This document summarizes a study that analyzed the linguistic complexity of math word problems on the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) fourth-grade math test. It found that problems with greater linguistic complexity posed disproportionate difficulty for English Language Learners (ELLs) compared to non-ELLs of equivalent math ability. The study identified problems through statistical analysis that favored non-ELLs, then analyzed the linguistic features and had Spanish-speaking ELLs think aloud while solving the problems to understand the comprehension challenges. The document reviews research on the impact of linguistic factors like vocabulary, syntax, sentence length on reading comprehension and performance differences between ELLs and non-ELLs.
Error Analysis of College Students' Sentences (SLA Final Exam)Diyana Sulistyani
This document summarizes four studies that analyzed errors in written English by non-native speakers. The studies examined errors in essays written by students in the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, India and Iran. They identified common error types such as verb tense, punctuation, word choice, capitalization and subject-verb agreement. The most frequent errors across the studies were punctuation, articles, verbs and sentence structure issues. The document provides details on the methodology, participants, error categories and frequency of errors in each study.
This article provides an overview of existing instruments measuring self-efficacy for English language learning in both first and second language acquisition fields and their reliability and validity evidence. It also describes the development and use of the Questionnaire of English Language Self-Efficacy (QESE) scale, designed specifically for English language learners (ELLs), and presents an overview of the research findings from empirical studies related to its psychometric properties. A growing body of literature has begun to document encouraging evidence of ELL students’ self-efficacy belief measures and the utility of the QESE in particular. The information pertaining to the QESE is quite encouraging from measurement perspectives and fills the gap in the literature by providing a reliable and valid instrument to measure ELLs’ self-efficacy in various cultures. This paper concludes with evidence for internal consistency, test-retest reliability, structural, generalizability, and external aspects of the construct validity of the QESE. This paper contributes to the growing interest in these skills by reviewing the measures of self-efficacy in the field of second-language acquisition and the findings of empirical research on the development and use of a self-efficacy scale for ELLs.
Attitude od teachers_and_students_towards_classroom_code_switching-libreStoic Mills
This document summarizes a research study on the attitudes of teachers and students towards code switching in English literature classes at the university level in Pakistan. A questionnaire was used to collect data from 12 teachers and 288 students from 4 universities. The findings show that most students and teachers have a positive attitude towards code switching between English, Urdu, and Punjabi in class. Students reported that code switching helps them better understand concepts and does not confuse them. Teachers indicated they code switch for communication, control, and explanation purposes. Overall, the study found that code switching is viewed positively and as beneficial for teaching and learning in multilingual university classrooms in Pakistan.
Error analysis is a type of linguistic studies that focuses on the errors that learners make. To identify and explain the errors which are committed by second/foreign language learners, error analysis is one of the best ways of such purpose. This study aimed at analyzing the errors in the use of prepositions made by Kurdish EFL learners. One-hundred and seven students studying English at University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq participated in this study. Based on the result of Oxford Placement Test participants of this study were at three different levels of proficiency; elementary, lower-intermediate and upper-intermediate. This study tries to find out the sources of the errors and specify the differences between learners at different levels of proficiency. An Oxford Placement test and a preposition test were used to elicit the data. After analyzing the data by SAS ver. 9 and SPSS VER. 22, it was revealed that, Kurdish EFL learners have problems in the use of English prepositions. The students at different levels of proficiency were different in making errors and the sources behind making errors. The students of higher levels of proficiency were least effected by the interlingual source of errors and also intralingual errors, and they committed fewer errors; it might be because students at higher levels of proficiency have more practice compare to the lower levels of proficiency. In the light of findings, this study has some pedagogical implications for teaching prepositions. Teachers are advised to draw their students’ attention to the fact that literal translation into their mother tongue may lead to errors.
1) The document discusses a study that compared the effectiveness of input-oriented tasks (like glossing) and output-oriented tasks (like gap-filling and composing) on improving EFL learners' vocabulary.
2) 64 Iranian EFL learners were divided into two groups - one received input tasks and the other received output tasks over 15 sessions.
3) Both groups showed improvement on a vocabulary test, but the study found no significant difference between the groups, suggesting that neither input nor output tasks were superior for vocabulary learning.
This document discusses a study that investigated the impact of English metaphorical awareness on vocabulary retention in 60 intermediate EFL learners in Iran. The experimental group received 20 minutes of tasks involving pictorial idioms, poems, and matching for 16 sessions to increase their metaphorical awareness, while the control group received regular vocabulary exercises. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on tests of vocabulary retention, supporting the positive impact of metaphorical awareness training. Prior research suggests metaphorical awareness can help EFL learners better understand polysemic words and idioms by recognizing conceptual metaphors.
Relationship between Creativity and Tolerance of Ambiguity to Understand Metaphorical Polysemy: A Pilot Study
Maha Ounis,
University of Sfax, Tunisia
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
This document discusses applying Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives to grade English texts in terms of difficulty for non-native English translators. The study had 30 Iranian English translation students take a translation test with 6 passages graded based on the cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, etc.) required. Results found translator performance quality aligned with expected difficulty based on Bloom's levels, except for the synthesis text. The findings support using Bloom's Taxonomy to assess translation quality and reliability, and to teach translation skills.
Error Analysis of College Students' Sentences (SLA Final Exam)Diyana Sulistyani
This document summarizes four studies that analyzed errors in written English by non-native speakers. The studies examined errors in essays written by students in the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, India and Iran. They identified common error types such as verb tense, punctuation, word choice, capitalization and subject-verb agreement. The most frequent errors across the studies were punctuation, articles, verbs and sentence structure issues. The document provides details on the methodology, participants, error categories and frequency of errors in each study.
This article provides an overview of existing instruments measuring self-efficacy for English language learning in both first and second language acquisition fields and their reliability and validity evidence. It also describes the development and use of the Questionnaire of English Language Self-Efficacy (QESE) scale, designed specifically for English language learners (ELLs), and presents an overview of the research findings from empirical studies related to its psychometric properties. A growing body of literature has begun to document encouraging evidence of ELL students’ self-efficacy belief measures and the utility of the QESE in particular. The information pertaining to the QESE is quite encouraging from measurement perspectives and fills the gap in the literature by providing a reliable and valid instrument to measure ELLs’ self-efficacy in various cultures. This paper concludes with evidence for internal consistency, test-retest reliability, structural, generalizability, and external aspects of the construct validity of the QESE. This paper contributes to the growing interest in these skills by reviewing the measures of self-efficacy in the field of second-language acquisition and the findings of empirical research on the development and use of a self-efficacy scale for ELLs.
Attitude od teachers_and_students_towards_classroom_code_switching-libreStoic Mills
This document summarizes a research study on the attitudes of teachers and students towards code switching in English literature classes at the university level in Pakistan. A questionnaire was used to collect data from 12 teachers and 288 students from 4 universities. The findings show that most students and teachers have a positive attitude towards code switching between English, Urdu, and Punjabi in class. Students reported that code switching helps them better understand concepts and does not confuse them. Teachers indicated they code switch for communication, control, and explanation purposes. Overall, the study found that code switching is viewed positively and as beneficial for teaching and learning in multilingual university classrooms in Pakistan.
Error analysis is a type of linguistic studies that focuses on the errors that learners make. To identify and explain the errors which are committed by second/foreign language learners, error analysis is one of the best ways of such purpose. This study aimed at analyzing the errors in the use of prepositions made by Kurdish EFL learners. One-hundred and seven students studying English at University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan, Iraq participated in this study. Based on the result of Oxford Placement Test participants of this study were at three different levels of proficiency; elementary, lower-intermediate and upper-intermediate. This study tries to find out the sources of the errors and specify the differences between learners at different levels of proficiency. An Oxford Placement test and a preposition test were used to elicit the data. After analyzing the data by SAS ver. 9 and SPSS VER. 22, it was revealed that, Kurdish EFL learners have problems in the use of English prepositions. The students at different levels of proficiency were different in making errors and the sources behind making errors. The students of higher levels of proficiency were least effected by the interlingual source of errors and also intralingual errors, and they committed fewer errors; it might be because students at higher levels of proficiency have more practice compare to the lower levels of proficiency. In the light of findings, this study has some pedagogical implications for teaching prepositions. Teachers are advised to draw their students’ attention to the fact that literal translation into their mother tongue may lead to errors.
1) The document discusses a study that compared the effectiveness of input-oriented tasks (like glossing) and output-oriented tasks (like gap-filling and composing) on improving EFL learners' vocabulary.
2) 64 Iranian EFL learners were divided into two groups - one received input tasks and the other received output tasks over 15 sessions.
3) Both groups showed improvement on a vocabulary test, but the study found no significant difference between the groups, suggesting that neither input nor output tasks were superior for vocabulary learning.
This document discusses a study that investigated the impact of English metaphorical awareness on vocabulary retention in 60 intermediate EFL learners in Iran. The experimental group received 20 minutes of tasks involving pictorial idioms, poems, and matching for 16 sessions to increase their metaphorical awareness, while the control group received regular vocabulary exercises. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on tests of vocabulary retention, supporting the positive impact of metaphorical awareness training. Prior research suggests metaphorical awareness can help EFL learners better understand polysemic words and idioms by recognizing conceptual metaphors.
Relationship between Creativity and Tolerance of Ambiguity to Understand Metaphorical Polysemy: A Pilot Study
Maha Ounis,
University of Sfax, Tunisia
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
This document discusses applying Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives to grade English texts in terms of difficulty for non-native English translators. The study had 30 Iranian English translation students take a translation test with 6 passages graded based on the cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, etc.) required. Results found translator performance quality aligned with expected difficulty based on Bloom's levels, except for the synthesis text. The findings support using Bloom's Taxonomy to assess translation quality and reliability, and to teach translation skills.
This study examined the impact of cohesive devices in English textbooks on Iranian high school students' reading comprehension. 64 students were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group read passages from a textbook that highlighted cohesive devices, while the control group practiced past exam questions. Both groups took a pre-test and post-test of reading comprehension. Results of t-tests and effect size calculations showed that the experimental group performed significantly better on the post-test, indicating that exposure to cohesive devices in texts helped improve their reading comprehension. A correlation also suggested that students with higher English proficiency benefited more from the cohesive devices. The findings suggest explicit instruction of cohesive devices could aid EFL reading comprehension.
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written composition‟s unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the students‟ written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
Lexical Repetition and Written Text’s Unity from Gender Perspective: A Case o...AJHSSR Journal
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written composition‟s unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the students‟ written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
The relationship between vocabulary size and diversity in L2 writing (Vocab@V...Melanie Gonzalez
This study examined differences in vocabulary size and lexical diversity between non-native English speakers (NNS) and native English speakers (NS) in their academic writing. It found that NS texts had greater lexical diversity and used less common words than NNS texts. Lexical diversity, as measured by the MTLD score, was the strongest predictor of writing quality for both groups and accounted for more variation in ratings than vocabulary size. While vocabulary size helped advance scores from a level 2 to 3, lexical diversity was more important for pushing compositions into the higher 4 to 5 quality range. The findings suggest vocabulary instruction needs to go beyond growing word banks to teaching writers how to vary words in their compositions.
This study compared the effects of semantically related and unrelated word lists on Iranian EFL learners' short-term and long-term vocabulary recognition and retention. Sixty elementary students were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group learned words from semantically related lists while the control group learned from unrelated lists. Immediate and delayed vocabulary tests showed that the control group performed better on the immediate test, while the experimental group performed significantly better on the delayed test. The results suggest that semantically related word lists may facilitate better long-term vocabulary retention compared to unrelated lists.
This document provides background research supporting key elements of the Common Core State Standards, specifically regarding text complexity and its importance. It summarizes research showing that while reading demands in college, careers, and life have remained steady or increased over the past 50 years, the complexity of K-12 texts has declined. Additionally, little attention has been paid to students' ability to read complex texts independently by the time they graduate high school, leaving them unprepared for postsecondary reading requirements. The document advocates increasing text complexity in K-12 standards to better prepare students for future demands.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
Play games-or-study-computer-games-in-e books-to-learn-english-vocabulary-201...Ayuni Abdullah
This document discusses a study that investigated using computer games embedded in eBooks to help Chinese undergraduate students learn English vocabulary. The study compared the effectiveness of computer games that used inferencing to vocabulary retention, compared to using hardcopy materials for studying. It found that students learned significantly more vocabulary using the computer game condition than using their usual hardcopy study methods. Students' scores on the computer games also correlated with their scores on a post-test of vocabulary. The document provides background on the challenges of learning English for Chinese students and discusses prior research on using technology and games for vocabulary learning.
The Correlation of Reading Comprehension Ability of Persian and English Langu...inventionjournals
This study investigated the relationship between the reading comprehension abilities in Persian (L1) and English (L2) of 109 Iranian EFL learners at intermediate proficiency levels. The participants completed standardized reading comprehension tests in both languages. Statistical analysis found no significant correlation between the learners' scores on the Persian and English tests. This suggests there is no significant relationship between the learners' reading comprehension abilities in their first and second languages. The study aimed to provide insight into how L1 abilities may or may not transfer to L2 reading comprehension to help inform EFL teaching practices.
The relationship between the neuroticism trait and use of the english languag...Dr. Seyed Hossein Fazeli
The present study aims to find out the relationship between the Neuroticism trait and English Language Learning Strategies (ELLSs) for learners of English as a foreign language. Four instruments were used, which were Persian adapted Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), A Background Questionnaire, NEO-Five Factors Inventory (NEO-FFI), and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Two hundred and thirteen Iranian female university level learners of English language as a university major in Iran, were volunteer to participate in this research work. The intact classes were chosen. The results show that there is significant relationship between the Neuroticism trait and use each of four of the six categories of ELLSs (Memory Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, and Social Strategies).
