencyon Performance in Classification of Living Things Classification of Living Things Scores Grades‟ Description No of Students Pre-test Post-test 0 Very Weak 12 0 1 – 3 Weak 7 6 5 – 7 Moderate 10 5 8 – 10 Good 1 10 11 - 13 Very Good 0 9 Total 30 Chart 4.1 Percentage of Performance in Classification of Living Things Table 4.2 and Chart 4.1 showed the frequency and the percentage of respondents who were able to classify of living things correctly in pre-test and post-test . In pre-test, 12 persons or 40% of the respondents were performed very weak in classification of living things. 7 persons or 23% of respondents were performed weak in classification of living things. 10 persons or 34% of respondents were performed moderate in classification of living things and only 1 person or 3% of respondents were performed good in classification of living things.
- 116. 115 Thus, in thepretest it can be conclude that most of the respondents were performed very weak in classification of living things. While, in post-test, 6 persons or 20% of respondents were performed weak in classification of living things. 6 persons or 20% of respondents were performed weak in classification of living things. 5 persons or 17% of respondents were performed moderate in classification of living things. 10 persons or 33% of respondents were performed good and 9 persons or 30% of respondents performed very weak in classification of living things. Thus, in the posttest it can be conclude that most of the respondents were performed good in classification of living things. Table 4.3: Frequency of Performance in Comparing between Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon Comparison between Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon Scores Grades‟ Description No of Students Pre-test Post-test 0 Weak 17 5 1 - 3 Moderate 13 9 4 Good 0 16 Total 30 Chart 4.2 Percentage of Performance in Comparing between Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon Table 4.3 and Chart 4.2 showed the frequency and the percentage of respondents who were performed in comparing between monocotyledon and dicotyledon. In pre-test, 17 persons or 57% of respondents were performed weak and 13 persons or 43% of respondents were performed moderate in comparing between monocotyledon and dicotyledon. Thus, in the pretest it can be conclude that most of the respondents were performed weak in comparing between monocotyledon and dicotyledon. While, in post-test 5 persons or 17% of respondents were performed weak in comparing between monocotyledon and dicotyledon. 9 persons or 30% of respondents were performed moderate and 16 persons or 53% of respondents were performed good in comparing between monocotyledon and dicotyledon. Thus, in post-test it can be conclude that most of the students were performed good in comparing between monocotyledon and dicotyledon. Section C
- 117. 116 Table 4.4: Frequencyon Performance in Memorization Characteristics for Each Group of Living Things Common Characteristics for Each Group of Living Things Scores Grades‟ Description No of students Pre-test Post-test 0 Very Weak 3 0 1 - 5 Weak 8 7 6 - 10 Moderate 17 6 11 - 15 Good 2 8 16 - 20 Very Good 0 4 21 Excellent 0 5 Total 30 Chart 4.3: Percentage on Performance in Memorization Characteristics for Each Groups of Living Thing Table 4.4 and Chart 4.3 showed the frequency and the percentage of respondents who were performed in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. In pre-test, 3 persons or 10% or respondents were performed very weak in memorization characteristics for
- 118. 117 each group ofliving things. 8 persons or 27% of respondents were performed weak in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. 17 persons or 57% of respondents were performed moderate and 2 persons or 6% of respondents performed good in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. Thus, in the pre-test it can be conclude that most of the respondents were performed moderate in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. While, in post-test 7 persons or 23% of respondents were performed weak in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. 6 persons or 20% of respondents were performed moderate in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. 8 persons or 27% of respondents were performed good in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. 4 persons or 13% of respondents were performed very good and 5 persons or 17% of respondents were performed excellent in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. Thus, in the post-test it can be conclude that most of the respondents were performed good in memorization characteristics for each group of living things. Section D Table 4.5: Frequency on Performance in Answering Multiple Choices Questions Multiple Choices Questions Scores Grades‟ Description No of Students Pre-test Post-test 0 Very Weak 10 0 1 - 5 Weak 9 8 6 - 10 Moderate 7 5 11 - 15 Good 4 7 16 - 20 Very Good 0 10 Total 30
- 119. 118 Chart 4.4: Percentageon Performance in Answering Multiple Choices Questions Table 4.5 and Chart 4.4 showed the frequency and the percentage of respondents‟ performance in answering multiple choices questions. In pre-test, 10 persons or 33% of respondents were performed very weak in answering multiple choices questions. 9 persons or 30% of respondents were performed weak in answering multiple choices questions. 7 persons or 23% of respondents were performed in moderate and 4 persons or 14% of respondents were performed good in answering multiple choices questions. Thus, in the pre-test it can be conclude that most of the respondents were performed very weak in answering multiple choices questions. While, in post-test 8 persons or 27% of respondents were performed weak in answering multiple choices questions. 5 persons or 17% of respondents were performed in moderate on answering multiple choices questions. 7 persons or 23% of respondents were performed good and 10 persons or 33% of respondents were performed very good in answering multiple choices questions. Thus, in the post-test it can conclude that most of the respondents were performed very good in answering multiple choices questions. RQ 2: Does the achievement of using concept have good result compare to the traditional method? Table 4: Frequency on Student‟s Grade Performance using Traditional Method Grade No of Students Pre-test Post-test A 2 4 B 3 4 C 3 6 D 7 6 E 12 9 F 3 1 Total 30
- 120. 119 Chart 4.5: Percentageon Student’s Grade Performance using Traditional Method Table 4.7 and Chart 4.5 showed the frequency and percentage of respondents‟ grade performance in biodiversity science topic using traditional method of teaching. In pre-test, 2 persons or 6% of respondents were got grade A in biodiversity science topic. 3 persons or 10% of respondents were got grade B and grade C in biodiversity science topic. 7 persons or 24% of respondents were got grade D in biodiversity science topic. 12 persons or 40% of respondents were got grade E and 3 persons or 10% of respondents were got grade F in biodiversity science topic. Thus, in the pre-test it can be conclude that most of the respondents were got grade E in their biodiversity science topic using traditional method of teaching. While, in post-test 4 persons or 13% of respondents were got grade A and grade B in biodiversity science topic. 6 persons or 13% of respondents were got grade C and grade D in biodiversity science topic. 9 persons or 30% of respondents were got grade E in biodiversity science topic and only 1 person or 4% of respondents were got grade F in biodiversity science topic. Thus, in the post-test it can be conclude that most of the respondents were got grade E in their biodiversity science topic using traditional method of teaching. Table 4.8: Frequency on Student‟s Grade Performance using Concept Mapping Method Grade No of Students Pre-test Post-test A 0 8 B 0 21 C 3 1 D 9 0 E 12 0 F 6 0 Total 30
- 121. 120 Chart 4.6: Percentageon Student’s Grade Performance using Concept Mapping Method Table 4.8 and Chart 4.6 showed the frequency and percentage of respondents‟ grade performance in biodiversity science topic using concept mapping of teaching method. In pre- test, 3 persons or 10% of respondents were got grade C in biodiversity science topic. 9 persons or 30% of respondents were got grade D in biodiversity science topic. 12 persons or 40% of respondents were got grade E and 6 persons or 20% of respondents were got grade F in biodiversity science topic. Thus, in the pre-test it can be conclude that most of the respondents were got grade E in their biodiversity science topic using concept mapping of teaching method. While, in post-test 8 persons or 27% of respondents were got grade A in biodiversity science topic. 21persons or 70% of respondents were got grade B in biodiversity science topic. Only 1 person or 3% of respondents were got grade C in biodiversity science topic. Thus, in the post-test it can be conclude that most of the respondents were got grade B in their biodiversity science topic using concept mapping of teaching method. 5. Discussions based on Findings This discussion summarized the findings based on the research questions. Each sections will be discussed separately. Section A From the finding for the section A, the post-test result show that most of the respondents were performed good in classification of living things. It is show that majority of respondents were able to classify of living things. This is supported by Paulette Greene (2011) that found the similar finding in his research. He explained that students are able to classify the groups of concept of science involved. Based on the studies by Gonsalves & Cohen (2010), Griffin & Robinson, 2005 and Marzano, 2007 said that new knowledge is primarily presented
- 122. 121 linguistically to studentsthrough talking or reading, leaving students to generate imagery representations or graphic representations on their own. From the other research by Clark, & Lyons (2010), O‟Donnell, Dansereau, & Hall, 2002 said that when students are assisted explicitly in engaging in the creation of graphic representations, brain activity is increased and stimulated. From Hattie, 2009 said that graphic representations contains words and phrases and the arrangement of knowledge through symbols and arrows to represent relationships, students‟ will able to understand of content, recalling of knowledge is enhanced and also they are able to classify the knowledge of science‟s concept into their groups. Concept mapping is a method to visualize the structure of knowledge. Since the knowledge expressed in the maps is mostly semantic, concept maps are sometimes called semantic networks. Often it is claimed that concept mapping bears a similarity to the structure of long- term memory. Instead of describing all concepts and their relations in text, one may choose to draw a map indicating concepts and relations in a graph or network. Visual representation has several advantages. Visual symbols are quickly and easily recognized, and this can be demonstrated by considering the large amount of logos, maps, arrows, road signs, and icons that most of us can recall with little effort. Visual representation also allows the development of a holistic understanding that words alone cannot convey, because the graphical form allows representations of parts and whole in a way that is not available in sequential structure of text (Lawson, 1994 cited in askin Asan 2007). Section B The level of respondents‟ performance in comparing was divided into 3 parts which are weak, moderate and good. From the finding, the result show that ability of the respondents to compare the two types of plants is good using the helping of concept mapping in teaching method. When students understand one of the concepts of science, it makes easier to them makes comparisons between the two groups. But here, the most important thing is students must understand the concept first. This is supported by E.Francine Guastello, T.Mark Beasley and Richard C. Sinatra (2000) found the same finding in their research. They found that when students understand the concept of science, they are able to apply it in various ways of situation. From Laurie Scagnelli,2007 cited in Jonassen, 2001 said that the first step of knowledge is understand the concept, when respondents understand the concept it makes them difficult to do misconception of science knowledge. Learning science in meaningful ways requires intentionally connecting new ideas or concepts and their interrelationships (Landsberger, 2000). Concept mapping showed that students can make clearly comparison between the information that arranged in manner ways (Laurie Scagnelli, 2007). Concept mapping, as a tool to help learners organize their cognitive frameworks into more integrated patterns, has its theoretical strength in meaningful learning to empower learners with the ability to apply something learned in one situation to another. The metacognitive view holds that successful transfer occurs when the problem solver is able to recognize the requirements of the new problem, select previously learned specific and general skills that apply to the new problem, and monitor their application in solving the new problem (Ajaja O.Patrick, 2011). From the finding for the section C, the post-test result show that most of the respondents were performed good in memorization. It is show that majority of respondents were able to memorize characteristics for each group of living things. This is supported by Ziad Shaker (2012) that found the similar finding in his research. The researcher found that when teacher using the concept mapping as a teaching method, it will impact student‟s memorization also misconceptions in science learning. Novak and Canas (2008) cited the advantages of using concept mapping are understand the complex ways in which students think and also makes students able to solve the higher order thinking of problem solving. Concept mapping is a method of chunking information, a method which enables students to store information in
