Diana C. Sisson and Tara M. Moretensen, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 78-95
Educating students for the social, digital and information world: Teaching public relations infographic design
Abstract
"This study employs an exploratory content analysis of current public relations information graphics to examine variables within two concepts pertaining to public relations: transparency and clarity. These two concepts were chosen because they apply to both traditional public relations practice and are also widely taught amongst contemporary infographics design experts. The subjects of the study are nonprofit organizations’ online informational graphics (N = 376) that have been released on Twitter. Findings suggest that nonprofit organizations are not applying traditional public relations principles to their design of online information graphics, demonstrating difficulty in translating these principles to visual design, a skill that is becoming more important. While the study is not intended to generalize, this snapshot of current practice is used to offer improvements in preparing public relations students for communication with information visualizations. This exploration illuminates the need for public relations education geared toward the social, visual, and data-driven environment. To this end, the study uses these findings to develop an initial set of practices for infographic design that can be implemented into current public relations education."
http://aejmc.us/jpre/2017/12/29/educating-studen…fographic-design/
"Competition and Public Relations Campaigns: Assessing the Impact of Competition on Quality of Projects, Partners, and Students" by McCollough in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
Scholars in public relations pedagogy have provided a strong
body of research on the impact of service learning, community
partnerships (Daugherty, 2003), and applied learning on
campaigns, writing, and production courses common to the public
relations curriculum (Wandel, 2005). Rarely explored, however,
is the impact of competition among student groups within a
public relations course on the quality of campaigns, student
experience, client satisfaction, and achievement of learning
outcomes (Rentner, 2012). This study presents a comparative
analysis of campaign courses that employed competitive and noncompetitive
campaign course models to demonstrate the impact
of incorporating competition within public relations courses.
Laura E. Willis, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 110-118
A Dam(n) Failure: Exploring Interdisciplinary, Cross-Course Group Projects on STEM-Translation in Crisis Communication
Abstract
"This exploratory, quasi-experimental study examines whether incorporating an interdisciplinary, cross-course aspect to a group project on the Teton Dam failure in a crisis communication management course would impact public relations students’ ability to translate technical aspects of the crisis for media and public audiences. Results suggest the inclusion of an engineering student as a technical expert negatively impacted project grades and increased student frustration. Possible improvements and lessons for future interdisciplinary, cross-course projects are presented."
Keywords: science communication, STEM translation, cross-course projects, interdisciplinary projects
This research examines how popular editions of public relations principles texts and public relations writing texts address media relations. The study consisted of a content analysis of six principles texts and six PR writing texts. One research question was posed,“How do public relations texts address media relations and the journalist/ PR practitioner interaction?” and one hypothesis was posited, “When discussing media relations, PR textbooks focus on relationship building more than specific communication tactics.”The study found that while most texts address media relations from a tactical standpoint, few texts go beyond that to address deeper relational issues, answering the research question and leading to the rejection of the authors’ hypothesis.
Keywords: media relations; public relations education; public relations writing texts; public relations principles texts; public relations introductory texts
"Score! How Collegiate Athletic Departments Are Training Student-Athletes About Effective Social Media Use" by Smith and Watkins in Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 4, Issue 1, Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
The primary responsibility of student-athletes is to represent
their institution on the field, but because of social media, that
role has evolved so that now student-athletes are considered
representatives of the institution to a larger public. As such,
athletic departments have implemented social media policies
and/or training programs to guide student-athletes’ online activity.
Drawing on digital literacy, this study investigates motivations
behind the development of social media policies, how student
athletes are trained about effective social media use, and how
social media policies for student athletes are enforced from the
perspective of the institution. In-depth interviews (N = 17) with
representatives from collegiate athletic departments in the U.S.
revealed social media policies were designed primarily to educate,
rather than punish, and that training about the policy helps reduce social media violations. Theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed.
The Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) is devoted to the presentation of research and commentary that advances the field of public relations education. JPRE invites submissions in the following three categories. All submissions should follow the guidelines of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Research Articles
Hootsuite University: Equipping academics and future PR professionals for social media success
Authors:
Emily S. Kinsky, West Texas A&M University
Karen Freberg, University of Louisville
Carolyn Kim, Biola University
Matt Kushin, Shepherd University
William Ward, Syracuse University
“The best of both worlds”: Student perspectives on student-run advertising and public relations agencies
Authors:
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica Smith, Abilene Christian University
Considering certification?: An analysis of universities’ communication certificates and feedback from public relations professionals
Authors:
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Teaching Briefs
Who wants to be a manager?: Applying the attraction-selection attrition framework to public relations education
Author:
Christopher Wilson, Brigham Young University
Find out more at: http://aejmc.us/jpre
Ming Wang, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 96-109
http://aejmc.us/jpre/2017/12/29/using-crisis-sim…role-of-presence/
Abstract
"Simulation-based training (SBT) is a useful pedagogical tool used in crisis management training. This paper explores the effects of a crisis simulation activity on students’ crisis management competencies. Pre- and post-test surveys indicated that students significantly improved crisis management competencies after the crisis simulation activity. Moreover, presence was found to be positively associated with post-simulation crisis management competencies, suggesting that presence is critical in designing an effective simulation activity."
This document outlines a social media policy assignment given to public relations students. The goal is for students to develop a social media policy for a client organization. Students are instructed to research the organization's social media use, identify risks, and apply their knowledge of ethics and law to create a comprehensive written policy. The policy should guide appropriate social media use, address legal issues, and include resources for compliance. Developing a real-world policy provides valuable experience for students' careers and portfolios. It also allows organizations to adopt the developed policies. The assignment aims to help students think strategically and work with clients to manage social media professionally and ethically.
"Public Relations Ethics, “Alternative Facts,” and Critical Thinking, with a Side of Tuna" by Lambiase in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
"Competition and Public Relations Campaigns: Assessing the Impact of Competition on Quality of Projects, Partners, and Students" by McCollough in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
Scholars in public relations pedagogy have provided a strong
body of research on the impact of service learning, community
partnerships (Daugherty, 2003), and applied learning on
campaigns, writing, and production courses common to the public
relations curriculum (Wandel, 2005). Rarely explored, however,
is the impact of competition among student groups within a
public relations course on the quality of campaigns, student
experience, client satisfaction, and achievement of learning
outcomes (Rentner, 2012). This study presents a comparative
analysis of campaign courses that employed competitive and noncompetitive
campaign course models to demonstrate the impact
of incorporating competition within public relations courses.
Laura E. Willis, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 110-118
A Dam(n) Failure: Exploring Interdisciplinary, Cross-Course Group Projects on STEM-Translation in Crisis Communication
Abstract
"This exploratory, quasi-experimental study examines whether incorporating an interdisciplinary, cross-course aspect to a group project on the Teton Dam failure in a crisis communication management course would impact public relations students’ ability to translate technical aspects of the crisis for media and public audiences. Results suggest the inclusion of an engineering student as a technical expert negatively impacted project grades and increased student frustration. Possible improvements and lessons for future interdisciplinary, cross-course projects are presented."
Keywords: science communication, STEM translation, cross-course projects, interdisciplinary projects
This research examines how popular editions of public relations principles texts and public relations writing texts address media relations. The study consisted of a content analysis of six principles texts and six PR writing texts. One research question was posed,“How do public relations texts address media relations and the journalist/ PR practitioner interaction?” and one hypothesis was posited, “When discussing media relations, PR textbooks focus on relationship building more than specific communication tactics.”The study found that while most texts address media relations from a tactical standpoint, few texts go beyond that to address deeper relational issues, answering the research question and leading to the rejection of the authors’ hypothesis.
Keywords: media relations; public relations education; public relations writing texts; public relations principles texts; public relations introductory texts
"Score! How Collegiate Athletic Departments Are Training Student-Athletes About Effective Social Media Use" by Smith and Watkins in Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 4, Issue 1, Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
The primary responsibility of student-athletes is to represent
their institution on the field, but because of social media, that
role has evolved so that now student-athletes are considered
representatives of the institution to a larger public. As such,
athletic departments have implemented social media policies
and/or training programs to guide student-athletes’ online activity.