The influence of personality traits on the use of memory english language lea...Dr. Seyed Hossein Fazeli
The present study aims to find out the influence of personality traits on the choice and use of Memory English Language Learning Strategies (MELLSs) for learners of English as a foreign language, and the role of personality traits in the prediction of use of such Strategies. Four instruments were used, which were Adapted Inventory for Memory English Language Learning Strategies based on Memory category of Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) of Rebecca L. Oxfords (1990), A Background Questionnaire, NEO-Five Factors Inventory (NEO-FFI), and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Two hundred and thirteen Iranian female university level learners of English language as a university major in Iran, were volunteer to participate in this research work. The intact classes were chosen. The results show that however, there is a significant relationship between four traits of personality and the choice and use of MELLSs, but personality traits cannot be as a strong predictor with high percent of contribution to predict the choice and use of the MELLSs.
SSLW 2014 Presentation: Lexical Diversity, Sophistication, and Size in Academ...Melanie Gonzalez
This presentation reports on a study that compares the extent to which vocabulary size, lexical diversity, and lexical sophistication contribute to academic writing proficiency. Results suggest that lexical diversity has a greater impact on writing score over vocabulary size and lexical sophistication. Implications for practice and further analysis are discussed. Presented November 15, 2014 at the 2014 Symposium on Second Language Writing at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, USA.
02 b artikel thesis teguh qi s2 ing uns 2013 pustakateguh.qi
This document describes a study that examines the effectiveness of the Quantum method versus the Direct Instruction method in teaching writing skills to 8th grade students. It also looks at how students' creativity levels affect their writing abilities. The study used a 2x2 factorial design to analyze the effects of teaching method and creativity on writing skills. Results showed that the Quantum method was more effective at improving writing skills compared to Direct Instruction. Students with high creativity also had better writing skills than those with low creativity. Additionally, an interaction was found between teaching method and creativity in influencing writing performance.
Functional English Design for Domestic Migrant Workersidhasaeful
This paper aimed at: (1) describing the content of Functional English Design (FED) materials and (2) describing the appropriateness of the FEDas the English training materials for the migrant workers' candidates (MWC). This study used ADDIE (Analysing, Designing, Developing, Implementing and Evaluating) model involving totally 200 MWC in the 4 PPTKIS (namely authorized private boards in which duties serves the Indonesian workers' placement and protection abroad).The data were taken from the documentation, the trainees’ English training achievements using the FED and peer-debriefing. The gathered data was analyzed using: Content Analysis and Mean-difference computation of the trainees' test results descriptively. This study found: (1) the content of the FEDthatdeveloped“Imparting and seeking factual information” with “Minimum–adequate language Functions” was matched with the trainees needs and (2) the FED was appropriate to use as an alternative English materials since it was designed based on the result of needs analysis beside the test result in significant improvement i.e. the Mean Difference of the oral pre and post-test was 2.25 within the scoring standard scale of 0-10, while the Md of the written pre-post-test was 13.35 within the scoring standard scale of 0-100. Besides, the peers debriefing stated that the FED was recommended for use in the 4 investigated PPTKIS.
This document discusses the risks of drinking alcohol and driving, as well as following traffic signs. It encourages taking action to avoid drinking and driving in order to achieve the goal of zero accidents. Understanding why drinking and driving is a major risk is important because accidents frequently occur on roads.
This study examined the impact of cohesive devices in English textbooks on Iranian high school students' reading comprehension. 64 students were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group read passages from a textbook that highlighted cohesive devices, while the control group practiced past exam questions. Both groups took a pre-test and post-test of reading comprehension. Results of t-tests and effect size calculations showed that the experimental group performed significantly better on the post-test, indicating that exposure to cohesive devices in texts helped improve their reading comprehension. A correlation also suggested that students with higher English proficiency benefited more from the cohesive devices. The findings suggest explicit instruction of cohesive devices could aid EFL reading comprehension.
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written composition‟s unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the students‟ written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
Lexical Repetition and Written Text’s Unity from Gender Perspective: A Case o...AJHSSR Journal
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written composition‟s unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the students‟ written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
The relationship between vocabulary size and diversity in L2 writing (Vocab@V...Melanie Gonzalez
This study examined differences in vocabulary size and lexical diversity between non-native English speakers (NNS) and native English speakers (NS) in their academic writing. It found that NS texts had greater lexical diversity and used less common words than NNS texts. Lexical diversity, as measured by the MTLD score, was the strongest predictor of writing quality for both groups and accounted for more variation in ratings than vocabulary size. While vocabulary size helped advance scores from a level 2 to 3, lexical diversity was more important for pushing compositions into the higher 4 to 5 quality range. The findings suggest vocabulary instruction needs to go beyond growing word banks to teaching writers how to vary words in their compositions.
This study compared the effects of semantically related and unrelated word lists on Iranian EFL learners' short-term and long-term vocabulary recognition and retention. Sixty elementary students were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group learned words from semantically related lists while the control group learned from unrelated lists. Immediate and delayed vocabulary tests showed that the control group performed better on the immediate test, while the experimental group performed significantly better on the delayed test. The results suggest that semantically related word lists may facilitate better long-term vocabulary retention compared to unrelated lists.
This document provides background research supporting key elements of the Common Core State Standards, specifically regarding text complexity and its importance. It summarizes research showing that while reading demands in college, careers, and life have remained steady or increased over the past 50 years, the complexity of K-12 texts has declined. Additionally, little attention has been paid to students' ability to read complex texts independently by the time they graduate high school, leaving them unprepared for postsecondary reading requirements. The document advocates increasing text complexity in K-12 standards to better prepare students for future demands.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
Play games-or-study-computer-games-in-e books-to-learn-english-vocabulary-201...Ayuni Abdullah
This document discusses a study that investigated using computer games embedded in eBooks to help Chinese undergraduate students learn English vocabulary. The study compared the effectiveness of computer games that used inferencing to vocabulary retention, compared to using hardcopy materials for studying. It found that students learned significantly more vocabulary using the computer game condition than using their usual hardcopy study methods. Students' scores on the computer games also correlated with their scores on a post-test of vocabulary. The document provides background on the challenges of learning English for Chinese students and discusses prior research on using technology and games for vocabulary learning.
The Correlation of Reading Comprehension Ability of Persian and English Langu...inventionjournals
This study investigated the relationship between the reading comprehension abilities in Persian (L1) and English (L2) of 109 Iranian EFL learners at intermediate proficiency levels. The participants completed standardized reading comprehension tests in both languages. Statistical analysis found no significant correlation between the learners' scores on the Persian and English tests. This suggests there is no significant relationship between the learners' reading comprehension abilities in their first and second languages. The study aimed to provide insight into how L1 abilities may or may not transfer to L2 reading comprehension to help inform EFL teaching practices.
The relationship between the neuroticism trait and use of the english languag...Dr. Seyed Hossein Fazeli
The present study aims to find out the relationship between the Neuroticism trait and English Language Learning Strategies (ELLSs) for learners of English as a foreign language. Four instruments were used, which were Persian adapted Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), A Background Questionnaire, NEO-Five Factors Inventory (NEO-FFI), and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Two hundred and thirteen Iranian female university level learners of English language as a university major in Iran, were volunteer to participate in this research work. The intact classes were chosen. The results show that there is significant relationship between the Neuroticism trait and use each of four of the six categories of ELLSs (Memory Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, and Social Strategies).
The influence of personality traits on the use of memory english language lea...Dr. Seyed Hossein Fazeli
The present study aims to find out the influence of personality traits on the choice and use of Memory English Language Learning Strategies (MELLSs) for learners of English as a foreign language, and the role of personality traits in the prediction of use of such Strategies. Four instruments were used, which were Adapted Inventory for Memory English Language Learning Strategies based on Memory category of Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) of Rebecca L. Oxfords (1990), A Background Questionnaire, NEO-Five Factors Inventory (NEO-FFI), and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Two hundred and thirteen Iranian female university level learners of English language as a university major in Iran, were volunteer to participate in this research work. The intact classes were chosen. The results show that however, there is a significant relationship between four traits of personality and the choice and use of MELLSs, but personality traits cannot be as a strong predictor with high percent of contribution to predict the choice and use of the MELLSs.
SSLW 2014 Presentation: Lexical Diversity, Sophistication, and Size in Academ...Melanie Gonzalez
This presentation reports on a study that compares the extent to which vocabulary size, lexical diversity, and lexical sophistication contribute to academic writing proficiency. Results suggest that lexical diversity has a greater impact on writing score over vocabulary size and lexical sophistication. Implications for practice and further analysis are discussed. Presented November 15, 2014 at the 2014 Symposium on Second Language Writing at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, USA.
02 b artikel thesis teguh qi s2 ing uns 2013 pustakateguh.qi
This document describes a study that examines the effectiveness of the Quantum method versus the Direct Instruction method in teaching writing skills to 8th grade students. It also looks at how students' creativity levels affect their writing abilities. The study used a 2x2 factorial design to analyze the effects of teaching method and creativity on writing skills. Results showed that the Quantum method was more effective at improving writing skills compared to Direct Instruction. Students with high creativity also had better writing skills than those with low creativity. Additionally, an interaction was found between teaching method and creativity in influencing writing performance.
Functional English Design for Domestic Migrant Workersidhasaeful
This paper aimed at: (1) describing the content of Functional English Design (FED) materials and (2) describing the appropriateness of the FEDas the English training materials for the migrant workers' candidates (MWC). This study used ADDIE (Analysing, Designing, Developing, Implementing and Evaluating) model involving totally 200 MWC in the 4 PPTKIS (namely authorized private boards in which duties serves the Indonesian workers' placement and protection abroad).The data were taken from the documentation, the trainees’ English training achievements using the FED and peer-debriefing. The gathered data was analyzed using: Content Analysis and Mean-difference computation of the trainees' test results descriptively. This study found: (1) the content of the FEDthatdeveloped“Imparting and seeking factual information” with “Minimum–adequate language Functions” was matched with the trainees needs and (2) the FED was appropriate to use as an alternative English materials since it was designed based on the result of needs analysis beside the test result in significant improvement i.e. the Mean Difference of the oral pre and post-test was 2.25 within the scoring standard scale of 0-10, while the Md of the written pre-post-test was 13.35 within the scoring standard scale of 0-100. Besides, the peers debriefing stated that the FED was recommended for use in the 4 investigated PPTKIS.
This document discusses the risks of drinking alcohol and driving, as well as following traffic signs. It encourages taking action to avoid drinking and driving in order to achieve the goal of zero accidents. Understanding why drinking and driving is a major risk is important because accidents frequently occur on roads.
The document provides warnings and installation instructions for adding a Webasto heating system to a Mercedes Sprinter van. Key steps include:
1. Preparing the installation location by removing panels and components.
2. Installing the heater unit, exhaust, coolant and fuel connections.
3. Routing hoses, lines and the wiring harness and making electrical connections.
4. Reassembling components and bleeding the coolant system before testing operation.
Proper installation requires following all instructions carefully and using only approved tools, parts and fluids to avoid fires, leaks or injury.
Este documento discute características de serviços, satisfação dos clientes e qualidade percebida. Ele descreve quatro características de serviços de base, quatro tipos de serviços de base e características de serviços periféricos. Também discute a importância da satisfação dos clientes e da qualidade dos serviços, perspectivas dos clientes e como manter a satisfação e fidelização dos clientes.
GENETIC DIVERSITY OF BANANAAND ITS BIOINFORMATIC APPROACHSubhradeep sarkar
The document discusses the banana plant (Musa acuminata). It is an herbaceous perennial that produces berries botanically classified as bananas. It describes several varieties found in Kerala, India and their nutritional value which includes reducing risk of high blood pressure and stroke due to high potassium content. It also details genetic analysis of banana varieties using RAPD markers and analysis of the rps15 gene in bananas.
The assessment of deep word knowledge in young learnersCindy Shen
The document summarizes a study that assessed deep word knowledge in young first and second language learners. The study developed a Word Association Task (WAT) to measure productive lexical knowledge. 795 Dutch-learning third and fifth graders completed the WAT and a definition task. Results showed the WAT had acceptable reliability and validity, though it measured a slightly different construct than the definition task. While easy to administer, the WAT only partially overlapped with definition scores, suggesting it provides a different perspective on deep word knowledge.
Examination of the Prediction of Different Dimensions of Analytic Relations’ ...Mohammad Mosiur Rahman
An in-depth investigation of analytic relations by lexical researchers plays a prominent role in language learning and
teaching. The primary objective of the present study was to investigate the extent to which prediction regarding different
aspects of analytic relations impacts reading comprehension. The current research employed a quantitative approach
using standard multiple regression analysis. The study compared two language proficiency tests, namely an analytic
relations test and an academic reading comprehension test, among a total of 91 participants with a Bachelor of Business
Administration background and a total of 64 students with a Bachelor of Engineering background. The results of the
study showed that for both the Business and Engineering School students, the component-integral analytic relations
facet of vocabulary depth knowledge was not only the most statistically significant contributing predictor of academic
reading comprehension, but it also had the largest effect (i.e., statistically significant) in explaining the outcome
variable: Academic reading comprehension. By providing insights into the research gap, the present study suggests that
the analytic relations dimension of vocabulary knowledge has practical use for English language learners and English
teachers at the tertiary level, and it offers further implications for lexical researchers.
A Corpus-based Study of EFL Learners Errors in IELTS Essay Writing.pdfSarah Marie
This document summarizes a study that analyzed errors in IELTS essay writing by EFL learners. The researchers collected a corpus of 70 IELTS essays and coded 589 total errors into 13 categories. Word choice and verb form errors were the most common, making up 24.4% and 17.7% of errors respectively. The results indicate that learner corpora can provide useful information about common errors to help improve writing instruction for IELTS and other English exams.
An Analysis Of First-Grade Writing Profiles And Their Relationship To Composi...Sheila Sinclair
This document summarizes research on writing disabilities in students. It finds that as many as 10% of students may have writing disabilities, which can involve difficulties with both generating text and transcription skills like handwriting and spelling. The researchers conducted a study with 391 first grade students to identify different profiles of writers based on assessments of spelling, sentence writing fluency, and writing achievement. Students also wrote narratives and descriptions that were analyzed for quality, spelling, mechanics, and syntax. The study found students in an "At Risk" profile scored lower on all aspects of writing compared to students in average and above average profiles, providing insight into characteristics of early struggling writers.