- 123. 122 their long-term memoriesand to recall this information in the working memory in the same way in which experts do ( Brook and Shell,2006). Other research findings have suggested that human brains work to organize information in a hierarchical fashion, so learning strategies that mimic this hierarchical organization enhance students‟ abilities to retain information (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999 cited in Ziad Shaker 2012). Concept mapping is a learning strategy that promotes meaningful learning by requiring students to show the interrelatedness of a group of concepts and integrating new knowledge with pre- existing knowledge (Plotnick, 2001). Students recall prior knowledge and determine if and how the new information learned is relevant to their previous understanding of a given topic. Based on the theories of how students learn from graphical maps may help to understand the effects of concept maps in increasing recall of verbal information (Nesbit & Adescope, 2006). Griffin & Robinson (2005) established that introducing a graphical map as an addition to verbal information presented as text increases recall of information in both them map and verbal presentations. Visual learning is absorbing information from illustrations, photos, diagrams, graphs, symbols, icons and other visual models. By representing information spatially and with images, students are able to focus in meaning and recognize and group similar ideas easily. Section D The level of respondents‟ performance in comparing was divided into 5 parts which are very weak, weak, moderate, good, and very good. From the finding, the result show that ability of the respondents to answer multiple choices question using the helping of concept mapping as teaching method is very good. It shows that students will able to apply the knowledge of science‟s concept in the other situation and prove that concept mapping is a useful tool to increase achievement in learning science. This is supported by Askin Asan (2007) showed that the correlations between map scores and the scores on the map-related multiple-choice items were generally high. The strength of the relationship between concept map scores and multiple-choice scores provides strong evidence for the content validity of the concept map scores. These results indicate that students were performing quite similarly on the concept map items and multiple choice items designed to measure similar content. It can be concluded that the concept map scores were indicators of students‟ knowledge of content, which had been emphasized during instruction. In the other hand, concept mapping tools are based on proven visual learning methodologies that help students think, learn and achieve (Ricon, 2010; Tsien, 2007). As a metacognitive tool in science education, students are aided by using concept maps to understand the science domains they study (Novak & Cañas, 2008). Iuli and Helden (2004) stated that concept maps have facilitated in promoting reflective thinking and in providing a summary of a person‟s existing knowledge. In science education, concept mapping has been used to extend students‟ prior knowledge, conceptual understanding, and challenge misconceptions (Novak, 2010). 4.3 Traditional method vs Concept Mapping From the findings for research question 2 for the control group where using the traditional method of teaching styles, in the pre-test showed that majority of respondents were get grade E and in the post-test, majority of the respondents got grade E. it was showed that there was no correlation between the two test. On the other hand, for the experimental group where using concept mapping as their teaching styles, in the pre-test showed that majority of the respondents got grade E and in the post-test, majority of the respondents got grade B. it was showed that there was a high correlation between pre-test and post-test for the experimental
- 124. 123 group. The resultfrom the post-test using traditional method and concept mapping method showed that the correlation of using concept mapping was high compared to the traditional method. It was showed that concept mapping is a very useful tool as teaching method. Some researchers have studied concept maps to determine how well concept maps correlate with traditional methods of conceptual assessment. Stoddart‟s, Abrams‟s, Gasper‟s, and Canaday‟s (2000) research showed that concept maps correlated to traditional test scores when comparing tests that require students to apply, rather than to recall, knowledge. Hoz, Bowman, and Chacham (1997) and Liu and Hinchey (1993) confirmed correlation between concept maps and traditional method for assessing students‟ conceptual development. In addition, Esiobu and Soyibo (1995 cited in Ziad Shaker 2012) found in their study of academic achievement for eighth-grade students in ecology and genetics that the experimental group who used concept maps scored better than did the control group who did not use concept maps. In a similar study of students taking a college course in calculus, Park (1993 cited in Nnmandi S. Okoye and Okechukwu, 2006) also found strong correlation between students‟ scores on concept maps and post-instruction tests. “Williams (1998) concluded that concept maps can help researchers categorize students‟ knowledge and do reveal more about students‟ knowledge than do pen-and-pencil tests. Along with the previously mentioned researchers, Francisco, Nakhleh, Nurrenbern, and Miller (2002), Novak and Gowin (1984), Ruíz-Primo (2000), and Ruíz-Primo and Shavelson (1996) have all supported using concept maps as evaluation tools to assess students‟ learning” (Ziad Shaker, 2012). Conclusions This study managed to identify the effectiveness of using concept mapping in biodiversity science learning. The four effectiveness of using this kind of teaching method was identified which were classification, comparison, memorization and application. For all effectiveness comes out with the result of findings show that it is proved. It is showed that concept mapping is a useful tool to teachers in science learning. In this study also, the researcher compare the result between the traditional method and concept mapping method and the result show that, using the concept mapping method will increase the achievement of students in science learning. Therefore, concept mapping as one of tool in teaching to promote meaningful learning and improve student‟s achievement in science. References Ziad Shaker, (2012), The Use of Concep Maps as a Tool for Understanding Conceptual Change in Preservice Elementary Taechers on the Concept of Density, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA. Joseph D. Novak, (2010), Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge: Concept Maps as Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporation,Cornell University. Ajaja O.Patrick, (2011), Concept Mapping As a Study Skill: Effects on Students Achievement in Biology, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria. Askin Asan, (2007), Concept Mapping in Science Class: A Case Study of Fifth Grade Students, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman. Dr. Navdeep Kaur Dosanjh, (2011), The Effects Of Three Concept Mapping Strategies On Seventhgrade Students‟ Science Achievement At An Urban Middle School, The University of San Francisco.
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- 126. 125 Visual Art forMoney Making: A Malaysian Teachers’ Training Institution Experience Mohd Khairezan Rahmat & Mohd Shahrudin Mohmud mohdk787@salam.uitm.edu.my mohds774@salam.uitm.edu.my Abstract: Malaysia as the third world country has set a long-term goal to become a fully-fledged developed nation by the year 2020. In achieving this goal, the Ministry of Education under the Malaysian government has strengthened the role of science and technology in every aspect of educational institutions. This scenario has left social science graduates between three to five times more likely to be self-employed than other graduates. In addressing this issue, visual art education institutions were urged to embraced entrepreneurship education. However, the practice of entrepreneurship in the visual art is different in terms of its aims, opportunities, context and processes than the ordinary business entrepreneurship, which becomes the subject of discussion in this study. Underlying career identity theory, the study concludes by proposing pedagogical strategies that may foster the development and potential of the visual art making for income generating in the scope of entrepreneurship. Keywords: Visual Art, art making, Malaysian teachers’ training institution, entrepreneurship, Career Identity Theory (CIT). 1. Introduction On the 28th February 1991, the forth Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad has unveiled a long-term plan, known as Vision 2020. As articulated in the document of Vision 2020, this goal necessitates sustained and productivity-driven development through economic, political, social, spiritual, psychological, and intellectual growth (Mohammad, 1991); and through the efforts of a technologically literate and critical workforce that is prepared to participate fully in the global economy of the 21st century. Nine strategic challenges have been identified in achieving the Vision 2020, namely (1) establishing a united nation; (2) creating a psychologically liberated society; (3) secure and developed Malaysian society; (4) fostering and developing a mature democratic society; (5) establishing a fully moral and ethical society; (6) establishing a mature liberal and tolerant society; (7) establishing a scientific and progressive society; (8) establishing a fully caring society, ensuring an economically just society, and (9) establishing a prosperous society. Realizing the importance to address those nine strategic challenges, the Malaysian government has paid close attention to the development of its human resources. A systematic reinvention of the nation‟s education system has been acknowledged as the catalyst in making a quantum leap towards being an industrialized nation and a knowledge economy. Of necessity, such initiatives require the acquisition of new skills and up-to-date knowledge of technological and industrial process. Therefore, close attention was given to science and technology subject areas as the main attention and focus in the national educational system. However, as suggested in Rafikul‟s (2010) study, misunderstanding of this objective has limited the Ministry of Education attention to only the science and technology subject areas. Hence, this misinterpretation of the government‟s goal has encountered challenges toward social sciences graduates and social science subject areas as a whole. Similar issue was highlighted in the report from the Bureau of Labour Statistic (2011). According to the report, misleading of nation‟s goal has left the social sciences graduates (art education), three and five times more likely to be self-employed than sciences and technology graduates.
- 127. 126 As one ofthe initiatives to overcome this difficulty, numbers of scholars (i.e. Boden & Nedeva, 2010; Hong et al., 2012; Throsby & Zednik, 2010) have suggested that tertiary art institutions to inculcate entrepreneurship education into undergraduates courses. It is believed that by focusing on the three main aspects of entrepreneurship namely; application, sharing or distributing of art and creation or making of art, would provide initial employment and future working lives. However, the inclusion of entrepreneurship into Visual Art Education (VAE) still remains inconsistent and minimal. Furthermore, as suggested by Hong et al. (2012), this difficulty will gradually arise if countries continue failing to link the creative works with economic growth. Given the findings and suggestions from previous scholars, this study set out to determine the nature of entrepreneurial opportunities, context and processes, especially in VAE subject area in a Malaysia undergraduate program. In addition, the study will then propose pedagogical strategies that may foster the development and potential of visual art making for income generating in the scope of entrepreneurship, which is based on the career identity theory. In light of published studies that highlight the similar research area, especially in VAE subject area, it is expected that the findings form this study will provide advice and guidelines for VAE educators, teachers‟ training institutions and universities, and the Ministry of Education to foster the importance of visual art creating more money making. 2. Visual Art Entrepreneurship The inclusion of entrepreneurship into visual art can be traced back since 1750s. For instance, during the Industrial Revolution Era (1750 to 1850), the strength of visual art has always been established through its development of high level disciplinary creative and technical skills (Don et al., 2008). The demand for the design and manufacture of more and better commercial products as trade goods, were proven to boost the nation‟s economy. In accordance to this understanding, training and educational institutions were urged to train students to produce commercial artworks and products that would yield financial return, especially in visual arts and craft making (i.e. woodworks, metal work, sewing and weaving) (Bates, 2000). Mimetic and process-based instructional approaches art making were also introduced in order to produce desirable and practical outcome that could generate income, thus contribute to everyday life. The initiative to inculcate entrepreneurship into Visual Art Education (VAE) subject area was later strengthen through the systematic reinvention of the subject as holistic curricula in the 1960s. Through more structured learning activities, VAE students were trained to be more imaginative, creative and critical in constructing their own ideas, knowledge and skills in art making (Efland, 2002). The elements of entrepreneurship were also highlighted into the VAE curricula as the development of skills associated with application, sharing, and distribution of creative art works (Bridgstock, 2013). In the local context of Malaysia, the VAE curricula can be divided into five main strands, namely (1) creative expression; (2) design, produce and present; (3) aesthetic perception; (4) aesthetic valuing; and (5) cultural, craft and visual heritage. Although entrepreneurship can be considered as a new area in national educational system, the important of this element has served as guidelines for the VAE curricula subject area (Ministry of Education, 2002). For instance, it was clearly stated as one of the primary objectives of the subject that apart from developing students‟ ability in expressing their inner perceptions and ideas through inventive thinking, the VAE subject area is hoped to be a platform for applying art knowledge and skills for the betterment of life and the development of nation‟s economic growth.
