Effect of Stereotype Threat on Minority Student

STEREOTYPE THREAT ON EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES 1
Effect of Stereotype Threat on Minority Student’s Educational Outcomes
Rebecca Redman

Abstract
The negative effects that stereotype threat have on academic outcomes in minority students were
examined to determine the nature and intensity of the effect. Stereotype threat leads to different
factors that influence the gap between white and minority students including but not limited to
GPA, test scores, graduation rates, and college attendance. African American Students are
among the most affected populations when it comes to stereotype threat. There is also the issue
of immigrant students and how the lack of knowledge about what stereotypes are present against
a particular population may lead to lessened effects.

Stereotypes are the unfair belief that all people in a particular group are the same
(Merriam-Webster). In United States society, we tend to group individuals based on
characteristics they share like their race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. This
tendency is part of the social identity theory, which states that we categorize people into social
groups, allowing us to then locate ourselves into a group (Wolfe & Spencer, 1996). This way of
categorization allows us to then see how we rank socially by comparing our in-group and
ourselves with other groups. In order to maintain a positive image of our in-group, the
development of stereotypes allows for us to put down the other group and make them seem
inferior.
The Robbers Cave experiment by Sherif demonstrates one possible reason for the
development of stereotypes, the realistic group conflict theory. In the experiment, boys at a
summer camp were split into two groups and then competed against each other. Eventually, the
boys in each group began to discriminate against those in the other group, leading to the
development of stereotypes about them (Wolfe & Spencer, 1996). By putting groups in
competition for resources, society encourages intergroup conflicts that lead to the development
of stereotypes. Similar to the social identity theory, the use of stereotypes here is to make the
out-group appear worse than your in-group, leading to a sense of pride and superiority for being
a part of your particular group.
The use of stereotypes to elevate your own in-group does have negative impacts on the
group being stereotyped against when it is widely believed, leading to the development of
stereotype threat. Stereotype threat occurs when an individual is aware of a stereotype that
applies to a group that they are a part of, which causes anxiety about possibly confirming the
negative stereotype leading the individual to perform below their true ability (Slavin, 2015). In

order for stereotype threat to occur, the individual must be aware of the stereotype, leading them
to internalize the view into their own identity. This internalization of stereotypes has many
negative effects on educational outcomes by making minority students believe that they are in
fact intellectually inferior to their white counterparts.
There are many factors that may lead to being stereotyped against such as gender, race,
and income. Because all individuals belong to multiple groups it is possible to be subjected to
multiple minority stereotype threat. This occurs when multiple parts of an individual’s identity
are stigmatized and these individuals tend to show lower test performance than individuals who
are subjected to single minority stereotype threat (Tine & Gotlieb, 2013). By being aware of
stereotypes against their identity and also by being reminded of these parts of their identity
before taking a test, it is predicted that students will perform lower than a control group who are
not subjected to these conditions.
Socioeconomic status and family support are often blamed for the gap between minority
populations and their white counterparts, ignoring the possibility that subtle forms of racism may
influence educational outcomes. By making a student aware that they are part of a minority
group that tends to perform lower in academics, they become susceptible to stereotype threat,
leading them to conform to the negative view. Among minority groups, African Americans tend
to be one of the most stereotyped groups within the education system. There is also a tendency to
stereotype against first and second generation immigrants, but because this population is not as
aware of the stereotypes, they tend to be less susceptible to the effects of stereotype threat.
Stereotype threat may also play a role in the attrition of minorities in STEM programs in higher
education. Lastly, there are ways to combat the effects of stereotype threat, such as teaching

students self-affirmation techniques, mentoring, and increasing their identification with the
dominant culture.
Effect on African American Students
African American students are one of the most marginalized groups within the
educational system. There are many studies showing that this group tends to report more anxiety
related to academics than their white peers as well as lower academic performance (Wasserberg,
2014). One reason behind this increase in anxiety could be attributed to stereotype threat, making
children nervous about performing lower than their true ability and therefore conforming to the
stereotype.
In one study, Martin Wasserberg (2014) had a sample of students from and urban
elementary school who were in the third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade. The students were first given a
vignette to read about an imaginary planet in which the inhabitants of said planet had stereotypes
that mimic those against minority populations (such as “Green people think Blue people are not
Smart”) Students were asked a basic comprehension question and then were asked to give
examples on how the imaginary planet and real world are similar. Some children reported ways
in which discrimination is similar on the planet compared to what they have observed (stereotype
aware), while other children simply reported things involving school, such as the use of teachers
and students (stereotype unaware). After the vignette, students were placed into two groups, the
control group who were told the upcoming reading comprehension test was a nondiagnostic
performance test. The experiment group was told that the upcoming test was a diagnostic of their
ability. The children were also given a measure on anxiety and self-efficacy (Wasserberg, 2014).
The results found that African American students who were aware of stereotypes and part
of the experiment group scored significantly lower than their stereotype aware counterparts in