Drawing on digital literacy, this study investigates motivations
behind the development of social media policies, how student
athletes are trained about effective social media use, and how
social media policies for student athletes are enforced from the
perspective of the institution. In-depth interviews (N = 17) with
representatives from collegiate athletic departments in the U.S.
revealed social media policies were designed primarily to educate,
rather than punish, and that training about the policy helps reduce social media violations. Theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed.
The Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) is devoted to the presentation of research and commentary that advances the field of public relations education. JPRE invites submissions in the following three categories. All submissions should follow the guidelines of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Research Articles
Hootsuite University: Equipping academics and future PR professionals for social media success
Authors:
Emily S. Kinsky, West Texas A&M University
Karen Freberg, University of Louisville
Carolyn Kim, Biola University
Matt Kushin, Shepherd University
William Ward, Syracuse University
“The best of both worlds”: Student perspectives on student-run advertising and public relations agencies
Authors:
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica Smith, Abilene Christian University
Considering certification?: An analysis of universities’ communication certificates and feedback from public relations professionals
Authors:
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Teaching Briefs
Who wants to be a manager?: Applying the attraction-selection attrition framework to public relations education
Author:
Christopher Wilson, Brigham Young University
Find out more at: http://aejmc.us/jpre
Ming Wang, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 96-109
http://aejmc.us/jpre/2017/12/29/using-crisis-sim…role-of-presence/
Abstract
"Simulation-based training (SBT) is a useful pedagogical tool used in crisis management training. This paper explores the effects of a crisis simulation activity on students’ crisis management competencies. Pre- and post-test surveys indicated that students significantly improved crisis management competencies after the crisis simulation activity. Moreover, presence was found to be positively associated with post-simulation crisis management competencies, suggesting that presence is critical in designing an effective simulation activity."
This document outlines a social media policy assignment given to public relations students. The goal is for students to develop a social media policy for a client organization. Students are instructed to research the organization's social media use, identify risks, and apply their knowledge of ethics and law to create a comprehensive written policy. The policy should guide appropriate social media use, address legal issues, and include resources for compliance. Developing a real-world policy provides valuable experience for students' careers and portfolios. It also allows organizations to adopt the developed policies. The assignment aims to help students think strategically and work with clients to manage social media professionally and ethically.
"Public Relations Ethics, “Alternative Facts,” and Critical Thinking, with a Side of Tuna" by Lambiase in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
Book Review by Teddi A. Joyce, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 133-135
Book Title: Real World Career Preparation: A Guide to Creating a University Student-Run Communications Agency
By: Douglas J. Swanson (2017)
This document describes a new approach to teaching public relations campaigns that aims to address problems with the traditional "divide and conquer" method. The traditional approach has students divide into static teams that each work independently on separate sections of a campaign. This often results in unequal work distribution and a lack of collaboration. The new approach requires students to serve on rotating research, campaign book, and strategy teams throughout the semester. Each team is responsible for developing a specific section, with all students providing input. This encourages collaboration, ensures all students understand the entire campaign, and solves issues around work distribution and quality associated with the traditional method.
Thomasena Shaw, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 59-77
Abstract
"Internships have significant early career advantages for undergraduates including less time finding a first employment position, increased monetary compensation and greater overall job satisfaction. Considerable professional and scholarly evidence highlights the important role of undergraduate internships, as well as gaps that exist between students and supervisors regarding the relative importance of specific job skills and professional characteristics. While previous studies have explored the underlying feelings and expectations of the two groups in professional and academic contexts, this exploratory case study uses coorientation as the theoretical framework to examine the levels of agreement, congruency and accuracy that exist between them in relation to key jobs skills and professional characteristics linked with career success; it also provides insight into the extent to which respondents perceive that the internship improved students’ college-learning outcomes. The key findings of this study indicate that the majority of respondents believed that the experience improved performance in relation to college learning outcomes. The study also found that students and supervisors are accurately cooriented with one another in relation to job skills items, but less so when it comes to professional characteristics. This could be particularly problematic for student interns as misperceptions and misunderstanding can potentially lead to missed opportunities for collaboration and integration, and/or a self-fulfilling prophecy where supervisors’ lack of coorientation damages the possibility of a cooperative relationship with current and future student interns, and the academic programs that bring them together."