- 128. 127 In realizing theseaims, such intervention has required the Malaysian Ministry of Education to promote the integration of entrepreneurship into the VAE subject area. Teachers that worked as the change agent (Rogers, 2002) must be trained to stimulate students‟ desire to embark into art entrepreneurship. Conversely, VAE teachers‟ training institutions need to structure proper professional development courses that exposed to the foundations of art entrepreneurship that includes the aims, opportunities, context and processes that involved, which is different than the ordinary business entrepreneurship. 3. Editorial Policy Although many scholars have acknowledged the important of entrepreneurship in education, effort in establishing a standard theory and model in guiding this process, it is still remain as minimal. One of the prominent theories that can be linked to the context of VAE subject area is the Career Identity Theory (Meijers, 1998). It is defined as individual‟s work and career, reflecting motivations, personal meaning, and their values, the Career Identity Theory (CIT) has a strong influence on career-related behavior, which acts as a cognitive compass that direct his/hers learning and career-related actions (Fugate et al., 2004). In line with this understanding, Bridstock & Hearn (2011) has introduced three stages in promoting visual art entrepreneurship activities into teachers‟ training institution, as shown in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1. There stages in promoting visual art entrepreneurship. 3.1 Stage One: Building Career Identity Undoubtedly, an individual‟s interest toward entrepreneurship was highly influenced by individual‟s capability in building his/her career identity. As this process will be influence by individual‟s experience, needs, and desires (Watson, 2008), it is suggested that teachers‟ training institutions need to introduce this element as early as possible, together with the development of foundational disciplinary and technical skills and knowledge. In addition, individuals should be guided through highly scaffolding activities, where they can determine
- 129. 128 their career interest,abilities, and values. In supporting this argument, Gotsi et al. (2010) have identified two key strategies in addressing individual‟s career identities, namely (1) differentiation; and (2) integration. Differentiation is defined as concerned with adopting different roles in different phases of work, while integration involves developing a higher- level of identity. 3.2 Stage Two: Identifying the Market Value On the second stage of art entrepreneurship, individuals should be able to identify the market value of their art works. As suggested by Bridstock (2011), at this stage individuals need to consider the value-congruent opportunities for enterprise. This process involves the commercial, cultural, and social context in promoting their products. She also suggested that individuals need to be exposed to multiple types of art ventures, which representing a range of venture aims, approaches, opportunities, and context. In ensuring the successful of this stage, it is essential for individuals to think critically, and creatively, in determining the uniqueness of their art work. It is also advisable for individuals to form and focus on own personal identities, which is linked strongly with their art practice and art work. This statement reflects upon Gardner‟s quotation underlying the concept of entrepreneurship of „the possible worlds of the future‟ (Gardner, 2008). He believes that entrepreneurs should be able to see the potential for something to exist in the future that does not exist in the present. 3.3 Stage Three: Experiencing Project-based Work The final stage of art entrepreneurship is where individuals involve in experiential project- based work. This stage will provide avenue for individuals to learn by doing and experiencing entrepreneurship (Raffo et al., 2000). As a platform of gaining knowledge and experience, individuals are expected to work closely with fellow colleagues, mentors or experts, and academic staffs. Although this stage might involve either in simulation, or small scale environment, it is advisable for individuals to be explicit in determining opportunities to add value through art, and the identity negotiations while experiencing this project-based work (Bridstock, 2005). In similar vein, Fillis (2006) has acknowledged this final stage as a crucial stage, where individuals will embed core entrepreneurial skills and knowledge in an authentic approach. As an ultimate stage of acquiring individuals‟ entrepreneurial self- confidence and opportunity identification skills, this approach is believed to be able to develop their entrepreneurial identity and of visual art entrepreneurship skills. 4. Strategies in Promoting Visual Art Entrepreneurship into Teachers’ Training Institution Program Acknowledging mentioned benefits and needs, three pedagogical techniques are suggested in fostering art entrepreneurship into teachers‟ training institution program. These pedagogical techniques are (1) supervision and mentorship, (2) collaborative team project, and (3) experiential learning. Thus, the present article suggests that these factors are positively influence the successful visual art entrepreneurship activities into teachers‟ training institution program, as shown in Figure 1.2. 4.1 Supervision and Mentorship Noted as a key component of Gardner‟s (2008) idea of modeling individuals‟ ways of thinking, mentorship program is hoped able to provide a direct and specific self-reflection, where individuals can evaluate and reflect on every action taken. Furthermore, referring to an
- 130. 129 experiential context oflearning, the supervision and mentorship activities are suggested due to its capabilities in offering feedback on individual‟s strategies, techniques, and results. The suggestion of establishing supervision and mentoring program in promoting visual art entrepreneurship was also influenced by the idea of „entrepreneurial mentorship‟ by Essig (2013). Apart from mastering the entrepreneurship knowledge and skills, his idea believed that this program has helped individuals to develop both a diverse set of skills and alertness toward identifying opportunities and enhancing their production or artistic capabilities. 4.2 Collaborative Team Project As many scholars believed that learning process needs to be active and supportive, especially in the areas of creativity and innovation, it is a call for teachers‟ training institutions to consider individuals working collaboratively as one of the approaches in promoting entrepreneurship activities. Meisek and Haefliger (2011) have also acknowledged the benefits of working in groups. They indicate that individuals that worked in groups, known as groupthink has provide a fertile ground for the emergence of novel ideas. For instance, by promoting brainstorming and critic groups in visual art entrepreneurship classroom, mentors might be able to stimulate concepts and analogies development, creative and critical thinking, and problem solving formulation activities. 4.3 Experiential Learning Another vital activity that can foster visual art entrepreneurship activities is by providing opportunities for individuals to learn through experience. In line with the Piaget‟s idea of „learning by doing‟, teachers‟ training institutions are urged to focus on developing and stimulating an enterprising culture and way of thinking. For example, by initiating an establishment of a small scale entrepreneurship unit or center might help in fostering individuals‟ interest and responsibilities towards entrepreneurship. In the context of visual art entrepreneurship, individuals may be asked to venture into commercialize art gallery, art market, and craft and design clinic and programs. Figure 1.2. Factors that Influence Successful Visual Art Entrepreneurship.
- 131. 130 5. Conclusion Generally, thisarticle has outlined the important and necessity for teachers‟ training institution, especially in visual art subject area, to inculcate entrepreneurship into its curriculum. Apart from consistency with the Malaysian government‟s „Vision 2020‟, the integration of entrepreneurship element into education system is believed to be visible initiative in providing a potential option for visual art graduates to venture. Furthermore, by highlighting the three stages in implementing visual art entrepreneurship into teachers‟ training institution, it is beneficial for the relevant parties to engage in a scaffold process of career and entrepreneurial identity development and refinement. A systematic reinvention of existing paradigm, curriculum, and approaches are vital in adding values, envision new directions, and invigorate individuals‟ artistic skills and knowledge. Therefore, it is worth to consider supervision and mentorship program, collaborative team project, and experiential learning, as initial strategies in supporting the idea of visual art for money generating. References Bates, J. K. (2000). Becoming an art teacher. Stamford, CT: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Boden R and Nedeva M (2010) Employing discourse: Universities and graduate „employability‟. Journal of Education Policy 25(1): 18. Bridgstock R (2005) Australian artists, starving and well-nourished: What can we learn from the prototypical protean career? Australian Journal of Career Development 14(3): 40–48. Bridgstock R and Hearn G (2011) A conceptual model of capability learning for the 21st century Knowledge Economy. In: Rooney D, Hearn G, Ninan A (eds) Handbook on the Knowledge Economy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 105–122. Bridgstock, R. (2013). Not a Dirty Word: Arts entrepreneurship and higher education. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 12(2-3) 122-137. Bureau of Labour Statistics (2011) Occupational outlook handbook, 2010–11 edition: Artists and related workers. Available at: http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos092.htm Don G, Garvey C and Sadeghpour M (2008) Signature pedagogies in music theory and performance. In: Gurung R, Chick N, Haynie A (eds) Exploring Signature Pedagogies: Approaches to Teaching Disciplinary Habits of Mind. Sterling, VA: Stylus, pp. 81–98. Efland, A. (2002). Art and cognition: Integrating the visual arts in the curriculum. New York: Teachers College Press. Essig, L. (2013). Frameworks for educating the artist of the future: Teaching habits of mind for arts entrepreneurship. Journal of Entrepreneurship in the Arts 1(2): 65-77. Fillis I (2006) Art for art‟s sake or art for business sake: An exploration of artistic product orientation. The Marketing Review 6(1): 29–40. Gardner, H. (2008). Five minds for the future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press. Gotsi M, Andriopoulos C, Lewis MW and Ingram AE (2010) Managing creatives: Paradoxical approaches to identity regulation. Human Relations 63(6): 781–805. Hong C, Essig L and Bridgstock R (2012) The enterprising artist and the arts entrepreneur: Emergent pedagogies for new disciplinary habits of mind. In: Chick N, Haynie A, Gurung R (eds) Exploring More Signature Pedagogies: Approaches to Teaching Disciplinary Habits of Mind. Sterling, VA: Stylus, pp. 68–84. Meijers F (1998) The development of a career identity. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 20(3): 191–207. Ministry of Education, (2002). Visual Art Education Syllabus. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Ministry of Education. Mohamad, M. (1991). Malaysia: The Way Forward. Kuala Lumpur: National Printing Department. Raffo C, Lovatt A, Banks M and O‟Connor J (2000) Teaching and learning entrepreneurship for micro and small businesses in the cultural industries sector. Education & Training 42(6): 356– 365.