Miller identified a problem with academic English preparation (AEP) reading programs not reflecting the types of reading students will do in university settings. He conducted a study comparing the linguistic features of ESL reading textbooks to university textbooks across various disciplines. The results showed statistical differences between the textbooks in vocabulary, nominal modification, readability, and compression features. This suggests ESL textbooks may not adequately prepare students for the language demands of university readings. Miller calls for materials designers to more closely match ESL texts to target university texts, with a particular focus on expanding academic vocabulary.
This dissertation defense by Jessica Trussell presented research on the effects of morphographic instruction on deaf and hard of hearing students' reading skills. The study used a multiple baseline single case design with three students. It found that explicit, teacher-led instruction on morphographs (word parts and structures) improved students' morphographic analysis abilities, affix knowledge, and reading comprehension. However, the small sample size limits generalizability. Further research is still needed to explore effective reading interventions for deaf learners.
An Evaluation Of The Oral Reading Fluency Of 4Th Graders With Respect To Pros...Emma Burke
This study examined the oral reading fluency of 70 4th grade students in Turkey with respect to prosodic characteristics. The students' words correct per minute (WCPM) and prosodic reading skills were evaluated using a standardized scale. It was found that the students' average WCPM was within normal levels but 40% had problems with prosodic reading skills like expression, phrasing, and pace. Additionally, there was a positive correlation found between higher WCPM and stronger prosodic reading abilities. The study concluded that more emphasis should be placed on teaching prosodic reading skills in primary schools.
Self- Efficacy, Word Reading, and Vocabulary Knowledge in English Language Le...NOR RUBA'YAH ABD RAHIM
Mase, T. F. (2011). Self- Efficacy, Word Reading and Vocabulary Knowledge in English Language Learners. UMI Dissertation Publishing. United States: ProQuest LLC.
This document provides an introduction and overview of a proposed dissertation examining the effects of instruction emphasizing fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration on vocabulary achievement, reading comprehension, and creativity in 3rd through 6th grade students. It presents 3 research questions and reviews relevant professional literature on traditional vs. nontraditional instruction, the need for creativity and vocabulary instruction, creative thinking instruction methods, and how fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration can enhance vocabulary development and creativity. The proposed mixed methods study and research methods utilizing various assessments are also summarized.
A Morphosyntactic Analysis on Malaysian Secondary School Students Essay Writ...Erica Thompson
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzed the morphosyntactic errors in English essay writing among Malaysian secondary school students. The study examined 10 student essays totaling 50 pages. It found that students made errors with plural marking, subject-verb agreement, tense marking and other grammatical issues. These errors occurred because of differences between English and Malay grammar rules regarding morphology and syntax. The researchers concluded that Malaysian students have not fully mastered certain English grammar rules regarding plural forms, third-person singular verbs and other structures.
AN ANALYSIS OF COHESION OF EXPOSITION TEXTS AN INDONESIAN CONTEXTSheila Sinclair
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the cohesion of exposition texts written by 11th grade students in Indonesia. The study analyzed 6 student texts (2 low achievers, 2 mid achievers, 2 high achievers) based on their schematic structure and linguistic features like theme progression and cohesive devices. The results found that all students demonstrated an understanding of exposition structure but only high achievers used complex theme patterns. In terms of cohesive devices, all students used simple references, lexical cohesion, and conjunctions. However, the texts had grammatical errors and needed more elaboration, suggesting students need more guidance to write at a professional level. The study recommends further research on teaching writing using systemic functional linguistics
Use of the metacognitive english language learning strategies based on person...Dr. Seyed Hossein Fazeli
The present study aims to find out the relationship between use of the Metacognitive English Language Learning Strategies (MELLSs) for learners of English as a foreign language based on personality traits, and the role of personality traits in the prediction of use of such Strategies. Four instruments were used, which were Adapted Inventory for Metacognitive English Language Learning Strategies based on Metacognitive category of Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) of Rebecca L. Oxfords (1990), A Background Questionnaire, NEO-Five Factors Inventory (NEO-FFI), and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Two hundred and thirteen Iranian female university level learners of English language as a university major in Iran, were asked to participate in this research work. The intact classes were chosen. The results show that however, there is a significant relationship between four traits of personality and use of the MELLSs, but personality traits cannot be as a strong predictor with high percent of contribution to predict use of the MELLSs.
A CORPUS-DRIVEN DESIGN OF A TEST FOR ASSESSING THE ESL COLLOCATIONAL COMPETEN...Lori Moore
This document summarizes a study that assessed the collocational competence of English linguistics students at the University of Granada. The study aimed to develop a reliable, corpus-driven test to evaluate students' receptive and productive knowledge of collocations. An 80-item test was designed using examples from corpora. Results showed students had poor collocational competence, scoring lower on productive items as expected. The study provided a framework for future research on collocational testing.
This document outlines Kenneth McKee's action research study on enhancing the tier 2 vocabulary development of English language learners. The study focuses on general academic vocabulary, which is most challenging for ELL students. It explores using morphological analysis and cognates to help students unlock meanings of new words. The study involved vocabulary lessons with 6 Spanish-speaking ELL high school students. Data was collected through pre/post-tests, surveys, interviews and student work to analyze the effectiveness of the instructional strategies.
Anatomy Word-Learning In Undergraduate Speech-Language Pathology StudentsRenee Lewis
This document discusses research on teaching complex material like anatomy and physiology to undergraduate speech pathology students. It finds that introducing students to key vocabulary words before lectures or readings helps prepare them. A study examined teaching anatomy vocabulary to undergrads and found that having students learn the pertinent words first improved their later understanding of related material. The document advocates introducing students to novel terms as a simple way to boost comprehension of difficult topics and help students learn independently from textbooks.
This document discusses two approaches to teaching second language vocabulary: presenting words with bilingual glosses and/or organizing words into semantic field sets. It describes a study that compared the learning and retention rates of Japanese students in three conditions: words with bilingual glosses and organized sets (Group A), words with random bilingual glosses (Group B), and words alone in the target language (Group C). The study aimed to examine the effects of increased cognitive processing and improved lexical organization on vocabulary learning.
Running head THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 1 .docxtoltonkendal
Running head: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 1
The Effectiveness of Using a Narrative Input Chart on Learning Advanced Vocabulary
Student Name
EDGR 601
Instructor: Instructor Name
A Literature Survey Presented to
The Graduate Program in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Masters in Education
Concordia University - Portland
May, 2012
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 2
Literature Review
This literature review was undertaken in an effort to investigate the question: how does
the use of narrative input charts improve the understanding of advanced science vocabulary
among seventh grade science students? In order for students to be ready for entry level college
coursework they must have excellent reading comprehension skills. The relationship between
vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is herein considered. Additionally, ineffective
and effective vocabulary instruction strategies are described.
In 2005, ACT college admissions test results showed that high school students in the
United States do not have the reading comprehension skills needed for entry level college
coursework (ACT, Inc. 2006). According to the 2005 ACT-scores for high school graduates,
51% were ready for college level reading (ACT, Inc. 2006). The percentage of college readiness
was even lower for some groups. It is known that 49% of male students demonstrated readiness
and 33% of students with family incomes less than $30, 000/year demonstrated readiness.
Minority student’s scores were low as well. The results showed that 21% African American,
33% Hispanic, and 36% Native American students met the readiness benchmark for reading
(ACT, Inc. 2006). ACT further reports that since 1996 scores have steadily declined resulting in
the 51% being the lowest in the past twelve years (ACT, Inc. 2006).
The Relationship between Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension
In this literature review the relationship between the acquisition of academic vocabulary
and improved reading comprehension is examined. The purpose of learning new words is to
improve reading comprehension (Beck, McKowen & Kucan, 2008). Many research studies
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 3
conducted over the course of many years have concluded that acquiring rich and varied
vocabulary is critical in improving student reading comprehension (National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). Harmon,
Hedrick and Wood (2005) report that student difficulty in understanding their textbooks results
from a lack of vocabulary knowledge. It has been shown that students that received high scores
on vocabulary tests also scored high on reading comprehension tests. It is also known that early
vocabulary knowledge can predict reading comprehension skills well into high school (Beck et
al., 2008). Of g ...
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Similar to El ls%20in%20math%20word%20problems (20)
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For more information about PECB:
Website: https://pecb.com/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/pecb/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/PECBInternational/
Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/PECBCERTIFICATION
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
2. 334
Harvard Educational Review
& Gándara, 2006; Abedi, Leon, & Mirocha, 2003; August & Hakuta, 1997;
Cocking & Chipman, 1988; Mestre, 1988; Valencia, 2002). For instance, in the
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 1996, 2000, 2003, 2005,
and 2007 Mathematics Assessments, an average of 92 percent of ELLs scored
below proficient on the fourth-grade test compared to 68 percent of non-ELLs
(U.S. Department of Education, 2007).
The use of testing in education presupposes that a student’s test score is
an accurate reflection of her mastery of a particular content area. However, if
the student is an ELL and the math test includes questions the student might
have trouble understanding, it is unknown whether the low score is due to
the student’s lack of mastery of the math content, limited English proficiency,
or both. Numerous reports commissioned by the National Research Coun-
cil discuss the questionable validity of inferences from content-based assess-
ments for students who are not proficient in English (August & Hakuta, 1997;
National Research Council, 2000, 2002). As stated in their 2000 report, “A test
[of proficiency in a content area] cannot provide valid information about a
student’s knowledge or skills if a language barrier prevents the students from
demonstrating what they know and can do” (National Research Council, p.
20). Research suggests that items with unnecessary linguistic complexity are
a potential source of bias when assessing ELLs’ subject mastery (Abedi, 2004;
Abedi, Leon, & Mirocha, 2003; Martiniello, 2006, 2007). Experts argue for the
need to distinguish the language skills of ELLs from their subject-area knowl-
edge (Abedi, 2004; Abedi & Lord, 2001), but they recognize the difficulty in
doing so, because all assessments administered in English are also measures of
English proficiency (American Educational Research Association, American
Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education,
1985; August & Hakuta, 1997; National Research Council, 2000).
The study on which this article is based explored the nature of linguistic
complexity in math word problems that present comprehension difficulties
for ELLs. I implemented differential item functioning (DIF) procedures to
identify those items posing greater difficulty for ELLs than for non-ELLs of
comparable math proficiency on the fourth-grade Massachusetts Comprehen-
sive Assessment System (MCAS) mathematics test administered statewide in
2003 (68,839 students). I solicited expert reviews and textual analyses of test
items to examine the complexity of their nonmathematical language. To inves-
tigate reading comprehension challenges ELLs encounter during the test, I
administered test items to a sample of fourth-grade Spanish-speaking ELLs
using think-aloud protocols. In these think-alouds, ELLs reported and verbal-
ized their understanding of and responses to the items as they read them. (For
a discussion of think-aloud protocols, see Ericsson & Simon, 1994.)
In this article I present an in-depth review of six items found to favor non-
ELLs over ELLs in the DIF analysis. Textual analysis and think-aloud data con-
firm that such items exhibit complex syntactic and lexical features that chal-
lenge ELLs’ text comprehension. Differences in content among test items also
3. 335
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
account for some of the disproportionate difficulty for ELLs. I also discuss
the literature on text comprehension, paying particular attention to specific
syntactic and lexical features of math word problems and their impact on the
differential performance of ELLs and non-ELLs. The notion of differential
item functioning is defined, and empirical studies on sources of DIF for ELLs
in math word problems are reviewed. Additionally, DIF indices and empirical
item characteristic curves are presented to illustrate differences in conditional
difficulty for ELLs and non-ELLs for six DIF items favoring non-ELLs over
ELLs. Selected transcripts with children’s responses are shown along with the
analyses of the text’s syntactic and lexical features. Finally, I discuss implica-
tions for item writing and score interpretation.
Research Background and Context
Reading comprehension has been characterized as being a meaning-making
process that involves reciprocal exchanges between readers and text for a par-
ticular purpose or task (National Reading Panel, 2000) and as being part of a
broader sociocultural context (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002). Success-
ful text comprehension requires that readers recognize and decode words
quickly and effortlessly (reading fluency); interpret the appropriate mean-
ing of each word given the context (vocabulary knowledge); understand the
syntactic arrangement of words and phrases in the sentence (syntactic knowl-
edge or sensitivity); and, finally, extract and construct meaning of the string of
words or sentences based on the semantic, contextual, and structural relation-
ships among them (discourse comprehension) (Adams, 1990; National Read-
ing Panel, 2000; RAND Reading Study Group, 2002; Snow, Burns, & Griffin,
1998). Comprehension may also be influenced by sociocultural factors such
as familiarity with cultural subject matter, group differences in access to texts,
and instruction (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002).
Research has shown that for text comprehension to take place, approxi-
mately 90 to 95 percent of the words in any given passage or text must be
known to the reader (Carver, 1994; Nagy & Scott, 2000). Difficulty under-
standing words is related to their frequency of use. High-frequency words are
likely to be known by students, since repeated exposure to words in multiple
contexts is a good predictor of word acquisition (McKeown, Beck, Omanson,
& Pople, 1985). Furthermore, high-frequency words are more likely to be rec-
ognized and decoded fluently, while low-frequency words are less likely to be
recognized, thus slowing down the reading process, increasing the memory
load, and interfering with text comprehension. As Adams (1990) explains,
“The greater the time and effort that a reader must invest in each individual
word, the slimmer the likelihood that preceding words of the phrase will be
remembered when it is time to put them all together” (p. 141). The degree of
polysemy — the number of “possible meanings [to] be considered in order to
settle on a precise meaning for the local context” (Bravo, Hiebert, & Pearson,
4. 336
Harvard Educational Review
2007, p. 140) — also influences the difficulty of interpreting the meaning of
a word correctly.