1) Some students felt that Twitter helped their learning by allowing the expression of various viewpoints and learning from classmates, though others felt this did not always occur in practice.
2) A major drawback mentioned was the potential for Twitter use to distract students into using social media unrelated to class.
3) Some students disliked having their speech limited to Twitter's 140-character tweets.
"Media Relations Instruction and Theory Development: A Relational Dialectical Approach" by Pettigrew in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
There has been almost no research in the area of media relations
instruction in the public relations literature. This study seeks to fill a
gap in theory-building in the area of media relations and examines
the state of media relations instruction in today’s public relations
curriculum through a survey of public relations professors. The
author suggests relational dialectical theory as a way to better
understand the relationship between public relations practitioners
and journalists, and proposes a relational dialectical approach
to theory-building and in teaching media relations in today’s
changing landscape.
Table of Contents
Research Articles
Can every class be a Twitter chat?: Cross-institutional collaboration and experiential learning in the social media classroom
Authors:
Julia Daisy Fraustino, West Virginia University
Rowena Briones, Virginia Commonwealth University
Melissa Jansoke, University of Memphis
In their own words: A thematic analysis of students’ comments about their writing skills in mass communication programs
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Teaching Briefs
Integrating leadership in public relations education to
develop future leaders
Author:
Juan Meng , University of Georgia
This document is the table of contents and introduction for Volume 3, Issue 2 of the Journal of Public Relations Education from November 2017.
The table of contents lists 4 research articles on topics related to public relations education such as analyzing perceptions of job skills between PR students and supervisors. It also lists 3 "GIFT" articles which are teaching ideas/assignments for PR instructors. Finally it lists a book review.
The introduction discusses the benefits of internships for students in terms of career outcomes. It also discusses gaps that can exist between what skills/characteristics students and supervisors perceive as important. The study aims to use coorientation theory to examine the levels of agreement between students and supervisors on key job skills
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
This study explored student self-perceptions of writing skills in mass communication programs at 13 public state universities in the Mid-Atlantic region. Responses to three open-ended questions revealed heavy student concern with their basic skills, a desire for extensive faculty contact and feedback, and for many respondents, an immaturity or naiveté regarding professional standards. This study addresses implications for faculty members who wish to better understand their students in order to devise more effective writing instruction.
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Abstract
Working professionals may need post-baccalaureate education, but finding time and resources to do so may be difficult. An analysis of 75 university masterís programs in public relations found 22 related programs offering communication certificates. A web audit of these programs, plus a survey and in-depth interviews, indicated professionals are interested in earning certificates, particularly in social and digital media strategy and measurement. Professionals want to attend certificate programs that combine online and face-to-face instruction.
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica†Smith, Abilene Christian University
Abstract
Student-led advertising and/or public relations agencies have increasingly become an educational component of university ad/PR programs. Previous research has established the value that advisers see in the agencies, and this study reports student perceptions of agency involvement. The survey (N = 210) found that participants rated the opportunity to work with real clients, the importance of their universities having agencies, and the increase in their own job marketability as the most positive aspects of the agency experience. Participants said that the most highly rated skills that agency participation built were the ability to work with clients, working in a team structure, and interpersonal skills.
Tiffany Derville Gallicano, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 128-132
"The purpose of this assignment is to adopt a strategic planning approach to the task of creating engaging social media content in a real-world context. For this assignment, students work as a class to set a weekly research-based objective and work in teams to plan the communication department’s Facebook fan page content for every day of a work week (Monday-Friday) during the semester. Other fan page account administrators can post important departmental content throughout the semester without disrupting the week-by-week student takeovers of the fan page. This assignment has been popular in social media and public relations strategy classes. This assignment provides an experiential way for students to apply basic statistical concepts, assessment data, and message design theories. In addition, it has the benefit of serving as a potential resume item and portfolio sample."