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- 133. 132 Penghasilan Karya KontemporariMenerusi Kaedah Penyelidikan Artistik ke atas Struktur Motif Ukiran Kayu Tradisional Melayu Terengganu Sumardianshah Silah, Badrul Isa, & Raiha Shahanaz Redzuan Abstract: Kertas kerja ini membincangkan penghasilan karya kontemporari menggunakan kaedah penyelidikan artistik ke atas motif Ukiran Kayu Melayu Terengganu. Bahagian pertama akan membincangkan kaedah kajian artistik yang menggunakan rakaman fotografi digital, lakaran, lukisan, dan ukiran kayu sebagai kaedah kutipan data. Bahagian kedua akan membincangkan motif Ukiran Kayu Melayu Terengganu sebagai subjek kajian termasuk sejarah ringkas perkembangan ukiran kayu di Malaysia, tokoh-tokoh pengukir serta falsafah ukiran kayu dari perspektif kehidupan Melayu Muslim. Bahagian ketiga kertas kerja ini akan membincangkan proses penghasilan karya menerusi praktis studio.. Kata Kunci: Penyelidikan Artistik, Struktur Motif Ukiran Kayu Terengganu, Praktis Studio. 1. Pengenalan Ukiran kayu merupakan seni warisan yang diwarisi dari zaman berzaman oleh masyarakat Melayu di nusantara. Keindahan ukiran ini terletak pada motifnya yang diilhamkan dari alam semulajadi. Sehingga ke hari ini keunikan motif ukiran kayu dijadikan sebagai perhiasan rumah, hiasan taman, dan konsep hiasan dalaman pejabat serta karya seni visual yang turut menggunakan motif ukiran kayu sebagai subjek karya. Tidak ketinggalan golongan arkitek yang menjadikan motif ukiran kayu sebagai konsep idea kepada reka bentuk bangunan - bangunan moden. Usaha ini merupakan satu pengiktirafan terhadap keindahan seni warisan nusantara. Motif pada ukiran kayu dicipta oleh pengukir dengan mengambil kira falsafah dan nilai tempatan yang bertujuan untuk memberikan pendidikan kepada masyarakat. Motif ukiran kayu di alam Melayu berbeza dari satu lokasi ke satu lokasi yang lain bergantung kepada budaya, pengaruh, peristiwa dan citarasa pengukir. Perbezaan dan keunikan ukiran kayu mengikut daerah dan provinsi ini boleh dikenalpasti menerusi bentuk dan struktur motif. Kepelbagaian ragam ukiran kayu ini menarik ramai pengkaji sejarah seni, pereka dan pengkarya seni halus untuk mengenengahkan motif-motif ini kepada umum dalam pelbagai cara. 2. Latarbelakang Kajian Kajian ini merupakan penyelidikan visual ke atas motif ukiran kayu Terengganu. Kajian ini melihat ukiran kayu Terengganu menerusi dua aspek iaitu struktur dan motif ukiran kayu tradisional Terengganu. Kamus Advance Learner’s English - Malay mentakrifkan bahawa struktur sebagai sesuatu yang diletakkan bersama-sama, yang dianjurkan, yang dibina atau lain-lain berkaitan dan ia bermakna apa-apa jua bahagian yang dibuat atau mana-mana keseluruhan yang kompleks. Fokus kajian adalah berkenaan struktur dan motif dalam ukiran kayu Melayu Terengganu dan bagaimana unsur dan elemen disusun atau diatur untuk membentuk motif secara menyeluruh. Menurut Muhammad Affandi Yahya (1995), dalam ukiran kayu tradisional, perletakan motif adalah mengikut sesuatu hiasan. Motif diukir dalam dua dimensi atau tiga dimensi kemudian disusun untuk mencipta reka bentuk atau corak hiasan.
- 134. 133 Menurut Siti ZainonIsmail (2005), motif adalah bahagian utama daripada unsur-unsur hiasan dalam ukiran kayu selain berperanan sebagai elemen penting dalam karya seni seperti lukisan. Motif yang disusun dengan betul dalam ruangan, akan mewujudkan corak yang indah di permukaannya. Ini bermakna dari segi motif ianya boleh digunakan untuk menggambarkan keseluruhan unsur-unsur hiasan. Kajian visual ke atas kedua-dua aspek iaitu struktur dan motif akan membawa kepada penghasilan karya kontemporari iaitu penghasilan motif baru ukiran kayu sebagai subjek di dalam karya. Kajian ini mengariskan tiga objektif iaitu: 1. Mengenalpasti struktur rekabentuk motif ukiran kayu tradisional melayu Terengganu. 2. Mengkaji struktur rekabentuk motif ukiran kayu tradisional melayu Terengganu dan kaitannya dengan perkembangan idea dalam menghasilkan motif ukiran kayu. 3. Menghasilkan karya seni kontemporari menggunakan rekaan motif baru berilhamkan ukiran kayu tradisional melayu Terengganu. 3. Kajian Literatur Dalam penghasilan motif hari ini, pereka muda, artis atau arkitek banyak menutup kekurangan dan kelemahan rekaan motif baru mengikut cita rasa masing-masing tanpa menghiraukan nilai estetika yang perlu di jaga. Sama ada dari sudut perletakan, struktur dan perkembangan idea motif. Memudahkan motif tanpa makna dengan menolak unsur-unsur kreatif dan norma-norma estetika dalam karya ukiran kayu tradisional Melayu adalah seumpama tidak menghargai tukang ukir terdahulu dan intelektual mereka. Hari ini kita hanya membuat peniruan tanpa memahami sepenuhnya keindahan motif pada ukiran kayu tradisional. Mungkin esok, tiada lagi motif ukiran kayu dapat di lihat yang menerapkan sepenuhnya gaya estetika ukiran kayu Melayu. Justeru itu, kita perlu mengkaji dengan terperinci kandungan struktur pada motif ukiran kayu sebelum membuat sesuatu motif baru yang berinspirasikan ukiran kayu. Mohamad Tajuddin (2005) menyatakan bahawa masalah yang berlaku dalam isu penghasilan motif ukiran kayu Melayu pada hari ini adalah kerana berlakunya modenisasi. Persoalanya ialah bagaimana untuk mengkaji struktur dalam motif ukiran kayu berdasarkan tafsiran unsur dan elemen estetika dalam budaya Melayu hari ini. 4. Bahagian Pertama: Kaedah Kajian Kajian ini merupakan kajian Kualitatif menggunakan kaedah historical research dan praktis studio atau artistic research melibatkan pengumpulan data diambil daripada pelbagai sumber. Penyelidikan kualitatif merangkumi pelbagai cara dalam penafsiran dan menggunakan pendekatan naturalsitik untuk menjawab persoalan kajian (G. Lodico, T.Spaulding dan H.Voegtle: 2006). Kaedah historical research menggunakan tiga pendekatan kutipan data iaitu temubual secara tidak formal bersama Wan Po pengukir ukiran kayu, analisa dokumen terdiri daripada majalah, risalah galeri dan dokumentasi foto menerusi lawatan ke galeri ukiran di Muzium dan Galeri Seni, tayangan video serta pameran ukiran kayu di Galeri Wan Po. Kaedah kedua menggunakan kajian praktis studio di mana penyelidik menggunakan analisis visual sebagai kaedah kutipan data menerusi dokumentasi lakaran (sketches), lukisan, lakaran „thumbnail‟, lakaran Pra-komprehensif, Komprehensif, lukisan penuh dan karya akhir sama ada menggunakan medium seni lukis atau medium media baru menggunakan perisian
- 135. 134 komputer seperti AdobePhotoshop dan Adobe Illustrator. Kutipan data turut di lakukan menerusi rujukan karya artis seni visual dan karya mereka dengan melihat kandungan serta makna penghasilan karya. Antara keunikan dan kekuatan penyelidikan menggunakan praktis studio adalah terletak kepada penyelidik dan kebolehan manipulasi visual (Eisner, 1981; C. Marshall & Rossman, 1999; J. Marshall, 2007) . Selain itu, „grounded theory‟ digunakan dalam mengumpul dan menganalisa data prima dan data sekunder. Teori tersebut akan menggabungkan koleksi data sejarah dan latarbelakang secara tersusun dan teratur mengikut struktur teori yang dicadangkan oleh Edward Burke Feldman dan JJ.Winckalmenn. (Lihat Jadual 3) Jadual 1: Carta aliran kaedah kajian Kajian Sejarah/Latarbelakang (Historical Research) Praktik Studio (Studio Based Research) Analisis Dokumen (2) Pemerhatian/Rekod Foto 1. Malay Terengganu Woodcarving Motif 2. Balai Warisan Seni: Wanpo, Besut Terengganu Analisis dokumen (1) 1. Buku 2. Majalah/makalah 3. Surat Khabar 4. Internet 5. Risalah galeri 6. Nota 7. Mind-mapping Rujukan Artis & Hasil Karya 1. Sulaiman Esa 2. Ruzaika Omar Basaree 3. Fauzan Omar 4. Ismail Zain 5. Fatimah Chik 6. Khatijah Sanusi 7. Laura Cooperman 8. Fred Tomalli Kajian ‘Artwork’ - Struktur 1. ‘Subject mattter’ 2. Lakaran awal 3. Perkembangan idea 4. Lakaran Thumbnails 5. Lakaran Komprehensif 6. Lukisan 7. Final ‘Artwork’ Dapatan 1. Historical Research - Struktur motif tradisional ukiran kayu Terengganu 2. Practice based research – Penghasilan motif baru mengikut struktur Motif ukiran Analisis Data Artist Statement Keputusan 1. Artwork 1 2. Artwork 2 3. Artwork 3 4. Artwork 4 5. Artwork 5 REKAAN STRUKTUR PADA MOTIF UKIRAN KAYU MELAYU TERENGGANU Cadangan & Kesimpulan