Most measures of text comprehensibility, such as readability indices, rely on
sentence length (average number of words per sentence) as an overall indi-
cator of linguistic complexity (Abedi, Lord, & Plummer, 1997; Adams, 1990;
Chall & Dale, 1995; Mestre, 1988). Sentence length functions as “an estimate
of the number of meaningful ideas that the reader must interrelate in inter-
preting the sentences” (Kintsch & Keenan, 1973, as cited in Adams, 1990, p.
154). The greater the sentence length, the greater the number of individual
words to decode and process. In addition to length, the syntactic characteris-
tics of sentences and clauses also affect comprehension. The transparency or
clarity of the syntactic relationships among words, clauses, and phrases is criti-
cal for text comprehension (Adams, 1990). For instance, constructions such as
subordinate clauses are more difficult to understand than coordinate clauses.
Also, verbs in passive voice are more difficult than those in active voice.
Research on ELLs’ text comprehension of math word problems is consis-
tent with the empirical findings about text comprehension by proficient Eng-
lish speakers. Linguistic features of natural language that create comprehen-
sion difficulties for ELLs relate to complex vocabulary (lexical complexity) and
sentence structure (syntactic complexity) (Abedi & Lord, 2001; Abedi, Lord,
& Hofstetter, 1998; Abedi et al., 1997; Butler, Bailey, Stevens, Huang, & Lord,
2004; Spanos, Rhodes, Dale, & Crandall, 1988). Lexical features of complexity
that have been studied in previous research include number of low-frequency
words, abstractions, polysemy of words, and idiomatic and culture-specific
nonmathematical vocabulary terms. Syntactic features include mean sentence
length in words, item length in words, noun phrase length, number of preposi-
tional phrases and participial modifiers, syntactically complex sentences, use of
passive voice in the verb phrase, and complex sentences, which are sentences
with relative, subordinate, complement, adverbial, or conditional clauses.
The relationship between some of these linguistic features and the differen-
tial difficulty of math word problems for ELLs and non-ELLs has been investi-
gated in elementary, middle, and high school students (Abedi, Bailey, Butler,
Castellon-Wellington, Leon, & Mirocha, 2005; Abedi et al., 1997; Abedi et al.,
1998; Abedi & Lord, 2001; Lord, Abedi, & Poosuthasee, 2000; Bailey, 2005;
Shaftel, Belton-Kocher, Glasnapp, & Poggio, 2006). Although many of these
studies did, as predicted, find a relationship between linguistic complexity and
ELLs’ performance in math word problems, the effect of specific linguistic
features varies from test to test and from one grade to another. Of the features
studied, only item length showed relatively consistent negative effects on item
difficulty for ELLs and non-ELLs in a variety of math tests and grade levels in
national and state samples.
Longer items exhibited greater differences between ELLs and non-ELLs
than did shorter items in the NAEP math test (grade eight, in Abedi et al.,
1997) and the Stanford Achievement Test 9th Edition (SAT9) (grade eight,
5. 337
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
Delaware sample, in Lord et al., 2000). Also, longer items presented more
difficulty than shorter items for both ELLs and non-ELLs in the Kansas gen-
eral math assessments (KGMA) (grades four, seven, and ten, in Shaftel et al.,
2006).
Results for other linguistic features were relatively inconsistent. For exam-
ple, items with more prepositions, pronouns, and words with multiple mean-
ings were more difficult than items with fewer or none of these features for
both ELLs and non-ELLs in the KGMA grade four, but not in grades seven
and ten (Shaftel et al., 2006). Also, ambiguous vocabulary showed significant
effects on item difficulty in the KGMA grade four, while the presence of low-
frequency vocabulary showed no significant effect in the SAT9 grades three
and eight. Neither the number of passive-voice sentences nor the number
of subordinate clauses has shown a significant effect in any of the tests and
grades studied (NAEP grade eight, in Abedi et al., 1997; SAT9 grades three
and eight, in Lord et al., 2000; KGMA grades four, seven, and ten in Shaftel
et al., 2006).
Differential item functioning refers to the discrepancies in difficulty an item
presents for members of two groups who have equivalent levels of proficiency
on the construct the test is intended to measure (Dorans & Holland, 1993;
Thissen, Steinberg, & Wainer, 1993; Wainer, 1993).1
Research on the sources
of DIF for ELLs in math word problems finds that the linguistic complexity of
items and their curriculum learning strand predicted items’ differential diffi-
culty for ELLs and non-ELLs with comparable math proficiency (Martiniello,
2006). Employing item response theory DIF detection methods, Martiniello
(2006, 2007) estimated differences in item difficulty for ELLs and non-ELLs in
the 2003 MCAS math test and showed that DIF could be predicted from items’
syntactic and lexical complexity. In contrast to linguistically simple items, more
complex items in the test tended to show greater DIF favoring non-ELLs over
ELLs. In other words, ELLs tended to have a lower probability of correctly
answering linguistically complex items than non-ELLs with equivalent math
ability. At the highest end of the linguistic complexity range, items contained
complicated grammatical structures that were essential for comprehending
the item, along with mostly low-frequency, nonmathematical vocabulary terms
whose meanings were central for comprehending the item and could not be
derived from the context. These were items for which students with limited
English proficiency had greater trouble deriving the accurate interpretation.
Likewise, items measuring the learning strand data analysis, statistics, and prob-
abilities tended to present greater difficulty for ELLs than for non-ELLs with
equivalent math scores, compared to items measuring the rest of the learning
strands in the test (Martiniello, 2006).
These prior studies investigated composite measures of linguistic complex-
ity and their association with relative difficulty for ELLs and non-ELLs of com-
parable math proficiency (Martiniello, 2006, 2007). They did not examine
specific syntactic or lexical features of the items. My study builds on these
6. 338
Harvard Educational Review
earlier findings using a detailed examination of the linguistic features of the
items showing DIF disfavoring ELLs and triangulates this information with
think-aloud responses to the 2003 MCAS math items from Spanish-speaking
ELLs.
Methods
I analyzed the linguistic complexity of MCAS math items and used think-aloud
protocols to gather evidence of comprehension difficulties for Spanish-speak-
ing ELLs. In order to identify those items that posed greater difficulty to ELLs
than to non-ELLs with comparable math proficiency, I employed two DIF
detection methods. I examined items flagged for evidence of DIF disfavoring
ELLs and described them in terms of the degree of DIF, the learning strand
they represent, their linguistic complexity, and children’s responses to them
in the think-aloud interviews.
Instrument
The test studied is the English version of the fourth-grade MCAS mathematics
exam administered statewide in the spring of 2003. This is a standards-based
achievement test aligned with the Massachusetts Mathematics Curriculum
Framework. It includes five major learning strands: number sense and operations;
patterns, relations, and algebra; geometry; measurement; and data analysis, statistics,
and probabilities (Massachusetts Department of Education [MDOE], 2003a).
The items analyzed included a total of thirty-nine publicly released items,
twenty-nine items in a multiple choice format and ten of constructed response
(five of short-answer format and five open-ended).
Measures
Measures of linguistic complexity for each item were derived from a detailed
microanalysis of the text’s syntactic complexity, as well as from expert ratings
of the items’ overall syntactic and lexical complexity.
Textual analysis. A coding system was developed to identify elements of com-
plexity in the structural relationships among words, phrases, and sentences
in the items, such as the number of clauses, noun phrases, verbs, and verb
phrases. The coding system captured the length of these grammatical ele-
ments by marking the beginning and ending of each clause or phrase. Addi-
tional codes further specified the syntactic function or type of all elements and
the syntactic order of clauses.
Two linguists were trained to use this microanalytic coding manual with
items from a different version of the MCAS fourth-grade math test. The first
linguist coded all thirty-nine items, while the second linguist coded 20 per-
cent of the items independently and reviewed the first rater’s original cod-
ing for the remaining 80 percent. The agreement between these two raters in
the microanalytic coding, adjusted for chance agreement, was high (Cohen’s
7. 339
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
kappa coefficient = 0.89). They discussed discrepancies and, when necessary,
recoded items.
Vocabulary frequency and familiarity. To assess whether the item vocabulary was
likely to be known by the majority of fourth-grade students, we cross-checked
words against A List of 3,000 Words Known by Students in Grade 4 (Chall & Dale,
1995) and Living Word Vocabulary (LWV) (Dale & O’Rourke, 1979). LWV is a
national vocabulary inventory that provides familiarity scores on 44,000 writ-
ten words (tested in grades four, six, eight, ten, twelve, thirteen, and sixteen)
(Dale & O’Rourke, 1979). A List of 3,000 Words Known by Students in Grade 4,
a subset of the LWV comprising 3,000 words commonly known by 80 percent
of fourth graders, is used in the calculation of readability formulas (Chall &
Dale, 1995).
Think-Aloud Interviews——
Think-aloud protocols using items from the 2003 English version of the MCAS
math test were administered to a nonprobability sample of twenty-four fourth-
grade ELLs attending six inner-city Massachusetts public schools in the spring
of 2005. Two of these schools offered dual immersion programs (Spanish
and English). The students interviewed were first- or second-generation Latin
American immigrants from Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, Guatemala, Peru,
and the Dominican Republic, as well as some students from Puerto Rico. They
had between two and four years of schooling in the U.S., came from homes
where Spanish was the primary language, and were identified by their teachers
as ELLs. The sample was gender balanced. Parents signed a written consent
(in Spanish) allowing their children to participate in this study. Based on their
teachers’ ratings, the children interviewed represented a wide range of math-
ematics and English-language proficiencies. Children who could not read or
communicate in English were not interviewed since they would not be able to
read the test at all.
I conducted think-aloud interviews individually in either one or two ses-
sions that lasted between thirty and ninety minutes each. I audiotaped and
later transcribed these sessions. Interviews were conducted primarily in Span-
ish, although I did encourage the children to respond in the language they
felt most comfortable speaking. The children who were more fluent in English
often used both languages during the interviews.
I presented items from the 2003 MCAS math test to the students, who read
aloud the item text in English. I paid attention to decoding errors, such as
words students stumbled over, could not pronounce correctly, skipped, or
paused to consider. Children explained what the item was asking them to
do. Probe questions assessed whether children could a) understand the text
in English; b) rephrase the text in Spanish or English to demonstrate their
understanding of its meaning; c) identify which aspects (if any) of the English
text they could not understand; and d) figure out what the item was requir-
ing them to do, even if they could not understand the text in its entirety. I
8. 340
Harvard Educational Review
recorded the types of mistakes children made when interpreting linguistically
complex text as well as their ability to answer the question correctly based on
their understanding of the text.
DIF Detection: Selection of Items for In-Depth Analysis
I identified items showing differential difficulty for ELLs and non-ELLs with
equivalent math proficiency (i.e., equal total math scores) with the aid of two
commonly used DIF detection methods: standardization (Dorans & Kulick,
1986) and Mantel-Haenszel (Holland & Thayer, 1988), using a refined total
test score matching criterion.2
DIF indices were categorized according to classi-
fication guidelines employed by the Educational Testing Service (ETS; Dorans
& Holland, 1993).3
I flagged ten items as showing some evidence of DIF dis-
favoring ELLs: nine items coded as category B (slight to moderate DIF) and
one as category C (moderate to large DIF). Two of these ten items exhibited
large DIF (STND P-DIF > 0.1) using criteria suggested by Zenisky, Hambleton,
and Robin (2003).
DIF Detection Sample——
The sample used for DIF detection was a subsample of all the fourth-grade
students in Massachusetts who took the test in the spring of 2003. In total, the
DIF sample included 68,839 students, 3,179 of whom were ELLs. This sample
excluded students classified as former ELLs and ELL students who took the
test in Spanish.
Sample Descriptive Statistics——
In the 2003 MCAS math test, the average raw score for ELLs (25.1, SD = 10.6)
was almost one standard deviation below the average raw score for non-ELLs
(34.3, SD = 9.9) (see Table 1). In the 2003 MCAS English language arts (ELA)
test, the average raw score of ELLs was 38.9 (SD = 12.4) compared with 52.3
(SD = 10) among non-ELLs. The distribution of scores for ELLs was slightly
more dispersed than that for non-ELLs in math and was relatively greater in
ELA, revealing greater heterogeneity in ELLs’ English-language skills. The
average mean difference between the groups was slightly larger for the ELA
test than for the math test (1.28 and 0.92 SDs, respectively), consistent with
findings by Abedi et al. (2003) that the performance gap between groups is
greater in areas that have a greater language load. The math and ELA test
scores are moderately correlated (r = 0.72, p < 0.001), a finding that is consis-
tent with analyses of other tests.
In this study, language proficiency status was highly associated with socio-
economic status. Eighty-two percent of ELLs received free lunch, compared to
27 percent of non-ELLs. As suggested by their mean scores, there was a wide
gap between the groups’ proficiency levels in math. Only 14.4 percent of ELLs
scored proficient or above on the test, while 42.7 percent of non-ELLs did. ELLs
were overrepresented in the lowest performance level. They made up 13.6
9. 341
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
percent of the warning category, though they comprised only 4.6 percent of
the total sample of students in the state.4
Results
I examined six of the ten MCAS items identified as showing DIF favoring non-
ELLs over ELLs in order to gauge the possible contribution of nonmathemati-
cal linguistic complexity to the unusual difficulty experienced by ELLs. Follow-
ing are the items showing the most severe DIF disfavoring ELLs. Each item is
described in terms of DIF and its associated learning strand in the Massachu-
setts Mathematics Curriculum Framework, followed by a textual analysis of its
syntactic and lexical features. In addition, transcripts from think-aloud inter-
views with fourth-grade Spanish-speaking ELLs responding to the 2003 MCAS
math items are presented to illustrate comprehension errors that these ELLs
make when interpreting complex text in these DIF items.