the control group. Students in the experiment group also reported significantly more anxiety than
their control group counterparts. On the other hand, students who are unaware of stereotypes did
not show any significant difference between the experiment and control group (Wasserberg,
2014). These findings support stereotype threat by demonstrating how people who are aware of
stereotypes tend to have higher anxiety in that area, leading to poor performance.
These results are common among studies that look into stereotype threat and educational
outcomes, and can even be seen when observing certain educational outcomes among these
groups. African American students consistently perform lower on aptitude test scores and high
school GPA, as well as demonstrate higher dropout rates than their white classmates.
Whaley and Noel (2010) propose the cultural incompatibility perspective which includes
stereotype threat theory as one reason for this gap. The cultural incompatibility theory is the view
that the United States’ educational system is tailored to European American perspectives, leaving
the African American students unable to relate to the content of their education, as well as how
they are being taught. When African American students do well, they are at risk for being seen as
preferring the White American culture over their own (Whaley & Noel, 2010). Stereotype threat
is part of this process, not only by having the African American students being stereotyped by
people not in their group, but by also being susceptible to in-group stereotypes, making the
student have to choose which identity they want to be a part of.
The African American students in these studies were in the position of having spent their
entire lives living in the United States. This experience gave them years of experience with
facing stereotypes, making them more aware of the negative views of their race in regards to
intelligence and academic performance. Another population that is often subjected to stereotype

threat includes immigrant students, but considering their lack of knowledge about stereotypes
held against them are effected in a different way.
Effect on Immigrant Students
Acculturation is the process of cultural modification of an individual or group by
adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture (Merriam-Webster). When immigrants
arrive at their new resident culture, there are four acculturation profiles that are possible for them
to experience. The first is integration, where the individual highly identifies with both their
resident culture and their ethnic background. These individuals successfully integrate both
cultures as part of their identity. The next profile is assimilation. This occurs when individuals
have low ethnic identity strength but have high resident culture strength. These individuals have
successfully integrated parts of their resident culture into their identity but may no longer see
themselves as being a part of their ethnic culture. The third profile is separation, where the
individual has high ethnic identity strength but low resident culture strength. These individuals
may have come to their resident culture out of necessity, rather than want. Last, there is the
marginalization profile. These individuals have a weak identification with both their ethnic
culture and resident culture. A possible cause of this profile would be refugees who are no longer
accepted in their ethnic culture and do not want to be where they were placed (Weber, Appel, &
Kronberger, 2015).
The acculturation profiles are important for understanding the effect stereotype threat has
on immigrant students because the more a student identifies with their resident culture, the less
the effects of stereotype threat will be on them, and therefore the more success they will have in
the education system. On the other hand, individuals who have low identity strength with their

resident culture are predicted to do worse in educational areas due to the pressure to assimilate to
the new culture (Weber et al, 2015).
Weber, Appel, and Kronberger (2015) conducted two experiments in which they learned
more about how resident culture identity strength is related to stereotype threat and academic
success. Before the experiments were conducted, the students were asked to fill out a
questionnaire about their ethnic backgrounds and identity. In the first experiment conducted,
immigrant students were randomly placed into three conditions and asked to read a newspaper
article under the guise of a reading comprehension task. The subtle threat and explicit threat
groups read an article about an academic competition and the winners. In the subtle threat group,
the newspaper article only used names that are typical of the resident culture, avoiding any ethnic
names from the immigrant groups. The explicit threat condition read the same newspaper article
with the same names but also had an additional paragraph at the end stating that no immigrant
students had qualified to be a part of the competition and speculated that this group may lack the
talent needed. The last group was the control, which read a different article that did not relate to
academic topics. After reading the article, students were then asked to do a cognitive
performance task. The subtle and explicit threat groups were told that the test was a general
performance task, while the control group was told that it was a picture puzzle.
The results of this first experiment found that in the explicit threat conditions, students
who had high identification with the resident culture performed significantly better on the
cognitive task than the students with low resident identification. These results support the
hypothesis that a strong resident culture identity is useful in combating the effects of stereotype
threat in immigrant students, more so than a strong ethnic identity, which was not related to any
significant differences in performance.

The second experiment conducted by Weber et al (2015) was whether or not resident
identity strength could be manipulated in order to further test the relation to stereotype threat. For
this study, immigrant students were randomly assigned into two groups. One group filled out a
sentence-completion task that had them provide examples of how they are similar to their
resident culture (strengthening condition). The other group filled out a sentence-completion task
where they provided examples about how they are different from their resident culture
(weakening condition). The two groups were then given the explicit threat newspaper article and
then the cognitive performance task from the previous study.
Immigrant students who were a part of the strengthening condition performed
significantly better than their weakening condition counterparts (Weber et al, 2015). These
results correspond with the first experiment in that the students who saw themselves as having
high resident culture identity were less susceptible to stereotype threat.
Another perspective on how immigrants are affected by stereotype threat is through the
internalization and externalization of stereotypes that they experience. Immigrant students
experience an externalization of stereotypes through academic performance burden, which is the
pressure they feel to succeed in order to avoid confirming the stereotype. The internalization of
stereotypes occurs when the immigrant student begins to believe the negative belief about their
group, which may lead to a reduction in academic effort and disengagement with education
(Owens & Lynch, 2012).
Owens and Lynch (2012) found that immigrant students experience stereotype threat in
different ways depending on what generation they are within their resident culture. First- and
second-generation immigrants, and domestic minority students all show similar levels of
externalization and internalization of stereotypes when it comes to education. The difference