- 136. 135 Jadual 2: Cartaaliran kajian menggunakan ‘Grounded theory’ Imej idea From JJ Winckelmann (1764) Mengumpul maklumat dari semua sumber USING THE DATA - Berdasarkan mencari; memilih data untuk membuat satu sistem & menghasilkan karya seni Susun data dan mulakan analisis Mengkategorikan data mengikut kumpulan TO DESCRIBE Untuk menerangkan& mengetahui pengarang, tajuk, tahun, penerbit, tempat, URL, ISBN, tahun artikel dll. TO INTERPRET Untuk mentafsir berdasarkan analisis data tersebut, mentafsir data ke dalam bentuk baru atau kemungkinan yang baru TO EVALUATE / JUDGEMENT Untuk menilai/ Penilaian data dan memilih data yang terbaik untuk digunakan TO ANALYZE Untuk menganalisis membincangkan secara kronologi petikan, perbandingan, fakta-fakta, pendapat, kesan sebab, akibat. Edmund Burke Feldman (1924) – Theory Art History / Art Criticism 1 2 3 5 REKAAN STRUKTUR PADA MOTIF UKIRAN KAYU MELAYU TERENGGANU 4
- 137. 136 5. Bahagian Kedua:Dapatan Penghasilan Struktur Motif Dari analisis kajian yang dibuat melalui dapatan sejarah dan latarbelakang, kebanyakan motif ukiran kayu Melayu adalah berdasarkan struktur yang mempunyai prinsip dan unsur estetika Melayu terutama ukiran Melayu Terengganu. Penemuan dalam motif ukiran kayu melalui tiga peringkat penstrukturan motif adalah perlu dan menepati aspek estetika seni dan budaya Melayu. Peringkat pertama adalah menghasilakan lakaran asas dari bulatan dan bentuk persegi. Peringkat kedua adalah garis asas yang merujuk kepada struktur lingkaran dan menyulur yang memberi gambaran sebenar rupa bentuk motif yang akan dihasilkan. Manakala peringkat terakhir adalah gabungan struktur terperinci peringkat satu dan kedua berdasarkan setiap motif yang dihasilkan berhubungkait dengan makna, simbol dan pengertian dari sudut kesenian, kosmologi dan estetika Melayu. Menurut Siti Zainon Ismail (1986), terdapat tiga asas perkembangan idea untuk mewujudkan struktur dalam motif tradisional Melayu. Dalam menghasilkan motif ukiran kayu Melayu, susunan motif, unsur dan elemen Estetika Melayu perlu disatukan dalam struktur keseluruhan motif yang juga dikenali sebagai pola atau rekabentuk dalam kraf tradisional Melayu. Penghasilan bentuk motif bermula dengan menggunakan elemen - elemen asas dalam seni visual seperti titik-titik, garisan dan warna. Penganalisian melalui pelaksanaan teori Siti Zainon Ismail (1986), kajian dibangunkan bagi mengaitkan proses asas menghasilkan motif kraf Melayu ke dalam struktur motif tradisional ukiran kayu Melayu Terengganu. Struktur asas Melingkar Gambar 1: Bunga Ketumbit Motif
- 138. 137 6. BAHAGIAN KETIGA:KAJIAN PRAKTIK STUDIO Bahagian seterusnya ini menghuraikan contoh pelaksanaan kajian praktik studio. Kajian melalui „Studio Based research’ adalah sangat sinonim dalam bidang seni lukis dan seni reka. Kaedah kajian praktik studio dilakukan dalam proses kajian bermula dari pencarian bahan kajian, lakaran, perkembangan idea, lukisan asas sehinggalah ke karya akhir sama ada berbentuk lukisan, catan, arca, cetakan mahupunpun ‘installation’. Pemerhatian penyelidik ke atas pelaksanaa kaedah ini semasa menyertai lawatan akademik ke Melbourne, Australia, mendapati institusi pengajian tinggi di Australia yang menawarkan Sarjana Seni secara coursework mengamalkan konsep kajian dan penyelidikan berdasarkan „practice based research‟. Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University (RMIT), Monash University dan La Trobe University di Melbourne Australia merupakan antara universiti yang melaksanakan kaedah tersebut di peringkat pengajian seni lukis dan seni reka. Dua penekanan utama yang diberi perhatian iaitu ‘body of artwork’ iaitu dari sudut proses penghasilan karya dan ‘intellectual support’ iaitu penulisan kajian atau dipanggil ‘artist statement’. 6.1 Rujukan Artis dan Karya Kajian Praktis studio menggunapakai rujuakn artis seni visual dan karya mereka sebagai sebahagian daripada kaedah mendapat data. Penyelidik akan memilih dan mencari karya dan artis yang sesuai untuk di jadikan kerangka kajian. Analisis karya di jalankan bagi melihat kekuatan, kaedah penghasilan, makna dan kandungan penghasilan karya, proses serta isu yang dikemukakan. Antara artis yang menjadi rujukan praktik studio di dalam kajian ini Struktur asas Melingkar Gambar 2: Anjung Tingkap - Bunga Matahari
- 139. 138 adalah Allayarham TuanHaji Syed Shaharuddin Bakeri, Fatimah Chik, Sulaiman Esa, Assoc. Prof. Dr Ruzaika Omar Basaree, Zainon Omar, Laura Cooperman dan Fred Tomalli. 6.2 Penghasilan Karya Gambar 3: Penghasilan bertajuk Juxtapose-ism Gambar 4: Penghasilan karya bertajuk Connectivity + Netwoking Gambar 5: Penghasilan karya bertajuk Ombak Rindu Gambar 6: Penghasilan karya bertajuk Monaviana 6.3 KENYATAAN ARTIS: SUMARDIANSHAH SILAH Kesemua karya yang dihasilkan adalah bermotifkan motif baru yang direka melalui proses pengstrukturan seperti dalam penghasilan struktur asas ukiran kayu Melayu Terengganu. Media yang digunakan adalah Batik iaitu canting, lilin, damar, pewarna batik Ramazol, gula
- 140. 139 dan garam. Kebanyakkansaiz bagi karya akhir saya ialah 5 kaki x 7 kaki dan bagi karya yang berbentuk eksperimentasi bersaiz 5 kaki x 2 kaki. Karya yang dihasilkan adalah bersifat naratif disebalik penghasilannya namun tidaklah secara keseluruhan. Saya cuma meminjam motif daripada ukiran kayu melayu Terengganu dengan mengkaji secara dasar struktur yang digunapakai dengan menghimpunkan pelbagai teori, falsafah dan ungkapan daripada ahli sastera dan seni negara dan cuba menghasilkan motif yang baru dan menerapkan ke dalam karya saya sebagai „subject matter‟. Walaupun pada asasnya ukiran kayu mempunyai pelbagai jenis seperti ukiran kayu bersilat dan tebuk tebus. Namun dalam proses pengkaryaan karya saya ini, saya memilih unsur tembuk tembus sebagai teknik utama di samping penggunaan struktur motif ukiran dalam mencipta motif baru yang menjadi subject matter utama karya. Bagi saya ukiran bersilat dan tembuk tembus mempunyai dua sifat iaitu alam ghaib dan alam nyata. Sabagai contonya dalam ukiran kayu sebenar, bersilat seumpama alam realiti yang dirujuk melalui metafora tumbu-tumbuhan yang berpaut antara satu sama lain. Manakala yang berlubang melambangkan dunia ghaib. Contoh dalam Islam kita beriman bahawa adanya malaikat dan akhirat. Justeru itulah tujuannya ukiran kayu bersilat dan tebuk tembus itu dibuat. Bagi saya ianya perlambangan dunia nyata oleh ukiran bersilat yang boleh dilihat dan disentuh. Karya 1 Ombak Rindu 5 x 7 kaki Lilin, Ramazol, Ink Manakala ukiran kayu tebuk tembus, ruang bertebuk tidak kelihatan, tembus dan apabila disentuh tiada rasa. Namun, karya saya tidaklah memberi makna sebagai karya funtional seperti pengudaraan udara masuk dan keluar serta pengcahayaan dari sinaran matahari ke dalam ruang rumah. cuma ia menjadi intipati kepada inspirasi daripada ukiran kayu tersebut untuk saya memotong beberapa bahagian motif di atas kanvas. Saya membuat lubang atas dasar kehilangan dan terpotong (missing). Karya tersebut memberi reflektif terhadap diri sendiri tentang perjalanan hidup saya sebagai pelajar yang lebih mahir dalam ilmu kraf
- 141. 140 terutamnya Batik. Iamerujuk kepada teknik tebuk yang saya gunakan berhubung dengan kisah hidup saya sebagai pelajar dan artis seni halus yang perlu menghasilkan karya seni visual. Karya 2 Juxtapose-ism 5 x 7 kaki Lilin, Ramazol, Ink, Spray, Cakul, pensil Saya seorang pengkarya batik. Apa yang saya gambarkan dalam batik adalah seumpama kain puith yang perlu dicorakkan. Tetapi dalam karya saya, saya memberi reflektif yang terbalik daripada yang sedia ada iaitu meng‟reduce’kan kajian karya saya. Teknik ini telah dicipta dan diaplikasikan di dalam seni moden lagi. Contohnya Piet Mondrian melukis pokok epal secara realistik pada awalnya kemudian pokok apple tersebut digayakan (stylisation) atau dalam bahasa melayu „mujarad‟. Dan pada akhirnya pokok apple tersebut dikonstrak menjadi petak-petak kecil yang menampakkan minimalis wujud. Itulah teknik terjadi dalam karaya saya. Di awal karya saya, saya sangat seronok untuk bermain canting dan warna ramazol di atas kanvas serta menebuk ruang-ruang yang perlu di dalam motif ciptaan saya. Sehinggakan tiga buah karya yang bersaiz besa wujud hasil dari keghairahan saya menghasilkan karya berdasarkan pengalaman saya menggunakan teknik batik. Namun, di akhir pengkajian saya, saya menstalisasikan motif yang saya cipta iaitu sebanyak 30 buah motif di dalam bentuk adobe photoshop. Setelah itu saya printkan di atas kertas warna yang tebal lalu memotongnya. Setelah itu saya cuba untuk menghantar ke kedai „frame‟ dan meng‟framekan‟ hasil karya saya. Dengan tanpa warna, hanya bertebukkan beberapa lubang serta garisan hitam motif dan frame yang berwarna putih, maka itulah karya akhir saya. Saya „reduce‟ kan pengkajian saya daripada yang agak ghairah mencari identiti kepada karya yang minimalis.