High DIF Items
Items 2 and 8 have the largest DIF indices favoring non-ELLs over ELLs with
equivalent math proficiency. For comparative purposes they are discussed
along with items 21 and 30, respectively. The first pair of items (items 2 and
21) illustrates marked differences in the degree of text linguistic complexity,
size of DIF disfavoring ELLs, and curriculum content measured. The second
pair (items 8 and 30) illustrates differences in linguistic complexity features
and size of DIF with identical curriculum content.
High DIF Item 2——
Differential item functioning. One way to represent DIF is to plot for each group
the conditional proportion answering the item correctly (p value) as a func-
tion of total test score. For an item with negligible DIF, the two curves will
be similar. For an item showing DIF, the curves will be different. As shown
in Figure 2, at nearly all score levels a considerably larger proportion of non-
ELLs than ELLs answered item 2 correctly. The odds of answering the item
correctly were nearly twice as high for non-ELLs than for ELLs with the same
test scores.
TABLE 1 Average Raw Math and ELA Scores for ELLs and Non-ELLs
Test ELLs Non-ELLs Total
M SD N M SD N M SD N
ELA 38.88 12.41 3173 52.33 10.00 65638 51.71 10.51 68811
Math 25.16 10.62 3179 34.37 9.89 65660 33.94 10.11 68839
10. 342
Harvard Educational Review
FIGURE 1 Item 2
Source: Massachusetts Department of Education 4 (2003b).
FIGURE 2 Empirical Item Characteristic Curve — Item 2. Category C DIF
M-H Odds ratio = 1.92; STND P-DIF = 0.15
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
Non−ELLs
ELLs
0.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Non−ELLs
ELLs
11. 343
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
Learning strand. Item 2 measures the learning strand data analysis, statis-
tics, and probabilities. Responding to this item correctly indicates that students
“understand and apply basic concepts of probability,” specifically that they
know how to “classify outcomes as certain, likely, unlikely, or impossible by
designing and conducting experiments using concrete objects” — in this case
a spinner (MDOE, 2000, p. 44). Assuming familiarity with spinners and the
mathematical even number concept, the item requires students to discern that
five of the eight numbers on the spinner are even, and therefore it is likely
that Tamika will spin an even number.
Linguistic complexity. The item stem consists of two long multiclausal sen-
tences (see Figure 1). The first sentence starts with an introductory adverbial
clause that includes a nonpersonal form of a verb (to win). The main clause
starts with an uncommon proper noun (Tamika) that functions as subject. The
verbal phrase displays a complex verb that includes the modal verb must, a
noun phrase as a direct object (an even number), and a highly complex prepo-
sitional phrase with an embedded adjectival phrase that includes the past par-
ticiple shown. The second part of the item stem is a question. This question
contains a complex noun phrase with a possessive construction and a prepo-
sitional phrase that includes a nonpersonal form of a verb (gerund spinning).
The following words are not part of the 3,000-word list known by 80 percent of
fourth graders: even, spinner, identical, likely, and unlikely (Chall & Dale, 1995).
Think-aloud interviews. Think-aloud interviews conducted in the spring of
2005 revealed that this item was difficult for fourth-grade Spanish-speaking
ELLs to understand. Presented here are transcriptions from two children
whose poor text comprehension led to incorrect solutions to the problem.
They explain their understanding of the English text in the item:
Child 1: Tamika hizo un juego de éstos. Tamika did one of these games.
Y tiene que caer en esto … And it has to fall in this …
[Child points to the spinner.]
¿Cuáles posibilidades hay de que
caiga en uno?
What is the likelihood that it would
fall in one [the number-one slot]?
Maybe puede caer, maybe no puede caer. Maybe it can fall, maybe not.
“Likely,” es possible. “Likely” means is possible.
“Impossible” es que no va a caer. “Impossible” is that it will not fall.
“Certain” es que va a caer. “Certain” is that it will fall.
“Likely” es posible, tal vez va a caer. “Likely” it is possible, maybe it will
fall.
“Unlikely” tal vez no va a caer. “Unlikely,” maybe it will not fall.
[Child pauses to reason his response to the item.]
Es “unlikely,” tal vez no va a caer. It is “unlikely,” maybe it will not fall.
12. 344
Harvard Educational Review
Of all the content words in the item, this child understood the words game,
number, and one, and identified Tamika as a proper noun. He did not know
what spin, spinner, or spinning meant, but he was able to recognize the picture
of the spinner. He figured out that Tamika played with the spinner and that
he must evaluate her chances of getting a particular number.
In the phrase identical to the one shown below, the word one is used as a pro-
noun to refer to the spinner displayed on the page. The child interpreted one
as referring to the numeral 1 on the spinner. Recognizing the word one among
many unknown words, he deduced that the spinner’s arrow must fall in the
number 1 slot. He failed to recognize the syntactical function of the word
one, used as a pronoun in this sentence, and instead misinterpreted it as the
numeral one. Based on this linguistic misinterpretation, he offered a reason-
able answer: “It is ‘unlikely,’ maybe it will not fall.”
It is evident from his interpretation of the item distractors that this child
was familiar with the English words certain, likely, unlikely, and impossible, which
were used to classify the mathematical likelihood of the event spinning an even
number. However, he was not able to identify correctly what event the item
referred to, possibly due to the large proportion of unknown words in the first
sentence. To illustrate the child’s lexical understanding of this sentence, I sub-
stitute unknown words with blanks:
To —— a game, Tamika must —— an —— number on a —— —— —— to the
one —— ——.
Despite having a greater vocabulary, Child 2 made a similar mistake to Child 1.
Child 2: Para ganar el juego, Talia … Ta …
ka . ..
no puedo decir ese nombre …
Tamika necesita hacer así alrededor.
To win the game, Talia … Ta …
ka …
I cannot say that name …
Tamika needs to do this around.
[Child makes a spinning gesture.]
Interviewer: ¿Cómo supiste que “tenía que caer
en uno”?
How did you know that “it had to
fall in one”?
Child 1: Porque aquí dice. Because it says so here.
Interviewer: ¿Cómo supiste que “tenía que caer”? How did you know that “it had to
fall”?
[Child points to the spinner.]
Interviewer: ¿Cómo supiste que “tenía que caer en
uno”? [emphasis]
How did you know that “it had to
fall in one”? [emphasis]
Child 1: Uno. One.
[Child points to the word one in the item stem.]
13. 345
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
para tener el número del “spinner”
“identical” con el número uno “shown
below,” igual al 1.
¿Cuáles son las chances, como la
posibilidad que ella tiene ese número?
“certain, likely unlikely, imposible”
Ella necesita ganar con el número 1.
Sólo hay un uno [1].
“Certain” es seguro que sí,
“Likely,” maybe ya casi,
“Impossible,” nunca va a tener.
Es “unlikely” que ella va a tener ese
número …
to have the number of the spin-
ner “identical” to the number one
“shown below,” equal to 1.
What are “the chances,” the possibil-
ities that she will get that number?
“certain, likely, unlikely, impossible”
She needs to win with the number 1.
There is only one number 1.
“Certain” is for sure she will,
“Likely,” maybe almost yes,
“Impossible,” she will never get it.
It’s “unlikely” that she will get this
number …
[Child points to the numeral 1 in the spinner.]
porque sólo hay uno de 1. because there is only one 1.
Child 2 was the only student interviewed who knew that the word identical
meant equal. However, she was unable to understand the syntactic boundar-
ies of the phrases and the syntactic function of the word one. She interpreted
the phrase identical to the one shown below as modifying the noun number rather
than the noun spinner. She resolved the syntactic ambiguity of identical to the
one [spinner] shown below as identical to the [numeral] one [1] shown below. On
completing the item, the student was asked what even number meant, and she
responded:
un número con pareja, 2, 4, 6 … a number with couple/pair, 2, 4, 6 …
The child was instructed to reread the item one clause at a time, so as to scaf-
fold the parsing of the syntactic boundaries:
To win a game,
Tamika must spin an even number
on a spinner identical to the one shown below.
After reading, she provided a new answer.
Oh! Es “likely,” porque hay 2, 3, 4, 5;
cinco “even numbers.”
Oh! It is “likely,” because there are
2, 3, 4, 5; five “even numbers.”
[Child counts numbers on the spinner.]
In this particular item, the layout of the text does not facilitate the delimi-
tation of the syntactic boundaries for children who may not be fluent readers.
For instance, the sentence To win a game, Tamika must spin an even number on a
14. 346
Harvard Educational Review
spinner identical to the one shown below is displayed in three lines. The first line
says To win a game, Tamika must spin an even, while the second line says num-
ber on a spinner identical to the one, and the third line says shown below. In the
example above, Child 2 did not perceive the word even as modifying the noun
number, even though she knows the meaning of the phrase even number. Like-
wise, the word one, which ends the second line, is perceived as separated from
shown below.
Syntactically, the clause one shown below could be rewritten as one that is shown
below or the spinner that is shown below. It is possible that the layout favored a per-
ception of the word one as a numeral standing on its own and separated from
the next line, instead of a pronoun associated with the past participial phrase
shown below, which is in the next line.
In both examples above, the children understood the concept of proba-
bility of an outcome using spinners, knew the mathematical meaning of the
English words likely and unlikely, and could correctly classify the likelihood of
a particular event occurring. Nonetheless, they could not answer the item cor-
rectly because they were unable to understand the text providing them with
the information about the event to be classified.
Another important challenge for the ELLs interviewed was their lack of
familiarity with the item’s vocabulary, particularly some of the distractors. One
hundred percent of the children knew the meaning of impossible, a Spanish-
English cognate that is a high-frequency word in Spanish. In contrast, few chil-
dren understood the words identical (4%) and certain (33%). These are also
Spanish-English cognates, but, unlike impossible, they are infrequently encoun-
tered in conversation because more-colloquial synonyms, such as igual (equal)
and seguro (sure), are available. About half of the children either ignored or
confused the meanings of the words likely and unlikely, as shown in the tran-
scripts that follow. Child 3 misinterpreted the word identical:
Child 3: Para ganar Tamika debe … To win, Tamika must …
[Child makes a spinning gesture.]
para tener un “even” número de …
twins que enseña abajo.
Si Tamika trata de …
have an “even” number of …
twins that show below.
If Tamika tries to …
[Child makes a spinning gesture.]
un número “even,” si es imposible. an even number, if that is
impossible.
Probing questions revealed that this student interpreted identical as meaning
twin (in Spanish, gemelos) because of the expression identical twins.
Interviewer: ¿Qué crees que te están preguntando
aquí?
What do you think they are
asking you here?
15. 347
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
[Child points to the distractors certain, likely, unlikely, impossible.]
Child 3: Si hay de verdad la chance,
un chin,
mucho,
o imposible, no hay chance.
If there is truly a chance
[referring to “certain”],
a bit [“likely”],
a lot [“unlikely”],
or impossible, there is no chance.
While Child 3 exchanged the meanings of the English words likely and unlikely,
Child 4 switched the meanings of certain and likely:
Child 4: Para jugar, Tamia … tiene que …
el “spinner,”
tiene que coger
un número que sea “even”
que es multiplicado por 2,
como 2 por 2 es 4,
4 es un “even number,”
entonces, ¿tiene que ser el chance,
“certain”?
Que es como puede pasar pero no pasa
seguro,
“likely,” que puede pasar seguramente,
“unlikely,” puede pasar, pero
no estoy tan segura,
imposible, que nunca va a pasar.
To play, Tamia … has to …
the “spinner,”
she has to get
an “even” number
that is multiplied by 2,
like 2 by 2 is 4,
4 is an “even number,”
then, will the chance be
certain?
Which is like it can happen but it
won’t happen for sure,
“likely,” that can happen for sure,
“unlikely,” it can happen, but
I am not that sure,
impossible, that it will never
happen.
Comparison Item 21——
Item 21, with the lowest ranking on linguistic complexity in the test, provides
some comparison in both the degree of linguistic complexity and magnitude
of DIF.
Differential item functioning. Unlike item 2, item 21 shows no differential item
difficulty when comparing ELLs and non-ELLs with equivalent math scores. In
Figure 4, the lines describing the conditional proportion correct for ELLs and
non-ELLs are similar: ELLs and non-ELLs with the same test scores have simi-
lar odds of answering the item correctly.
Learning strand. Item 21 assesses the learning strand number sense and opera-
tions, specifically students’ understanding of the base-ten number system by
reading decimals (MDOE, 2000).
Linguistic complexity. Items 2 and 21 illustrate the extremes in the test’s lin-
guistic complexity range. The length in words of item 21 is one-fourth the
length of item 2. Item 21 has only eight words in a single sentence compared
with thirty-two words (sixteen per sentence) in item 2. (Item length in words is
16. 348
Harvard Educational Review
a well-accepted index of linguistic complexity and has been shown to generate
comprehension difficulty.) Item 21 has only one clause per sentence, which,
despite its passive-voice verb, has a relatively simple structure that follows a
prototypical question format. Finally, all the words in item 21 are included
in the list of 3,000 words known by 80 percent of fourth graders in the U.S.
(Chall & Dale, 1995).
Think-aloud interviews. All ELLs interviewed understood that item 21
required a translation between the written version and the numerical version
of the decimal number. Even though some children did not know the word
following, they derived its meaning from context, since the rest of the words in
the sentence are familiar and the syntactic structure is relatively simple.
FIGURE 3 Item 21.
Source: Massachusetts Department of Education (2003b).
FIGURE 4 Empirical Item Characteristic Curve — Item 21. Category A (No DIF)
M-H Odds ratio = 1.0; STND P-DIF = 0.001
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
Non−ELLs
ELLs
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
1.0
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
17. 349
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
Child 5: Este puntito. This little dot/period.
[Child points to decimal point in the number 5.10.]
Mi maestro nos explicó que
representaba “and,”
5 and,
y luego necesito hacer la
fracción.
It’s not 5.10 because
that’s five and a tenth.
My teacher explained to us that it
represented “and,”
5 and,
and then I need to make the
fraction.