Authors:
Juan Meng, University of Georgia
Introduction
Organizations are operating in environments characterized by rapid change and increasing communication complexity. Thus, the development and education of communication leaders who are able to navigate and respond effectively and strategically in such dynamic environments has become equally critical for organizations. As a consequence, the implications for integrating leadership education, training, and development into public relations curriculum are profound. If we, as educators, can enhance both communication skills and leadership development for public relations majors, our graduates will be able to develop a sustainable competitive advantage and provide long-term value to organizations. Although the profession has advocated for leveraging the roles of public relations to a managerial and strategic level, the actual effort in building up the pipeline of future leaders in the profession is delayed. In higher education, there is a remarkable scarcity in designing, integrating, and delivering leadership in public relations teaching and education.
Mary E. Brooks and Emily S. Kinsky, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 119-122
"Based off Food Network’s Chopped challenge, the Mystery Basket PR Challenge is a competition that focuses on creativity, speed, and skill in which students are given a box of mystery 'ingredients' (e.g., brand, crisis, strategy, channel, speaker, audience) they have to use to complete an assigned task (e.g., a tweet, an official statement, a headline). For example, a box might have a brand name, a particular crisis, a group of people affected and a celebrity, and the task would be to write a headline for a news release, keeping in mind which crisis response strategy from Benoit (1997) or Coombs (2007) might be most appropriate. Students open the box and have a limited time in their groups to complete the task, which they then pitch to the judges (faculty and local professionals). This requires teamwork and application of lessons learned in class as the student groups compete against each other."
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility:
Exploring the Mediating Role of
Out-of-Class Communication
ABSTRACT
Every generation experiences distinct events and develops unique
values. As Millennial learners enter classrooms, they bring with
them new views about education, learning and faculty/student
communication. This study explores the mediating role of out-ofclass
communication (OCC) in relation to the historical dimensions
known to compose faculty credibility. Findings indicate that OCC
has a positive, mediating influence that enhances two of the three
key dimensions of credibility for faculty members: trustworthiness
and perceived caring. In addition, this study suggests that there
is a fourth potential dimension that composes the construct
of faculty credibility in the perspectives of Millennial learners:
sociability, which should be included alongside the three historical
dimensions scholars have used in previous studies.
Teaching Digital and
Social Media Analytics:
Exploring Best Practices and Future
Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy
ABSTRACT
One of the growing areas within public relations is digital and social
media analytics. Teaching the use of analytics to communication
students is not new, but studying what is being taught is almost
non-existent. The public relations research literature has supported
exploring the value of data analysis to gain audience insights, to
measure communication strategies, and to evaluate campaign
efforts. The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which
faculty are teaching social media analytics. Two content analyses
were conducted to explore trends of digital and social media
analytics training. Authors analyzed related course syllabi and a
Twitter chat on the subject sponsored by the AEJMC PR Division
and PRSA Educators Academy. Findings and future implications
in teaching digital and social media analytics for educators and
public relations practitioners are discussed.
What do Employers Want? What Should
Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of
Entry-Level Employment Ads
in Public Relations
ABSTRACT
Public relations remains a popular major at the undergraduate level;
faculty want to provide the best educational experience for their
students to help them secure jobs. This research explores entrylevel
employment ads in public relations as a way to understand
what skills employers want and expect new graduates to have. A
content analysis of 199 entry-level employment ads posted to the
Public Relations Society of America Job Center was conducted.
Major findings include the need for graduates to possess not
only hard skills such as writing but also soft skill abilities, such
as time management, deadline orientation, and collaboration. In
addition, it was found that few job ads specifically request that
future employees have a public relations degree. Finally, although
many of the ads that were examined call for a future employee to
have the skills traditionally associated with the technician role, the
authors suggest a new practitioner role has come into existence.
This role, which bridges the technician and manager, is called
the manager’s apprentice, and it requires knowledge of tactics
and writing, as well as familiarity with measurement, social media
strategy, and data collection.