- 142. 141 Karya 3 Shadow 1 x1 kaki Ink Begitu juga dalam seni cubism, Pablo picaso mencipta karyanya berdasarkan penggayaan (stylization) sehingga bentukan karya beliau seperti seakan-akan „non-representional‟. Bagi saya kehilangan yang di maksudkan tadi membawa satu reflectif masa lampau yang mana saya menolak pendekatan batik dan beralih ke arah seni halus. Belum ada pakaian (tekstil) yang berlubang. Dalam tekstil umpama merosakkan motif itu. Tetapi walaupun saya membuat lubang untuk menunjukkan kehilangn ianya menggambarkan reflektif memori. Iaitu kehilangan yang diingati. Itulah teknik terjadi dalam karya saya. Karya 4 Connectivity + Networking 5 x 7 kaki Lilin, Ramazol, Ink, Spray, Cakul
- 143. 142 Seperti karya pensyarahyang saya yang juga penyelia thesis saya yang saya hormati Prof. Madya Dr. Ruzaka Omar Basaree. Karya beliau yang berlubang pada tingkap umpama angan-angan untuk mendapatkan sesuatu atau “dreaming from the past or future”. Jadi itulah saya. Saya juga melihat pengalaman lampau sebagai satu anjakan baru. Dari seorang pembatik kepada seorang yang masuk dalam bidang seni halus. Ukiran kayu bukan satu dokumentasi semata-mata. Namun, ianya memberi satu reflektif tentang yang dahulu dan masa akan datang. Yang mana saya melihat motif ukiran motif sebagai prinsip yang boleh dikaitkan dengan diri saya. Dahulu saya seorang pengkarya Batik dan kini seorang artis seni halus. Pengalaman itu menjadi refeltif hidup saya dan secara tidaklangsung mempengaruhi hasil karya saya. Dalam karya saya, elemen canting dan warna ramazol menjadi pilihan saya dismping motif yang berstrukturkan ukiran kayu serta elemen tebuk tembus dia atas kanvas. Justeru elemen batik dalam karya saya secara tidak snegaja seolah-oleh berkait rapat dengan falsafah awan larat oleh Allayarham Pak Nakula (1978) yang sangat hebat maksudnya. Ayat “tumbuh berpunca” dalam falsafah ukiran kayu melayu boleh dikaitkan dengan prinsip pembatik dari satu titik ke satu titik yang lain. Titik itu mewakili punca kepada penghasilan sesuatu karya. “Berpunca penuh rahsia” dalam konteks batik ianya seumpama perkembangan idea atau stylization. Subjek matter adalah punca. Manakala persepsi diri terhadap penghasilan dan perkembangan idea adalah rahsianya. “Tajam tidak menujah lawan” diumpamakan sebagai lilin yang memisah warna dan memecah dua bahagian. Tapi saling berkaitan dan menyokong antara satu sama lain. “Melilit tidak memaut kawan” seumpama pembahagian tempat dalam batik seperti bahagian kepala kain, badan kain, dan kaki kain yang membawa makna setiap corak memainkan peranan yang tersendiri. Kalau kepala kain mempunyai peranannya yang tersendiri dan sentiasa berada di tempatnya yang tersendiri dan tidak memasuki kawasan lain seperti badan kain atau kaki kain. Mempunyai rasa hormat dan menghargai bahagian masing- masing. “tetapi melingkar penuh mesra” ini melibatkan proses dalam pencantingan batik. Yang mana canting dilukis di atas kain dengan penuh kelembutan dan kemesraan oleh pencanting batik. karya 5 Monaviana 5 x 2 kaki Ramazol, Gula, Garam
- 144. 143 Walaupun warna dipisahkanoleh lilin. Garisan canting itu tetap menghasilkan garisan yang indah dan memainkan peranan kelembutan yang linear. Corak batik yang melingkar selalunya datang dengan warna yang harmoni. Ini memberi tanggapan kepada saya terhadap kemesraan yang terhasil berdasarkan proses stylization dan komposisi. Justeru dari falsafah Awan Larat daripada Nakula (1978): “…..bertunas meranting, melentur tidak menjulang ke atas, merunduk ke bawah tapi tidak melemah rupa” Saya kaitkan dengan seorang pembatik: “…..bertunas mencanting, melirik tidak saling tumpah, bertingkah menyaling lembut tidak lemah” Kesimpulan Kajian penyelidikan ini hanya pada motif ukiran kayu Melayu Terengganu. Karya seni keluarga Wan Su Othman adalah digunakan sebagai rujukan kepada analisis motif. Analisis kajian adalah berdasarkan tafsiran unsur - unsur dan elemen - elemen estetika Melayu untuk menentukan struktur dalam motif yang digunakan. karya seni keluarga Wan Su Othman digunakan sebagai rujukan untuk menganalisis motif berdasarkan pengalaman, kepakaran dan pengetahuan keluarga tersebut dalam falsafah dan teknik ukiran kayu Melayu. Kajian kaedah studio praktik (studio based research) diteruskan kepada penghasilan motif-motif baru berdasarkan 3 peringkat yang telah dibincangkan. Seterusnya, daripada lakaran motif yang dihasilkan, karya seni halus kontemporari terhasil dengan membuat kajian dari sudut banding beza rujukan artis (Artist References) dan membuat kenyataan artis (Artist Statement). Rujukan Abdullah Mohamed, (1978). Falsafah Dan Pemikiran Orang-Orang Melayu: Hubungan dengan Islam dan Kesenian, Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Kementerian Kebudayaan, Belia dan Sukan Malaysia. Agile Rabbit Editions. (2002). Islamic Designs. Amsterdam: The Pepin Press Claude Humbert. (1980). Islamic Ornamental Design. London: Faber & Faber Limited. Daud Sutton. (2007). Islamic Design. A Genius for Geometry. UK: Wooden Book Ltd. E.H. Gombrich. (2005). Tradition and Innovation I: 15 century in Italy: The Story of Art. London: Phaidon Press Inc. Eisner, E. W. (1981). On the Differences between Scientific and Artistic Approaches to Qualitative Research. Educational Researcher, 10(4), 5-9. Farish A. Noor & Eddin Khoo. (2003). Spirit of Wood: The Art of Malay Woodcarving. Singapore: Periplus Edition (HK) Ltd. Haslinda Abd Razak, Baharim Khusil. (2011). Adaptation and Application of Ornament by Malaysian Painting. Proceeding of Seminar Seni Visual. Praktik dan Penyelidikan. Tanjong Malim: UPSI Press. Isma‟il R. Lamya Al Faruqi. (1992). Atlas Budaya Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka. Keith Critchlow. (1976). Islamic Patterns: An analytical and Cosmological Approach. Schocken Books, New York, USA.
- 145. 144 Khatijah Sanusi. (1996)Expressionof Islamic Art in Malaysia: Unity in Diversity. Curatorial writing of exhibition catalogue exhibition of Pengucapan Islam dalam Kesenian. Kuala Lumpur: Galeri Petronas. Laura Heyenga, Rob Ryan, Natalie Avella. (2011) Paper Cutting. Contemporary Artist Timeliless Craft. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing Qualitative Research (Third Edition ed.): Sage Publication. Marshall, J. (2007). Image as Insight: Visual Images in Practice-Based Research. Studies in Art Education 49(1), 23-41. Mohamad Tajuddin. (2005). The Discontinued Tradition of Malay Wood Carvings in Modern and Post-Modern Architecture in Malaysia: A Failure to Develop the Discourse on Ornamentation in Architectural Works. Journal of the Semangat Kayu. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Muzium Negara. Muhammad Afandi Yahya. (1995). Simbolisme Dalam Seni Bina Rumah Melayu Kelantan, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka and Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Jalaini Abu Hassan. (2011). Made to Process. Exhibition Catalogue of Processing Form Group Show. Damansara: Chandan Gallery. P.4-5 Jalaini Abu Hassan. (2009). Bitumania. Exhibition Catalogue of Bitumania Group Show. Petaling Jaya: Pace Gallery. Norhaiza Noordin. (2005). Mengekalkan Motif Ukiran Kayu Tradisi Masa Kini. Journal of the Spirit & Form in Malay Design. Kuala Lumpur: Muzium Seni Islam. Nur Hanim Mohamed Khairuddin. (2011). Raja’ah . Seni, Idea, dan Kreativiti Sulaiman Esa dari 1950an-2011. Kuala Lumpur: Balai Seni Visual Negara. Otto G. Ocvick, Robert E. Stinson, Philip O. Bone, David Cayton. (2001). Art Fundamentals. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Parmjit Singh, Chan Yuen Fook, Gurnam Kaur Sidhu. (2006). A Comprehensive Guide to Writing A Research Proposal. Selangor: Venton Publishing. Ramlan Abdullah. (2010) Practice Based Research in Art & Design, Why Not?. The Journal of Faculty of Art & Design (INTI). Shah Alam: UiTM Press. P.41-45. Siti Zainon Ismail. (2005). Meng‟Ukir‟ Budi Melayu. Journal of the Akal Budi Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Pengajian Bahasa Kesusasteraan dan Kebudayaan Melayu, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Siti Zainon Ismail. (1986), Rekabentuk Kraftangan Malayu Tradisi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Siti Zainon Ismail. (1997). The Traditional Malay Handcraft. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Sumardianshah Silah, Ruzaika Omar Basaree, Abdul Shukor Hashim, Badrul Isa. (2011). Rekaan Struktur pada Motif Ukiran Melayu Terenggganu. Paper presented at Seminar Antarabangsa Warisan Nusantara dan Bicara Kraft Warisan. (pp.6) Kota Kinabalu: UMS Press. Syed Ahmad Jamal. (1992). Rupa & Jiwa. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka. Syed Ahmad Jamal. (2007). The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Crafts and the Visual Arts. Kuala Lumpur: Archiopelago Press. Zakaria Ali (1989) Seni dan Seniman: Esei-esei Seni Halus. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka. Zainol Abidin Ahmad Shariff (1996). Seni & Kosmologi. Kuala Lumpur: Balai Seni Lukis Negara.