It’s not 5.10 because
that’s five and a tenth.
High DIF Item 8 and Comparison Item 30——
Item 8 has the second-largest DIF index disfavoring ELLs in the test. For com-
parison purposes, item 8 is discussed along with item 30, which measures the
same curriculum content.
Differential item functioning. Compared with item 30, item 8 is much more
difficult for ELLs than for non-ELLs with equivalent math scores.5
The odds
of responding to item 8 correctly for non-ELLs are close to double the odds
for ELLs, while for item 30 the odds for non-ELLs are about 1.3 times those
for ELLs. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the discrepancy in the difficulty gaps across
groups in these two items. Since both items measure students’ ability to count
combinations, the discrepancy between their DIF indices cannot be attributed
to differences in proficiency in this skill.
Learning strand. Like item 2, items 8 and 30 assess the learning strand data
analysis, statistics, and probabilities. They require children to apply basic con-
cepts of probability by counting the number of possible combinations of
objects from two or three sets (MDOE, 2000).
Linguistic complexity. A close examination of the items’ linguistic complexity
shows that both items’ syntactic structures are relatively complex. These two
items display particularly lengthy sentences and so might pose a challenge
for ELLs. Item 8 has three sentences with an average of twelve words per sen-
tence. Item 30 also has three sentences with an average of sixteen words per
sentence. Experts’ reviews of the items’ linguistic features ranked these items
similarly in their syntactic complexity but rated item 8 as lexically more com-
plex than item 30.
All the words in item 30 are on the list of 3,000 words known by 80 percent
of fourth graders (Chall & Dale, 1995). Two words in item 8 do not appear
in this list: chores and vacuum. According to the LWV list, chores is known by 67
percent of fourth graders tested nationwide (Dale & O’Rourke, 1979).
Think-aloud interviews. In item 30, all the ELLs interviewed understood the
meaning of the words students, notepad, pencil, ruler, day, school, and colors, while
only a few had trouble with the past-tense verb gave and the preposition below.
In contrast, most of the students were unacquainted with the word chores, the
18. 350
Harvard Educational Review
FIGURE 5 Items 8 and 30
Source: Massachusetts Department of Education (2003b).
phrases inside chore and outside chore, and the different words listed in the table
in item 8. Only two girls knew what vacuum, wash dishes, and dust meant. None
of the children knew the meaning of the words rake and weed.
About 88 percent of the ELLs interviewed were familiar with the mathemat-
ical meaning of the word combination, a Spanish-English cognate, and under-
stood that they were supposed to create and count combinations of things.
However, in item 8 they did not know what to combine, while they did know
what to combine in item 30. For these ELLs, the proportion of unknown words
was larger in item 8 than in item 30, making their comprehension of the for-
mer much more difficult than the latter.
The ELLs interviewed showed a clear understanding of school-related words,
whereas words related to home posed bigger challenges. It seems the experts
were able to identify this additional hurdle when rating the lexical complexity
19. 351
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
FIGURE 6 Empirical Item Characteristic Curve — Item 8. Category B DIF
M-H Odds ratio = 1.8; STND P-DIF = 0.11
FIGURE 7 Empirical Item Characteristic Curve — Item 30. Category B DIF
M-H Odds ratio = 1.3; STND P-DIF = 0.05
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.4
Proport
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
10 20 30 400.00.20.40.60.8
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
0.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
20. 352
Harvard Educational Review
of item 8. In this case, word-frequency lists do not offer any insights as to the
lexical challenge for ELLs contained in item 8, since all content words (except
vacuum) are high-frequency words known by at least two-thirds of fourth grad-
ers tested in the U.S. (Chall & Dale, 1995; Dale & O’Rourke, 1979).
Low DIF Items
This section discusses in depth a subset of items that show slight degrees of
DIF disfavoring ELLs. Items 7 and 5 are offered as examples of a larger group
of items flagged as category B DIF.
Low DIF Item 7——
Differential item functioning. On average, the non-ELLs’ odds of responding to
item 7 correctly are 1.3 times the odds of ELLs doing so (see Figure 9).
Learning strand. Item 7 assesses the learning strand number sense and opera-
tions, specifically children’s understanding of the relationship between com-
mon fractions (MDOE, 2000).
Linguistic complexity. This item is characterized by the use of long noun
phrases (see Figure 8). The subject of the second sentence is a noun phrase
that includes a chain of two prepositional phrases. Most of the content words
appear in the 3,000-word list commonly known by fourth graders (Chall &
Dale, 1995).
Think-aloud interviews. The complex noun phrase in the second sentence
was particularly difficult to understand for the children in the think-aloud
interviews, as shown in the following transcripts.
Child 6: Duncan puso chibolas azules y
verdes en la bolsa.
“Exactly”’ … no sé qué es
“exactly” …
Tres cuartos de las chibolas … en
la bolsa azul.
¿Cuál … puede ser el total de núme-
ros de chibolas en la bolsa?
No sé qué es “following.”
Creo que me están preguntando
¿Cuántas chibolas hay ahí?
Son tres cuartos chibolas.
No entiendo esto.
Duncan put green and blue mar-
bles in the bag.
“Exactly”’ … I don’t know what
exactly is …
Three-quarters of the marbles … in
the blue bag.
Which … could be the total of
numbers of marbles in the bag?
I don’t know what “following” is.
I think they are asking me
How many marbles are there?
There are 3/4 marbles.
I don’t understand this.
[Pointing to Exactly 3/4 of the marbles in the bag are blue.]
In addition to not knowing the meaning of exactly and following, Child 6
thought that the adjective blue referred to the noun bag instead of the noun
21. 353
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
FIGURE 8 Item 7
Source: Massachusetts Department of Education (2003b).
FIGURE 9 Empirical Item Characteristic Curve — Item 7. Category B DIF
M-H Odds ratio = 1.3
marbles. This caused him to be confused about the question because he under-
stood the initial statement to mean there are 3/4 marbles in the blue bag. The
child in the next transcript knew the words that were unknown to Child 6
(exactly and following) but was still unable to comprehend the sentence.
10 20 30 40
0.0
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
22. 354
Harvard Educational Review
Child 7: Duncan puso azules … marbles y
verdes en una bolsa.
Exacto 3/4 de las canicas
en la bolsa azul …
¿Cuál de los siguientes puede ser el
número de canicas en la bolsa?
Duncan put blue marbles and
green in a bag.
“Exact” 3/4 of the marbles
in the blue bag …
Which of the following can be the
number of marbles in the bag?
Interviewer: ¿Cómo lo respondes? How do you respond to the item?
Child 7: No lo entiendo. I do not understand it.
Interviewer: ¿Qué es lo que no entiendes? What is it you do not understand?
Child 7: Es difícil de entender, después de
“exactly.”
It is hard to understand after
“exactly.”
Most of the children interpreted the sentence Exactly 3/4 of the marbles in the
bag are blue, to mean 3/4 of the marbles in the blue bag. Confused by the proximity
of the verbal phrase are blue to the noun bag, the children attributed the qual-
ity of blue to the bag rather than to the more distant noun marbles, making the
sentence unintelligible. Children’s inability to understand the sequence of the
syntactic constituents of this important clause resulted in an incorrect repre-
sentation of the problem.
In addition, half of the children interviewed could not interpret the mean-
ing of the adverb exactly. The word is a Spanish-English cognate. However, it is
likely that these Spanish-speaking ELLs would be more familiar with the adjec-
tive exacto (exact) than with the adverb exactamente. Even if they knew the Span-
ish adverb, they may not have seen it frequently enough in print to be able to
recognize that exactly and exactamente share the same root. Interpreting what
exactly means in this context is key to answering the question correctly because
the construction Exactly 3/4 indicates that the total number of marbles must
be a multiple of the number 4.
Low DIF Item 5——
Differential item functioning. On average, the odds that non-ELLs respond to
item 5 correctly are 1.2 times the odds for ELLs along the total math score dis-
tribution (see Figure 11).
Learning strand. Item 5 measures the learning strand number sense and opera-
tions, specifically the use of appropriate operations to solve problems, which
here involve money (MDOE, 2000).
Linguistic complexity. The item stem is relatively long (forty-one words,
including numbers; see Figure 10). The first two sentences average eight
words per sentence and have simple noun-verb-direct-object structures. The
last sentence, however, is fairly complex and long (twenty-five words). It has
one introductory conditional clause with a long and complex noun phrase
that includes the expression coupon for $1.00 off. The polysemous off is a high-
23. 355
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
FIGURE 10 Item 5
Source: Massachusetts Department of Education (2003b).
FIGURE 11 Empirical Item Characteristic Curve — Item 5. Category B DIF
M-H Odds ratio = 1.2
10 20 30 40
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
10 20 30 40
0.00.20.40.60.81.0
ProportionCorrect
Math Total Score
Non−ELLs
ELLs
Non−ELLs
ELLs
frequency word that appears in the list of 3,000 words known by 80 percent
of fourth graders (Chall & Dale, 1995). Its specific meaning in context (taken
away) was readily understood by 86 percent of the fourth graders sampled
for the LWV inventory (Dale & O’Rourke, 1979). In contrast, the word owe is
low frequency; it does not appear in the 3,000-word list. Neither does coupon
(Chall & Dale, 1995), though coupon is a familiar term known by 79 percent of
fourth graders in the LWV list.
Think-aloud interviews. The think-aloud interviews revealed that the item’s
use of cultural references (coupon for $1.00 off), conditional clauses (If he uses
24. 356
Harvard Educational Review
. . .), and critical unfamiliar words (owe) were barriers to item comprehension,
as illustrated below:
Child 8: Miguel quiere 3 bolsas de “potato
chips.”
Cada bolsa de potato chips costs,
um … costs 2 dólares con sesenta y
nueve centavos.
Y si él va a usar un …
Miguel wants 3 bags of potato
chips.
Each bag of potato chips,
um … costs 2 dollars with 69 cents.
And if he is going to use …
[Pause as the child stumbles for words.]
Copon de un dólar.
¿Qué “price,” precio de la bolsa... qué
precio de la bolsa?
¿Cuánto Miguel va, va, a, a …
“owe, owe” para las 3 bolsas de potato
chips?
Coupon of 1 dollar.
What “price,” price of the bag …
which price of the bag?
How much will, will … Miguel
“owe, owe” for the 3 bags of potato
chips?
Probing questions revealed that the boy was familiar with the verbs buy and
costs and the nominal potato chips. He was not familiar with the words coupon
and owe or the expression coupon for $1.00 off the price. He was not able to fig-
ure out the meaning of the polysemous word off in context, and got confused
about whether he was being asked about the price of the bag. His limited
vocabulary, background knowledge, and familiarity with the usage of the Eng-
lish language hindered his comprehension of the problem.
Interviewer:
Child 8:
¿Sabes qué es “owe”?
¿Qué crees que te están
preguntando?
Sí, yo creo que me están preguntando,
¿Cuánto Miguel va … de vuelta?
¿Cuánto le van a dar de vuelta?
Do you know what “owe” means?
What do you think they are asking
you here?
Yes, I think they are asking me,
How much will Miguel … back?
How much [change] will they give
him back?
Discussion
Previous research has found that greater linguistic complexity increases the
difficulty of math word problems for ELLs as compared with non-ELLs of
equivalent math proficiency (Martiniello, 2006). Through textual analyses
and children’s responses to think-aloud protocols, this study sought to illus-
trate some of the linguistic characteristics of math word problems in the 2003
MCAS math test that posed disproportionate difficulty for ELLs.
25. 357
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
Linguistic Features of DIF Items Disfavoring ELLs
Items identified as showing evidence of DIF disfavoring ELLs were ana-
lyzed for challenging syntactic and lexical features. Findings indicate that
these items share some of the following characteristics hindering reading
comprehension:
Syntax——
Multiple clauses.• Item sentences have multiclausal complex structures with
embedded adverbial and relative clauses, which are more difficult to under-
stand than other types of clauses (e.g., coordinate).
Long noun phrases.• Long phrases with embedded noun and prepositional
phrases lead to comprehension difficulties.
Limited syntactic transparency in the text,• such as a lack of clear relation-
ships between the syntactic units. This point is related to the previous two.
Embedded clauses along with long noun phrases between syntactic bound-
aries obscure the syntactic parsing of the sentence. During think-aloud
responses to items 2 and 7, this lack of transparency prevented some ELLs
from interpreting the syntactic boundaries in the text correctly, resulting in
a distorted interpretation of the string of words in the item.
Vocabulary——
Some words in these DIF items are unfamiliar to most fourth graders,•
according to the LWV list (Dale & O’Rourke, 1979). Other words more
commonly known by English speakers, such as chores and certain, proved
to be quite challenging for the ELLs interviewed. The role of vocabulary
knowledge as a predictor of reading comprehension for both ELLs and
non-ELLs is well established. Since, by definition, ELLs do not have the
breadth of vocabulary that fully proficient students do, more words will be
unknown to them. Sentences in some of these DIF items have too many
words unknown to ELLs, thus making it very difficult for them to infer the
meanings from the context.
These results suggest that ELLs might have difficulties not only with more-•
sophisticated academic words, but also with words usually learned at home
(e.g., chores). Most likely, these children will know those words in the lan-
guage they speak at home with their parents.
Polysemous words, those with multiple meanings, pose additional chal-•
lenges to reading comprehension. In some DIF items, children could not
figure out the syntactic function of a polysemous word in the sentence and
ended up misinterpreting the word’s appropriate meaning in context, as
when they confused one as a pronoun with one as a numeral in item 2.
Since their English vocabulary lacks depth, ELLs may know only the most•
familiar connotation of a polysemous word. In some DIF items, children
tended to assign the most familiar meaning to such words regardless of
26. 358
Harvard Educational Review
their context, misinterpreting the text. For instance, in the phrase the picto-
graph below shows the amount of money each fourth-grade class raised for an animal
shelter (item 18; MDOE, 2003b), some students interpreted the verb to raise
to mean to increase or to rear animals rather than to raise funds.