occurs in first- and second-generation students who show more effort in their education than the
domestic students, who have spent more time being exposed to the negative stereotypes. Because
first- and second-generation immigrant students and their families have spent less time in the
resident culture than domestic minorities, they are less susceptible to stereotype threat, giving
them a higher sense of control over their educational outcomes. One area where stereotype threat
becomes potent for immigrant and minority students is in higher education.
Effect within Higher Education
Within the higher education system, there is a gap between white and minority students
who attend and graduate. One reason for the attrition of minorities at elite universities could be
the racial climate that surrounds them. Because there is less diversity at these universities,
minority students become hyperaware of their race when in the position to be judged on their
performance (Fischer, 2008). One reason for this hyperawareness is because they are a novelty
and are more likely to stand out, due to their race and ethnicity, when they perform poorly. This
hyperawareness leads to a performance burden based on the degree to which they believe the
out-group is judging them on their academic success or struggle. Students who experience a
higher performance burden are predicted to have lower GPA’s. They are also more likely to
report feeling alienated from their peers, resulting in them being more susceptible to stereotype
threat and dropping out (Fischer, 2008).
Not only is there a gap between white and minority students in their GPA and graduation
rates, but there is also a gap between the two groups within some college majors, specifically
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields (STEM). In college, African American
students are the most likely to declare a STEM major, followed by Asians, Caucasians, and
Hispanics respectively. Even though African Americans are the most likely to declare, Caucasian

and Asian students are the most likely to graduate with a degree in a STEM major (Beasley &
Fischer, 2011). This means that somewhere throughout their college career, African American
students are faced with either changing their major away from the STEM fields or dropping out
of college.
One way to know that stereotype threat is behind the disproportion between declaration
and graduation of minority students within the STEM field is by looking at attrition rates of the
Caucasian students. Even though it is not common, white males who are subjected to stereotype
threat within the STEM major also show a higher rate of either dropping the major or out of
college all together (Beasley & Fischer, 2011). This finding provide evidence that stereotype
threat is not a novel experience for minorities, but has adverse effects for the dominant group
when turned around onto them.
With the knowledge about how stereotype threat influences students at all levels of
education, it is possible to look into different ways to combat these effects in order to give
minority students the best chance for success.
Combating Stereotype Threat
One possible way to combat the effect of stereotype threat in elementary and middle
school age children is to pair the students with a college mentor of the same ethnicity. This will
help children see that they can succeed academically. Mentors should also emphasize that
intelligence is malleable, giving the children the view that they are not of a fixed intellect and if
they put in the work will be able to be successful (Wasserberg, 2014).
It is also possible to help students not be affected by stereotype threat by teaching them
self-affirmation. Self-affirmation is the process of asserting personally important values that help
the student to build their self-image despite stereotypes against them (Hanselman, Bruch,

Gamoran, & Borman, 2014). Self-affirmation works well in schools were there is high risk for
stereotype threat against students, giving students power to realize that they are not the
stereotype and help to reduce any anxiety felt.
Lastly, in immigrant students, making the student feel like they identify with their
resident culture helps prevent any anxiety from stereotype threat against them (Weber et al,
2015). Having a higher resident culture identification allows for the students to feel as if they are
included in their new cultural home, giving them the resources needed to not feel anxiety when
faced with stereotype threat.
Conclusion
Stereotype threat is anxiety experienced when faced with a stereotype against a group
you are a part of, leading to underperformance in a particular area, thus confirming the
stereotype. This threat has a large effect on minority populations within the educational system,
leading to gaps between white and minority students in areas like GPA and graduation. African
American students are one of the most marginalized groups, and are often the subject of
stereotype threat research, finding that this group of students often report more anxiety in
academic areas (Wasserberg, 2014). Immigrant students tend to be less susceptible to stereotype
threat due to their lack of time being subjected to stereotypes (Owens &Lynch 2012) but by
having low identity strength with the resident culture are still at risk for being effected (Weber et
al, 2015). The effects of stereotype threat do influence attrition rates within higher education, and
can even influence student success in certain areas like the STEM fields (Beasley & Fischer,
2011). Even though stereotype threat has adverse effects on these populations, there are ways in
which they can be combated, allowing for these groups to still succeed in spite of the views
against them.

References
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Effect of Stereotype Threat on Minority Student

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