- 146. 145 Interest in LearningScience Among Students in SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam Mohammad Mubarrak Mohd Yusof, Anthony Roi Jamil, & Nurshamshida Md Shamsudin Abstract: This study aims to investigate the level of male and female students‟ interest in learning science at schools at SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam, and also to see if there any difference in interest in learning science among male and female students. Data obtained from questionnaires that were distributed to the students involved in obtaining necessary feedback and information for this study. A total of 50 respondentswere selected among students of Form 2 in the National Secondary School Section 19, Shah Alam. Based on the data analysis, it founds that the male and female students‟ interests in learning science at SMK Seksyen 19 is high. Besides that, data analysis also shows that there is no significant difference on interest between male and female students in learning science at SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam. So, this study shows that in general, students' interest in school science learning is high and positive. This study is hoped to give insight on the issues of students' lack interest in learning science at school. Further researches are recommended on the factors that influence students' interest in science and its implications to students‟ achievement in this subject. Field of Research: School science, Interest in learning science, gender differences. 1. Introduction Social entrepreneurships is part of Science social. The term “social entrepreneurship” simply means entrepreneurship (Martin & Osberg, 2007). Entrepreneur is associated with starting a business, or venturesome by individuals who stimulated economic progress by finding new and better ways of doing things (Dees, 1998). Learning is the acts of gaining knowledge or any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occur because of experience. While learning can stimulate economic growth, therefore learning process can be view as a business process. Since every business has a stake holder, Student is one of the learning business stakeholder. Students can be anyone who is seeks knowledge from professional teachers or from books. As student is part of stake holder in the learning business. Student interest in subject offer by school system is important in order to make sure the learning business growth. Science defined as the systematic observation of natural phenomena in order to discover facts about them and formulate law and principles from those facts. It is logic explanation on everything phenomenon that occur in our surrounding. According to The National Academy of Sciences (2008), science can be defined as the use of evidence to construct testable explanations and predictions of natural phenomena, as well as the knowledge generated through this process. In this study, science refers to subject that compulsory taken by every student in Malaysian school. This subject is taken by all students in secondary schools throughout their five years in school from form one to form five. Interest defined as a feeling that accompanies or causes special attention to an object or class of objects, or something that arouses such attention. According to Singh, Granville and Dika (2012), interest is defined as things that make students tend to invest in or
- 147. 146 withdraw, and promotea variety of desirable outcomes in children (Renninger & Hidi, 2002). In my research, the interest of students defined as in term students‟ feeling, attitude and perception of students toward science. The enrolment of student in science, and also the participation of student in science activities also indicates their interest in science. Lacking of students‟ interest and enrolment in science will become the constraint for Malaysia to become developed country, since Malaysia need students that excel in science to ensure that the country‟s capital growth is in line with the vision and mission of the nation. However, a study did by PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) found that the level of students‟ interest in science amongst student in Malaysia is low and Malaysia‟s student achievement in science is below the international score average (PISA, 2006). The Malaysia‟s student score ranking is at 52 out of 74 countries that undergo this assessment and the Malaysian score average is 422, below the international average which is 463 (PISA, 2006).The government is taking this findings seriously and urged a committee formed to study and find the possible solutions to this problem. The Committee Studying the policy to solve problem of student enrolment and interest in science was launch and chaired by Education director-general Tan Sri Abdul Ghafar Mahmud (National Education Blueprint, 2013). Therefore the objectives of this study are to study about the level of student interest in science and to investigate the difference of interest in learning science between male students and female students. Since there is no research that conducted to investigate students‟ interest in school, therefore in respected to the current issues regarding to enrollment of student in science stream, this study is conducted to investigate the level of student interest and the difference of interest between male and female students in learning science at chosen secondary school in Shah Alam, which is SMK Seksyen 19. 1.1 Research Questions This study attempted to provide answers to the following questions 1. What is the level of interest in learning science among male students at SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam? 2. What is the level of interest in learning science among female students at SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam? 3. Is there any significant difference between male students and female students on interest in learning science among students at SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam? 1.2 Research Hypothesis H0 : There is no significance difference between male students and female students‟ interest in learning science. 2. Students’ perception on science The danger of science and technology are highlighted in tales and in some culture belief also can be a factor of student interest in science. According to Demirbas and Yagbasan (2005), this problem arise because of teaching approach used by teacher in
- 148. 147 teaching science arebored and teacher centered. Media and television also play part on bad perception of student toward science. Mostly media will picture a scientist as a White, wearing lab coat, work lonely in laboratory and has an odd-looking hair. Fred (2005) stated that most of the perception are formed in early age and most of it came from television. He stated that most film pictured scientist as a person that has unusual appearance (sometimes disabled), uses unorthodox scientific method, and often has social difficulties. Children with poor view of scientist may be discouraged from pursuing science as career. Schibeci (2006) suggested that the views about scientists were formed stereotypically (glassed, wearing laboratorycoat, etc.) and that these conceptions should be removed. Scherz and Oren (2006) implemented a program named “Investigation into Science and Technoogy (IST)” to change the conceptions of students about science and technology. Another study done by sonnert (1995) state that most of male students have positive encouragement in pursuing scientific interest in because they have many role models of successful male scientist. Sonnert (1995) stressed that having role models make students have better perception on science and it will increase their interest in this field of study. Jones et al., (2000) studies the views of students about science, out of school activities, engaging science subjects and future profession selection. It was noted that male students preferred easy and paying professions. Moreover it was stated that students perceive science is difficult and involves dangerous studies or experiment. In the study of Morrison et al., (2000), it was found that the students did not have sufficient level of knowledge about the nature of science. 3. Methodology The study was conducted by using survey research method, where questionnaire uses as instrument to collect data from 50 respondents for this research. The questionnaire was designed to two parts in order to achieve the objective the study. This type of study was chosen by researcher because it‟s suitable for this research, since this research is interested in level of interest in science among male and female students. The first part of questionnaire which is demographic data used to extract the information such as gender, class, age and race of the respondents, and for the second part of the questionnaire serve to extract information that used to answer the research questions of this research. Since the research question is to identify the level of student interest and also the difference of interest in science between male and female students, the mean for male and female students interest in learning science is calculated , meanwhile independent sample t-test is used to identify the difference of interest in learning science using SPSS software version 20. This study was carried at secondary school, which is SMK Seksyen 19, Shah Alam to determine the level of student interest in learning science where the population is all Form 2 students. Meanwhile the sample is consist of 50 respondents were chosen randomly from two classes in Form two in this school. The sample was chosen from Form two because all Form two students take science subject and they still not streamed to art stream and science stream. Hence, their respond considered valid because the will give feedback
- 149. 148 base on theirgenuine interest or opinion about science. The sampling technique used is simple random sampling, since the respondent chosen randomly from population. Researcher uses a questionnaire as instrument to collect the data. The questionnaire consists of 30 items related to student interest in science. The questionnaire divided to two parts, which for part 1 is items that ask for demographic information, part 2 ask about student interest in science. In this research, the researcher use three item construct for interest in learning science, which is students perception, student knowledge on importance of science and students opinion on practices of science in classroom. Pilot study is need to conducted to test the reliability of the questionnaire before it can be distributed. Table 3.1 show the result of pilot study conducted by researcher form part 2 in questionnaire. The pilot study result are ; Part 1=0.768, which is high. According to Nunnaly (1978), if the value of Cronchbase Alpha is 0.7 or higher, then the item is acceptable and reliable. 4. Findings The means scores of male students‟ perception, importance, practices was analyzed and used to determine the students level interest in science. Table 4.1 shows male students‟ interest in science. 4.1 Male students’ level of interest in learning science Table 4.1: Male student interest in science Male Students N Mean Std.Deviation Perception 23 3.8609 .62649 Importance 23 3.7768 .44796 Practices 23 3.8581 .44246 Interest 23 3.8726 .44477
- 150. 149 4.2 Female Students’level of interest in learning science Table 4.2: Female students‟ level of interest in science Female Students N Mean Std.Deviation Perception 27 3.5111 .68631 Importance 27 3.7374 .80143 Practices 27 3.8724 .81749 Interest 27 3.7070 .71797 4.2 Perception of student toward science subject Table 4.3. The difference of male student and female students‟ perception on science Gender N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. Male 23 3.8609 .62649 1.869 48 .068 Female 27 3.5111 .68631 Table 4.4 The difference of male students and female students‟ knowledge on Importance of science Gender N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. Male 23 3.7768 .44796 .156 48 .876 Female 27 3.7374 .80143 Table 4.5. The difference of male students and female students‟ opinion on practices of science in classroom Gender N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. Male 23 3.8581 .44246 -.091 48 0.928 Female 27 3.8724 .81749 4.3 Students’ interest in learning science Table 4.6 The difference of male students and female students‟ interest in learning science. Gender N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. Male 23 3.8726 .44477 .699 48 .488 Female 27 3.7070 .71797 5. Conclusion The findings from this study describe the level and comparison of interest in learning science between male students and female students. As explained in the earlier of this chapter, this research shows the level of interest in science among male students and female students. By knowing the level of student interest in learning science, it can become good information for teacher to decide on what approaches that suitable to use in classroom. As example, in this research, students‟ interest is divided to three components which is students‟ perception toward science, student knowledge of the importance of science, and student opinion on practices of science in classroom. Knowing which one is the main factors that influence student interest in learning science, teachers will more aware, hence they can plan their teaching or approaches on how to attract student interest in learning science. Based on the findings or analyzed data on this research, it can be concluded that the level of interest in learning science for both male and female students is high. This is consistent with PISA study that conducted in Malaysia in 2004. The study on difference between male students and female students to level of interest in learning science found that there are no significant differences between both gender and interest in learning science. This results seems to contradict to report stating student in this country is not interesting in learning science and the number of student enroll in this field of study was decreasing each year. So,
- 151. 150 in effort toaddressing this problem, the future research must be considering other factors that lead this problem. However, the researcher is aware that this result is not representing or generalizable to all Malaysian secondary school students since this research only involved small sample. Therefore, a wider scope with involving larger sample must be conducted if these issues want to be studied or investigated. 5.1 Male and Female student interest in learning science Based on analyzed data, the results show that the mean for these three variables is high and based on this, it shows that male students‟ interest in learning science is high. This is not surprising since many other studies conducted on student interest in science indicate the same results. As example, a study did by Sorge et al., (2000) on student interest in science shows that male students held positive attitude on science. In their research, student interest is represented or determined by student attitude toward science. The technique or research method that used in their study is pretest and posttest to measure the changes in student attitude toward science and from their research, they found that only males student had significant change in their attitude toward science. The result in their research also shows that the attitudes of male students are positive for both phase and this indirectly prove that male studentare had positive attitude toward science and highly interested in science. These findings also consistent with study did by Habibul (2001) in Singapore, where a study was counducted on polytechnic and junior college students (pre-university students) and their research‟s result shows that Polytechnic male students are the group most interested in science. Habibul (2001) found that majority of male students respondent is highly interested in science where 85.5% of polytechnic student and 77.8% of male junior college stated that they are interested in science. Another study that had the same result is the research done by sonnert (1995) state that most of male students have positive encouragement in pursuing scientific interest in because they have many role models of successful male scientist. Sonnert (1995) stressed that having role models make students have better perception on science and it will increase their interest in this field of study. Female students were always pictured as not interested, low motivation and have poor performance in science. So in this study, one of the aims of this research is to identify the level of female students‟ interest in learning science. Based on analyzed data, the result shows a controversy result, where the means for variables that construct the interest of student in learning science, which is perception toward science, knowledge of important of science, and opinion of practices in classroom is high. This indicates that level of female student interest in science is high. At the first glance, the findings for this research seem in contrast with the result of other researches, where most of it reported the low performance and low interest of female students in learning science. But when looking in nowadays situations and trend in Malaysia‟s schools and higher institution, it can be noticed that the number of female students enroll is increases. This suggesting that there is reverse trend as suggesting by Yoong et al., (2004), where they states that the attitude and