English words and expressions that signify particular referents of main-•
stream American culture may be unfamiliar to ELLs, as in the case of coupon
in item 5. Another example was spelling bee championship in item 34 (MDOE,
2003b). In these examples, students’ lack of background knowledge inter-
feres with their text comprehension.
Not having one-to-one correspondence between the syntactic boundaries•
of clauses and the layout of the text in the printed test may challenge ELLs
who exhibit poor reading fluency, particularly when an item contains com-
plex sentences with multiple clauses and long noun phrases. For instance,
in item 2 the line breaks between the words even and number and between
one and shown below may have hindered ELLs’ identification of the grammat-
ical structures. This is consistent with research on the relationship between
visual-syntactic text formatting and reading comprehension (Walker,
Schloss, Fletcher, Vogel, & Walker, 2005).
As expected, the think-aloud interviews suggest that Spanish-speaking ELLs•
do indeed take advantage of their knowledge of Spanish-English cognates
for interpreting an item’s meaning. However, it seems that this only applies
to high-frequency Spanish words that are likely to be familiar to children. In
these cases, children were able to recognize the morphological relationship
between the English word in the test and the Spanish word they know (e.g.,
impossible/imposible). Other English-Spanish cognates that are less familiar in
Spanish and that have more familiar substitutes were difficult for these chil-
dren (e.g., certain/cierto).
This study’s think-alouds involved only Spanish-speaking ELLs. Nationwide,
Spanish-speaking students constitute about 80 percent of ELLs in public schools
(Kindler, 2002). Although this study did not examine differences among ELLs
from different language backgrounds, we may expect that the linguistic fea-
tures discussed here (including cultural referents) will hinder reading com-
prehension for all ELLs regardless of their primary language. In addition to
looking at language-specific difficulties, further studies should investigate how
generalizable these findings are to other groups of ELLs. For instance, the
finding related to cognates may only be generalizable to Romance and Ger-
manic languages but not to other languages.
Sources of Item DIF: Linguistic Complexity and Learning Strands
In general, the empirical evidence in this study tends to confirm the “linguis-
tic complexity as one source of DIF” hypothesis. A plausible explanation for
the disproportionate difficulty of DIF items disfavoring ELLs compared with
27. 359
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
non-ELLs lies in differences in the groups’ abilities to understand the Eng-
lish text in these linguistically complex items. Although the present study did
not analyze the linguistic features of items showing no DIF for ELLs, it builds
on previous research on the relationship between measures of item linguistic
complexity and DIF in the 2003 MCAS math test (Martiniello, 2006, 2007).
The aforementioned studies confirmed that math word problems with low
linguistic complexity do not tend to show DIF disfavoring ELLs, unlike items
with greater linguistic complexity. Increased complexity seems more related to
ELLs’ text comprehension than to non-ELLs’.
However, linguistic complexity is not the only plausible source of DIF disfa-
voring ELLs in the items analyzed. Previous studies have identified important
associations among curriculum learning strand, linguistic complexity, and DIF
for ELLs in the MCAS fourth-grade math test. Compared with the other learn-
ing strands in the test, data analysis, statistics, and probabilities items tended to
be unusually more difficult for ELLs than for non-ELLs with equivalent math
scores (Martiniello, 2006, 2007). In this study, half of the items identified as
showing DIF disfavoring ELLs measure data analysis, statistics, and probabili-
ties. The fourth-grade MCAS math test has a total of seven items covering this
strand, and five of them were flagged for DIF disfavoring ELLs over non-ELLs
(two with substantial and three with low DIF indices).
A possible explanation for the differences in difficulty for ELLs and non-
ELLs in these items may be the differential teaching and learning of data anal-
ysis, statistics, and probabilities subject matter across groups. It is possible that
the ELLs tested in the spring of 2003 had received less exposure to the cur-
ricular content of this learning strand than were their non-ELL counterparts,
or, having had the opportunity to learn it, they did not master and acquire
this knowledge as non-ELLs did for a variety of reasons about which we can
only speculate. For example, their low English proficiency may have prevented
them from understanding or learning the content during classroom instruc-
tion. Or they may have had teachers who were less prepared to teach this
content. Research does show that teachers of ELL students have less math-
ematical training and lower certification rates (Abedi & Gándara, 2006; Gán-
dara & Rumberger, 2003; Mosqueda, 2007). Nevertheless, the results of this
study suggest that the unusual difficulty of this learning strand may lie in the
greater syntactic and semantic complexity of items measuring data analysis,
statistics, and probabilities as compared with items measuring the other learn-
ing strands. Martiniello (2006) found a significant and positive correlation
between this learning strand and a composite measure of linguistic complexity
in the fourth-grade MCAS math test (r = 0.455, p= 0.007).
Further studies are needed to examine the interaction between learning
strands and linguistic complexity as sources of DIF disfavoring ELLs. There
may be important differences among the items measuring data analysis, sta-
tistics, and probabilities related to their linguistic complexity and not to their
28. 360
Harvard Educational Review
subject matter, as illustrated by the comparison of items 8 and 30. Since both
items measure exactly the same ability, variations in the groups’ knowledge of
the curriculum content or learning strand are not that helpful in explaining
their strikingly different DIF statistics. Item 8’s disproportionate difficulty for
ELLs relative to that of item 30 is likely to be related to its unfamiliar vocabu-
lary. Children who speak a language other than English at home are less likely
to be exposed to the word chores (and types of chores: rake, weed, and dust)
than English speakers, who may hear these words when interacting with their
parents regarding their household tasks. In contrast, the English words pen-
cils, notebooks, students, and colors are unarguably among the first English words
ELLs will learn in the classroom setting. The differential exposure of ELLs
and non-ELLs to the lexical terms in item 8 may explain why this item func-
tions so differently across groups in contrast to item 30, even though the items
measure the same curricular content.
What Is Our Inference Based on Scores?
Given the impact of linguistic complexity and curriculum content on the dif-
ferential item difficulty of ELLs and non-ELLs with equal math ability, how
should we interpret incorrect answers by ELLs in these DIF items? Ideally, an
item should be answered incorrectly only if the student has not mastered the
curriculum content measured by the item. However, the evidence from think-
aloud interviews shows that our inference based on scores can be distorted by
ELLs’ unfamiliarity with the English vocabulary, lack of background knowl-
edge, and difficulty in parsing complex syntactic structures in the item. For
instance, the erroneous interpretations of the word owe and the expression
coupon for $1.00 off in item 5 make answering the item correctly extremely dif-
ficult regardless of the child’s mastery of the addition/multiplication/subtrac-
tion operations involved in solving this problem.
However, if we interpret this child’s zero score as an indication that he does
not know how to apply operations to solving everyday transactions involving
coupons, like purchasing potato chips in a U.S. supermarket, then our infer-
ence may be mostly correct. The lack of vocabulary and familiarity with U.S.
culturally based coupons would likely prevent this child from either figuring
out the right amount to pay or from taking advantage of the coupon discount.
However, our inference may be incorrect if we assume that the child does not
know how to solve problems involving money when he understands the con-
ditions of the transaction. It is also reasonable to think that a store transac-
tion would provide more contextual information for deriving the meaning of
unknown words than could the highly decontextualized text in the item.
In item 2, a score of zero would suggest that a student does not know how to
classify events as certain, likely, unlikely, and impossible. However, the think-aloud
interviews revealed that some ELLs who knew the mathematical meaning of
the English words likely and unlikely, and could correctly classify the likelihood
of a particular event, could not provide the correct answer (likely) because
29. 361
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
they were unable to understand the complex sentence structures providing
them with the information about the event to be classified.
Many of the children interviewed did not know one or more of the English
words certain, likely, unlikely, and impossible. Based on the Massachusetts math-
ematics curriculum framework, one could argue that these English words are
in fact the mathematical terms the item intends to measure; thus, if a child
does not know these words and answers the item incorrectly, the response
would appropriately reflect that child’s inability to classify outcomes as certain,
likely, or unlikely. However, think-aloud responses indicate that some of the
ELLs interviewed had a mathematical understanding of a gradient of likeli-
hood for a given event. They could express it in Spanish but had not yet mas-
tered the English vocabulary required to label it correctly on the test item.
Furthermore, some of these ELLs had actually learned to classify the like-
lihood of events using more-familiar English words than those used on the
item. For instance, some children construed a likelihood continuum ranging
from always to never in which certain corresponds to it will always happen, impos-
sible to it will never happen, likely to it will almost always happen, and unlikely to it
will almost never happen.
Since the words certain, likely, and unlikely have common meanings in the
mathematics classroom and in everyday social language, it is reasonable to
think that children who are fully proficient in English would have a greater
chance than ELLs to infer the correct mathematical meanings of these words.
For instance, the word certain is listed as a word known by 80 percent of Eng-
lish-speaking fourth graders, but in the group of ELLs interviewed only a few
children knew it. This differential familiarity with the item’s vocabulary may
be contributing to the large DIF in item 2.
Based on these findings, we may expect the differential performance of
ELLs and non-ELLs on this item to decrease if the distractors included more
familiar English words and the clauses in the item stem were less complex.
The real challenge is reducing the item’s excessive linguistic complexity while
preserving the integrity of the mathematical construct the item intends to
measure. More research is needed in the area of linguistic modification. So
far, the results of simplification studies comparing the performance of ELLs
in complex and simplified versions of math word problems have been mixed
(Abedi, Hofstetter, Baker, & Lord, 2001; Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, &
Rivera, 2006; Moreno, Allred, Finch, & Pirritano 2006).
It would be advisable to conduct some DIF studies comparing Spanish-
speaking ELLs (as the focal group) who took the 2003 MCAS math test in
Spanish with those who took it in English (as the reference group) to see if
DIF was also present across these groups. This would help us to better under-
stand whether the large DIF indices for some items are due to curricular dif-
ferences or to difficulties comprehending English text. One would expect that
the Spanish version of these linguistically complex items would be more com-
prehensible than the English version for Latino ELLs. However, some research
30. 362
Harvard Educational Review
shows that this might not be the case when the subject matter assessed in the
test is taught in English rather than in Spanish (Llabre & Cuevas, 1983; Wong-
Fillmore, & Valadez, 1986).
Also, since ELLs vary in their English proficiency, future DIF studies should
account for this. For instance, former ELLs were not included in this study’s
DIF sample. Conducting DIF studies with former ELLs as a reference group
for ELLs or as a focal group for non-ELLs would allow us to investigate the
generalizability of these findings to former ELLs who have been reclassified
as non-ELLs.
More studies using think-aloud protocols should be conducted to investi-
gate how ELLs interpret math word problems of varying linguistic complex-
ity. A limitation of the present think-aloud study is the fact that the test used
is available to the public. In fact, some teachers use previously released MCAS
items to prepare their students for the fourth-grade MCAS test (which is high-
stakes due to the AYP-associated sanctions). In this study, teachers regularly
asked children if they had previously seen an item in an attempt to avoid pre-
senting it again. But despite these precautions, the results might overestimate
ELLs’ understanding of the items.
Implications
This study has implications for test development, test validation, and math
instruction for ELLs. Item construction for achievement tests often relies on
content-area specialists who are instructed in long-standing principles of item
writing: Write clearly and concisely and avoid irrelevant information (Bara-
nowski, 2006). However, these item writers may not be aware of the specific con-
sequences of excessive linguistic complexity on the performance of ELLs. Fur-
ther training of item writers and professional test editors is needed to address
this void. For instance, item writers could be provided with item performance
indicators like DIF and interview transcripts from cognitive laboratory studies.
Abedi (2006) recommends providing them with hands-on exercises in linguis-
tic modification — that is, “simplifying or modifying the language of a text
while keeping the content the same” (p. 384).
It is critical that the language simplification is not achieved at the expense
of altering the construct or skill to be measured by the item or test. Propo-
nents of linguistic modification do not advocate using language-free math
tests for ELLs. Mathematical discourse in classrooms and textbooks combines
natural and academic language, mathematical terms, symbols, and graphs.
Therefore, math assessments, particularly those designed to assess “mathemat-
ics for understanding,” should do the same.
Math word problems like those on the MCAS test attempt to measure math-
ematical understanding by providing scenarios and novel situations in which
students apply their prior knowledge and establish relationships between
mathematical concepts and ideas. We want to know if our students can do
that. In contrast, a test consisting of computation problems with little or no
31. 363
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
language interference would provide quite a narrow picture of the mathemati-
cal knowledge of ELLs. Still, the language of these math word problems must
be scrutinized carefully and their differential functioning for ELLs studied
before including them in operational tests. Studies routinely done to identify
DIF for various gender and race groups should be extended to ELLs.
Cognitive laboratory research is needed to learn how ELLs interpret the
text of math word problems. Relying on experts’ reviews of items may not
be sufficient when developing or evaluating assessments for this population.
Experts do not always anticipate the actual comprehension challenges ELLs
encounter when reading the test. Although expensive, think-alouds are an
important tool for examining the validity of test scores for ELLs.
This research also has implications for teachers. It confirms how impor-
tant language skills are for understanding and solving mathematical problems
in large-scale assessments. Thus, the teaching of mathematics to ELLs can
no longer be perceived as separate from the teaching of language. Research
on teachers’ perceptions has found some contradictions in the way teachers
conceive of mathematics instruction (as free from language) and the kind of
math assessments they use in their classrooms (with great language demands)
(Bunch, Aguirre, Telléz, Gutiérrez, & Wilson, 2007). Teachers must provide
sustained linguistic scaffolding for ELLs while encouraging the development
of their mathematical meaning-making skills (Anhalt, Civil, Horak, Kitchen, &
Kondek, 2007).