- 152. 151 interest of femaleand male Malaysian secondary school were mostly very positive. They stressed that the current trend in Malaysia‟s education is favor to girls, and this can be seen in terms of female secondary schools‟ student achievement and the number of female students that study in tertiary level education. This is contrast in modern country, where they have problem in attracting female students to learning or enroll in science subject or science courses. This result is consistent with the result of several study reported in other country, such as study done by Hanna (2002) in her study about the unexpected gender equality of Arab Students in Israel who studying sciences and mathematics. It is generally known that Arab girls in not encourage to active outside their home and expected the have restricted access to education, however in hers study, Hanna (2002) founds that actually the number of Arab female students that enroll in science and mathematics is high. Besides that, the result also shows that the attitude of Arab Female students is positive. 5.2 The difference between male students and female students’ level of interest in learning science The data from questionnaire were analyzed to see the difference of male students and female students‟ level of interest in learning science. From result, the mean for male students is slightly higher compare to means of female students‟ interest in learning science. However, by using independent sample t-test, it was found that there is no significant difference between male and female students‟ interest in learning science. This consistent with the research done by Hannah (2002), where hers study is to investigate the gender equality in learning science and mathematics among Arab students in Israel. In general, its common perception that Arabian female is not encourage to active or involved any activity outside of their home, thus limit their chance to pursue their education, compare to their counterpart, male students. However, Hannah (2002) found an expected result, where actually there is no gender differences for Arabic students that taking Mathematics and sciences subject. However, this study seems in contrast with others study done in Malaysia and in other countries. For instance, In many modern country, as example US and Japan, a comparison study on gender differences on interest in learning science indicates that there is significant difference on student interest in learning science, where male students has more positive attitudes and more interested in science compare to female students as reported by Habibul, (2001). Habibul (2001) in his study on junior colleges students and polytechnic students found that female students have lack of interest in science. This can clearly observed for polytechnic female students, where half of them (respondent) are not interested in science. In his study, Habibul (2001) stated that the group that more interested is male polytechnic students. Meanwhile, in Malaysia, the opposite is true, which is it‟s found that female students have more positive attitude and more interested in science compare to male students, except for certain topic in science (ROSE, 2004). The ROSE (The Relevance of Science Education) report stating that gender differences was observed in this study and its favor to female students for most topic that listed in this study. This proving that female students are have greater interest in
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- 156. 155 Teachers and EntrepreneurshipEducation: The Basic Necessities Siti Maftuhah Damio & Hamimah Hashim Abstract: An underlying issue in higher education is in relation to graduate employability. It is a real challenge for graduate in Malaysia to gauge their employment future with the “nonexistence of a single authority responsible for collecting, assessing, analysing, and forecasting the actual number of jobs available or required by the current and future workforce market wither in the public or private sector” (The National Graduate Employability Blueprint, 2012). As a result, higher institutional learning is faced with challenges in developing a curriculum fitting for future employment that meets the demands and changing competency landscapes, globally as well as nationally. One possible solution in addressing this issue is through generic skills approach that can meet the demands of diverse type of employment. This paper aims to fill in this gap by discussing the possibility of gaining employment for graduates through the concept of entrepreneurship. Specifically, it looks into the preparedness of the trainers in handling the issue of entrepreneurship. 1. Introduction This paper, in brief looks into entrepreneurship conception, entrepreneurship competencies, entrepreneurship education, the challenges related to entrepreneurship education and possible solutions to address the challenges before reaching the conclusion. Thus, the objective of this paper is to present an overview of entrepreneurship from the perspectives of education and the teachers. It attempts to answer to this question: How feasible is entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education in the real world? 1.1 Entrepreneurship Historically, the concept of entrepreneurship has been in existence since the 18 century, ”... the evolution of the concept of the entrepreneur can be traced back to an Irish economist living in France called Richard Cantillon, who introduced the word into economic literature in his Essai, said to have been written in 1734 but not published until 1755, 21 years after his death.” (Bridge, O‟Neill, & Cromie, 1998). Cantillon saw entrepreneurs as risk bearers and people who are “non-fixed income earners who pay known costs of production but earn uncertain incomes” (Hulsmann, 2002). A century later, Schumpeter (1950) viewed the concept as a force of "creative destruction" whereby the entrepreneur carries out "new combinations" to help render old industries obsolete and creating new ways of working. Established ways of doing business are replaced with new and better creations, with the anticipation of better product and production. This definition of entrepreneurship has evolved to include not just creation of new items but also establishing new ways of working based on what was in existence. The concept of entrepreneurship was further developed in the 21 century when Peter Drucker (2005) described the entrepreneur as someone who actually searches for change, responds to it, and exploits change as an opportunity. In this definition, entrepreneurship is not just involving people who create products or production but people who are always cautioning for opportunities to revolutionise product and practices of things. This is further enhanced with the development of technology whereby the entrepreneurs are not only expected to create or develop but also to equip themselves with the necessary skills of adapting to changes that are
- 157. 156 rapidly taking placeglobally. As an illustration, entrepreneurs should be apt in handling diverse communications means, from face to face to on-line. To put it succinctly, through the centuries, the concept of entrepreneurship has developed from creation to development to opportunities and skills in handling the worldly advancement. It is basically to be able to put ideas into action. For some, being an entrepreneurs comes naturally to them but for others, they need exposure to the concept. This is where entrepreneurship education comes in. 2. Entrepreneurship Education According a European Document (2011) entrepreneurship education (EE) is defined as “a process through which learners acquire a broad set of competencies that can bring greater individual, social and economic benefits since the competencies acquired lend themselves to application in every aspects of people‟s lives.” The focus of EE is on the acquisition and development of competencies which is considered as generic yet when put together helps to develop the individual to become someone who is able to initiate different ways to realizing opportunities. 2.1 Entrepreneurship competencies The entrepreneurial competencies are succinctly presented in the following graphic, which is taken from the work of Nassif (2004). The awareness of these competencies is vital as the possibility of success among entrepreneurs might hinge on their understanding of them. But more importantly, what do these conceptions and competencies suggest to us educators?
- 158. 157 3. Challenges In realisingentrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education into mode of action, there are challenges that need to be addressed. The challenges are discussed as in the following few paragraphs. 3.1 One, is entrepreneurship teachable? There is contention to this issue. There has been research looking into this and suggest that the teaching of entrepreneurship is comparable to the teaching of art where some people are naturally talented, whilst others need to work hard to achieve success as entrepreneurs (Saee, 1996). He further mentions that an entrepreneur is not created based on a curriculum but demonstrations on how to become successful entrepreneurs is beneficial. In short, entrepreneurs are responsible for their own success whether they are taught to be one or otherwise. “There is scant evidence that entrepreneurship education courses prepared any of them [entrepreneurs] for successfully managing or growing their post start-up firms” (Matlay, 2006) Nonetheless, there has been instances where research shows that entrepreneurship education encourages the involvement of more people in being an entrepreneur. Brown (1990) and Vesper & Gartner (1996) both agreed that graduates who chose entrepreneurship as part of their curriculum while studying tend to have more probability to be involved in entrepreneurship activities. Some recent scholars believe that entrepreneurship is teachable (Mwasalwiba, 2010) even if ti is with some cautions. There is a need for more agreement on the definitions of entrepreneurship. This is important as the definition provides educators with the basis for the approach to teach entrepreneurship. Furthermore, there is also a need for longitudinal research on the effects of entrepreneurship education on graduates in particular and on entrepreneur in general so educators have more evidence and data to present the importance of including entrepreneurship in the curriculum as a whole. 3.2 Two, are we, as educators, ready and capable to teach entrepreneurship? Educators need to have the awareness and understanding that entrepreneurship education, among others, includes the following: • EE is not just knowledge acquisition • EE is about developing competencies, attitudes and behaviour to make things happen • EE requires active participations • EE is learner centred pedagogies • EE involves learning opportunities from the real world With these points in mind, it is eminent that “teachers [educators] need the professional competencies to be able to guide students through the learning process and acquire the competencies rather than, as in the traditional methods, communicating knowledge and information through „chalk and talk‟” (European Commission, 2011: p. 19).
- 159. 158 As educators, wethen have to prepare ourselves for such tasks to assist our students to have the awareness and understanding of entrepreneurship. Just how do we do this? 3.3 Possible Solutions It may make more sense to start it with initial teacher education whereby the new cohort of teachers are expose and instil with the skills and attitudes required for EE. This will involve in some practical methods that teachers will use with their students. Methodologically, these in-service teachers need to learn the approach in teaching entrepreneurship, which may be slightly different from what they are majoring in. To strengthen this methodology, these in- service teachers need to have access to authentic tasks, where they can have hands on experience to the whole concept. Internship and placements of teachers with entrepreneurs are encouraged. Among the servicing educators, opportunities to understand and experience entrepreneurship can be made possible through continuing professional development. There should be more implementation of active learning opportunities for the educators, not just school based but with real entrepreneurs. Authentic resources are then made more accessible and linkages with local entrepreneurs strengthen. Both educators and students can gain benefits through these partnerships. Access to authentic resources - Develop links with local entrepreneurs. 3.4 Conclusion This paper presents entrepreneurship from its definition and related issues like entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship competencies, challenges and possible solutions to teaching entrepreneurship. This overview is just the beginning to the concept of entrepreneurship. This is because entrepreneurship is dynamic and in constant movement of change. It adapts to the needs of the moment if success is the intended. The expectations is thus that the educators of entrepreneurship to move dynamically as well. Menter (2009: p.188) states that: Teaching in the twenty first century, a century characterized by uncertainty and change and instability, must be seen as complex, multi layered and multi faceted occupation where responsiveness and flexibility, the ability to make informed judgements and to apply imagination, are all essential requirements.
- 160. 159 References European Union (2011)Entrepreneurship Education: Enabling Teachers as a Critical Success Factor. A Report on Teacher Education and Training to prepare teachers for the challenge on entrepreneurship education. Brussels: Entrepreneurship Unit European Commission Menter, I., (2009). Teachers for the Future: What have we got and what do we need?. In Gerwortz, Mahony, Hextall and Cribb, Changing Teacher Professionalism. Mwasalwiba, E. S. (2010). Entrepreneurship education: a review of its objectives, teaching methods, and impact indicators. Education and Training. 52(1).20 – 47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00400911011017663. Nassif, V. M. J., Ghobril, A. N., Castilho, A. F., Silva, N. S., & Guardani, F. R. (2004, setembro).Contribuição para o entendimento das competências do empreendedor: a derivação de umesquema a partir de relatos de trajetórias empresariais em pequenas empresas.Anais doEncontro Nacional da Associação Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Administração Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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