This study sought to inform the field and refine our testing practices, from
the way we construct tests and write math items for ELLs to the way we gather
validity evidence to support our inferences about ELLs’ math knowledge. To
disentangle ELL’s math and English language proficiency in our interpretation
of test scores, this research integrated three sources of information: a large-
scale psychometric analysis of differential item functioning (DIF) for ELLs
and non-ELLs; analysis of the language in the math items by linguists and liter-
acy experts; and think-aloud responses to these items by ELL students. Ideally,
these three sources of validity evidence should be routinely examined by test-
ing agencies to guarantee the fairness of mainstream assessments used for
ELLs. Recently researchers have started to systematically examine DIF for lan-
guage proficiency groups, but this research lags decades behind that on race
and gender DIF. Identifying the presence of DIF, however, is not sufficient.
Studies are needed to understand the sources of DIF. Witnessing the thinking
process of ELLs making sense of math word problems can illuminate this pro-
cess. Although expensive, think-aloud protocols can be an invaluable tool for
investigating the appropriateness of inferences about ELLs’ math knowledge
based on scores. Test scores are used to make important decisions about ELL
individuals and groups, from graduation requirements to track placement,
to AYP calculation under No Child Left Behind. Therefore, it is crucial that
thorough validity studies be conducted to ensure equity and fairness for ELLs
taking these tests.
32. 364
Harvard Educational Review
Notes
1. Between-group differences in the difficulty of a given item for two groups with different
distributions of math proficiency do not represent DIF. Because of ELLs’ lower overall
proficiency in math, individual math items are on average more difficult for ELLs than
for non-ELLs. This differential performance, which reflects the main effect of group
membership, is called item impact and does not constitute DIF (Dorans & Holland, 1993;
Hambleton, Swaminathan, & Rogers, 1991; Wainer, 1993). Conceptually, when we test
for DIF across groups, we do not compare all ELLs versus all non-ELLs. Instead, we
compare only those individuals from these two groups who have similar total test scores
in math. If the proportion of correct response to a dichotomously scored math item is
the same for ELLs and non-ELLs with equivalent math proficiency (i.e., if conditional
item p values are the same across groups), then the item shows no DIF; if they are dif-
ferent, the item shows DIF.
2. The standardization procedure was implemented in two stages. In the first stage, stan-
dardized p differences (STND P-DIF) were estimated for each item using total test score
as the matching criterion (39 items). The STND P-DIF is the weighted average of con-
ditional p value differences across groups where the weights were the relative frequen-
cies of math scores in the ELL group. In the second stage, items showing STND P-DIF
with absolute values equal or greater than 0.075 were removed from the matching crite-
rion. New DIF indices were estimated using the refined criterion (36 items). Likewise,
Mantel-Haenszel statistics were first estimated for the total test score and the refined
criterion.
3. Any opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and not necessarily of the
Educational Testing Service.
4. MCAS results are reported according to four performance levels: advanced, proficient,
needs improvement, and warning.
5. Although both items’ DIF indices fell within the ETS category B (slight to moderate
DIF), an examination of the size of their DIF statistics using the standardization method
is informative. Item 30 has a negligible STND P-DIF, while item 8 has a STND P-DIF
equal to 0.11 favoring non-ELLs over ELLs.
References
Abedi, J. (2004, April). Differential Item Functioning (DIF) analyses based on language back-
ground variables. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
Abedi, J. (2006). Language issues in item development. In S. M. Downing & T. M. Haladyna
(Eds.), Handbook of test development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Abedi, J., Bailey, A., Butler, F., Castellon-Wellington, M., Leon, S., & Mirocha, J. (2005). The
validity of administering large-scale content assessments to English language learners: An inves-
tigation from three perspectives (CSE Technical Report 663). Los Angeles: UCLA Center
for the Study of Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards,
and Student Testing.
Abedi, J., & Gándara, P. (2006). Performance of English language learners as a subgroup
in large-scale assessment: Interaction of research and policy. Educational Measurement
Issues and Practice, 25(4), 36–46.
Abedi, J., Hofstetter, C., Baker, E., & Lord, C. (2001). NAEP math performance and test accom-
modations: Interactions with student language background (CSE Technical Report 536).
Los Angeles: UCLA Center for the Study of Evaluation/National Center for Research
on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
33. 365
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
Abedi, J., Leon, S., & Mirocha, J. (2003). Impact of student language background on content-
based performance: Analyses of extant data (CSE Technical Report 603). Los Angeles:
UCLA Center for the Study of Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evalua-
tion, Standards, and Student Testing.
Abedi, J., & Lord, C. (2001). The language factor in mathematics. Applied Measurement in
Education, 14, 219–234.
Abedi, J., Lord, C., & Hofstetter, C. (1998). Impact of selected background variables on students’
NAEP math performance (CSE Technical Report 478). Los Angeles: UCLA Center for
the Study of Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and
Student Testing.
Abedi, J., Lord, C., & Plummer, J. (1997). Final report of language background as a variable in
mathematics performance (CSE Technical Report 429). Los Angeles: UCLA Center for
the Study of Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and
Student Testing.
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, &
National Council on Measurement in Education. (1985). Standards for educational and
psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Anderson-Koenig, J. (Ed.). (2002). Reporting test results for students with disabilities and English-
language learners: Summary of a workshop. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Anhalt, C., Civil, M., Horak, V., Kitchen, R., & Kondek, L. (2007, January). Preparing teach-
ers to work with English language learning students: Issues of research and practice. Presenta-
tion at the annual conference of the Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators,
Irvine, CA.
August, D. E., & Hakuta, K. E. (1997). Improving schooling for language-minority children: A
research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Bailey, A. L. (2005). Language analysis of standardized achievement tests: Considerations
in the assessment of English language learners. In J. Abedi, A. L. Bailey, F. Butler,
M. Castellon-Wellington, S. Leon, & J. Mirocha, The validity of administering large-scale
content assessments to English language learners: An investigation from three perspectives
(CSE Technical Report 663, pp. 79–100). Los Angeles: UCLA Center for the Study
of Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student
Testing.
Baranowski, R. (2006). Item editing and editorial review. In S. M. Downing & T. M. Hala-
dyna (Eds.), Handbook of test development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bravo, M. A., Hiebert, E. H., & Pearson, P. D. (2007). Tapping the linguistic resources of
Spanish-English bilinguals: The role of cognates in science. In R. K. Wagner, A. E.
Muse, & K. R. Tannenbaum (Eds.). Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for reading com-
prehension (pp. 140–156). New York: Guilford Press.
Bunch, G., Aguirre, J., Telléz, K., Gutiérrez, R., & Wilson, J. (2007, April). Preservice elemen-
tary teachers’ views about language and culture in mathematics teaching and learning for Lati-
nos/as. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Chicago.
Butler, F., Bailey, A., Stevens, R., Huang, B., & Lord, C. (2004). Academic English in fifth-grade
mathematics, science, and social studies textbooks (CSE Report 642). Los Angeles: Center
for the Study of Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards,
and Student Testing.
Carver, R. P. (1994). Percentage of unknown vocabulary words in text as a function of the
relative difficulty of the text: Implications for instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior,
26, 413–437.
34. 366
Harvard Educational Review
Chall, J., & Dale, E. (1995). Readability revisited: The new Dale-Chall readability formula. Cam-
bridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Cocking, R. R., & Chipman, S. (1988). Conceptual issues related to mathematics achieve-
ment of language minority children. In R. R. Cocking & J. P. Mestre (Eds.), Linguistic
and Cultural Influences on Learning Mathematics (pp. 17–46). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Dale, E., & O’Rourke, J. (1979). The living word vocabulary: A national vocabulary inventory
study. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Dorans, N. J., & Holland, P. (1993). DIF detection and description: Mantel-Haenszel and
standardization. In P. W. Holland and H. Wainer (Eds.), Differential Item Functioning
(pp. 35–66). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dorans, N. J., & Kulick, E. (1986). Demonstrating the utility of the standardization approach
to assessing unexpected differential item performance on the Scholastic Aptitude
Test. Journal of Educational Measurement, 23, 355–368.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1994). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (Revised
ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Francis, D., Rivera, M., Lesaux, N., Kieffer, M., & Rivera, H. (2006). Practical guidelines for the
education of English language learners: Research-based recommendations for the use of accom-
modations in large-scale assessments. Houston: Texas Institute for Measurement, Evalua-
tion, and Statistics at the University of Houston Center on Instruction.
Gándara, P., & Rumberger, R. W. (2003). The inequitable treatment of English learners
in California’s public schools. Santa Barbara: University of California, Linguistic Minor-
ity Research Institute.
Hakuta, K., & Beatty, A. (Eds.). (2000). Testing English-language learners in U.S. schools: Report
and workshop summary. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H., & Rogers, H. J. (1991). Fundamentals of item response
theory. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Holland, P. W., & Thayer, D. T. (1988). Differential item performance and the Mantel-
Haenszel procedure. In H. Wainer & H. I. Braun (Eds.), Test validity (pp. 129–145).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kindler, A. L. (2002). Survey of the states’ limited English proficient students and available educa-
tional programs and services: 2000–2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Educa-
tion, Office of English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement and Academic
Achievement for Limited English Proficient Students,
Llabre, M. M., & Cuevas, G. (1983). The effects of test language and mathematical skills
assessed on the scores of bilingual Hispanic students. Journal for Research in Mathemat-
ics Education, 14, 318–324.
Lord, C., Abedi, J., & Poosuthasee, N. (2000). Language difficulty and assessment accommoda-
tions for ELLs. Study commissioned by the Delaware Department of Education.
Martiniello, M. (2006, October). Sources of Differential Item Functioning for English learners in
word math problems. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Northeastern Edu-
cational Research Association, New York.
Martiniello, M. (2007, April). Curricular content, language, and the differential performance of
English learners and non-English learners in word math problems. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago.
Massachusetts Department of Education. (2000). Mathematics curriculum frameworks.
Retrieved September 4, 2004, from www.doe.mass.edu
Massachusetts Department of Education. (2003a). 2002 MCAS technical report. Retrieved
September 9, 2004, from www.doe.mass.edu
Massachusetts Department of Education. (2003b). Release of spring 2003 test items. Retrieved
September 4, 2004, from www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/2003/release/testitems.pdf
35. 367
Language and the Performance of ELLs in Math Word Problems
maria martiniello
McKeown, M., Beck, I., Omanson, R., & Pople, M. (1985). Some effects of the nature and
frequency of vocabulary instruction on the knowledge and use of words. Reading
Research Quarterly, 20, 522–535.
Mestre, J. (1988). The role of language comprehension in mathematics and problem solv-
ing. In R. Cocking & J. Mestre (Eds.), Linguistic and cultural influences on learning math-
ematics (pp. 201–220). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Moreno, R., Allred, C., Finch, B., & Pirritano, M. (2006, April). Linguistic simplification of
math word problems: Does language load affect English language learners’ performance, meta-
cognition, and anxiety? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educa-
tional Research Association, Chicago.
Mosqueda, E. (2007, April). English proficiency, academic tracking and the school context: Under-
standing the mathematics achievement of Latino native and non-native English speakers.
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Asso-
ciation, Chicago.
Nagy, W., & Scott, J. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson,
& R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 269–284). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the sci-
entific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the
sub-groups. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development.
RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in
reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
Shaftel, J., Belton-Kocher, E., Glasnapp, D., & Poggio, J. (2006). The impact of language
characteristics in mathematics test items on the performance of English language
learners and students with disabilities. Educational Assessment, 11(2), 105–126.
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young
children. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Spanos, G., Rhodes, N. C., Dale, T. C., & Crandall, J. (1988). Linguistic features of math-
ematical problem solving: Insights and applications. In R. Cocking & J. Mestre (Eds.),
Linguistic and cultural influences on learning mathematics (pp. 221–240). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Thissen, D., Steinberg, L., & Wainer, H. (1993). Detection of differential item functioning
using the parameters of item response models. In P. W. Holland & H. Wainer (Eds.),
Differential item functioning (pp. 67–114). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
U.S. Department of Education. (2002). The Elementary and Secondary Education Act reautho-
rization (The No Child Left Behind Act). Retrieved October 10, 2004, from http://www.
ed.gov/legislation/ESEA02/
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Edu-
cation Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2007). NAEP data
explorer. Retrieved December 5, 2007, from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/
nde/criteria.asp
Valencia, R. R. (Ed.). (2002). Chicano school failure and success: Past, present, and future (2nd
ed.). New York: Routledge/Falmer.
Wainer, H. (1993). Model-based standardized measurement of an item’s differential impact.
In P. W. Holland & H. Wainer (Eds.), Differential item functioning (pp. 123–135). Hills-
dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Walker, S., Schloss, P., Fletcher, C. R., Vogel, C. A., & Walker, R. C. (2005, May). Visual-
syntactic text formatting: A new method to enhance online reading. Retrieved February 3,
2007, from http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=r_walker/
index.html
36. 368
Harvard Educational Review
Wong-Fillmore, L., & Valadez, C. (1986). Teaching bilingual learners. In M. C. Wittrock
(Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 648–685). New York: Macmillan.
Zenisky, A., Hambleton, R. K., & Robin, F. (2003). Detection of differential item function-
ing in large-scale state assessments: A study evaluating a two-stage approach. Educa-
tional and Psychological Measurement, 63(1), 51–64.
This research was generously supported by the Spencer Foundation Doctoral Dissertation
Fellowship, the Harvard University Achievement Gap Initiative, and the Harvard Graduate
School of Education Dean’s Summer Fellowship. The author wishes to thank the Massachu-
setts Department of Education, and both the Boston and the Cambridge Public Schools for
making this research possible; and Catherine Snow, Daniel Koretz, Jamal Abedi, and Paola
Uccelli for their feedback on earlier versions of this manuscript. The author is indebted
to many experts who contributed to various parts of this research, in particular to Paola
Uccelli, who conducted the test text analysis/coding, to Young Suk Kim, who served as sec-
ond coder, and to Rob Keller for assistance with the figures.
This research was conducted while the author was a member of the Harvard Graduate
School of Education. Any opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and not
necessarily of Educational Testing Service.