Social media, social media pedagogy, public relations education
Carolyn Kim, Biola University
Karen Freberg, University of Louisville
Journal of Public Relations Education - JPRE Vol 2 Issue 2 2016
The document discusses the challenges that professors face when teaching social media courses. Through interviews with 31 social media professors, several key themes emerged. Professors viewed teaching social media as the most labor-intensive but also most rewarding course, as it requires staying up-to-date with changing tools and trends and grading large volumes of student social media work. However, professors also encountered resistance from students, who did not want to use social media for professional purposes or share personal opinions publicly. Overall, the interviews aimed to understand professors' perspectives on teaching social media and how to best implement social media pedagogy in the classroom.
Journal of Public Relations Education Volume 4, Issue 2, Fall 2018 [complete issue]
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility: Exploring the Mediating Role of Out-of-Class Communication by Carolyn Mae Kim
What do Employers Want? What Should Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of Entry-Level Employment Ads in Public Relations by Brigitta R. Brunner, Kim Zarkin, & Bradford L. Yates
Teaching Digital and Social Media Analytics: Exploring Best Practices and Future Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy by Michele E. Ewing, Carolyn Mae Kim, Emily S. Kinsky, Stefanie Moore, & Karen Freberg
GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHERS 2018
Teaching Briefs
Building a Social Learning Flock: Using Twitter Chats to Enhance Experiential Learning Across Universities by Amanda J. Weed, Karen Freberg, Emily S. Kinsky, & Amber L. Hutchins
Diagnosing Health Campaigns: A Campaign Evaluation Assignment by Laura E. Willis
Teaching Trolling: Management and Strategy by Leslie Rasmussen
Sparking Creativity Through Purpose-Driven Storytelling by Chris Cooney
Looking in to see out: An Introspective Approach to Teaching Ethics in PR by Regina Luttrell & Jamie Ward
Social Media Campaigns: Strategies for Public Relations and Marketing --Book Review by Matthew J. Kushin
Meltwater Media Intelligence Software--Review by Matthew J. Kushin
This document summarizes a study that interviewed 8 business professors about their perceptions of how social media has influenced students' critical thinking and job skills. 5 themes emerged from the interviews: 1) applying concepts across contexts, 2) case method teaching, 3) discussing and collaborating online, 4) building information literacy, and 5) learning from experts on social media. The professors felt social media exposure helped students develop these skills through intentional learning experiences represented by these 5 themes. The implications include enhancing education in business schools and helping employers understand graduates' social media-influenced skills.
JPRE: Can every class be a Twitter chat? Cross-institutional collaboration an...Robert French
JPRE Vol. 1, No. 1 - Can every class be a Twitter chat? Cross-institutional collaboration and experiential learning in the social media classroom, Journal of Public Relations Education
Book Review by Teddi A. Joyce, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 133-135
Book Title: Real World Career Preparation: A Guide to Creating a University Student-Run Communications Agency
By: Douglas J. Swanson (2017)
This document describes a new approach to teaching public relations campaigns that aims to address problems with the traditional "divide and conquer" method. The traditional approach has students divide into static teams that each work independently on separate sections of a campaign. This often results in unequal work distribution and a lack of collaboration. The new approach requires students to serve on rotating research, campaign book, and strategy teams throughout the semester. Each team is responsible for developing a specific section, with all students providing input. This encourages collaboration, ensures all students understand the entire campaign, and solves issues around work distribution and quality associated with the traditional method.
Thomasena Shaw, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 59-77
Abstract
"Internships have significant early career advantages for undergraduates including less time finding a first employment position, increased monetary compensation and greater overall job satisfaction. Considerable professional and scholarly evidence highlights the important role of undergraduate internships, as well as gaps that exist between students and supervisors regarding the relative importance of specific job skills and professional characteristics. While previous studies have explored the underlying feelings and expectations of the two groups in professional and academic contexts, this exploratory case study uses coorientation as the theoretical framework to examine the levels of agreement, congruency and accuracy that exist between them in relation to key jobs skills and professional characteristics linked with career success; it also provides insight into the extent to which respondents perceive that the internship improved students’ college-learning outcomes. The key findings of this study indicate that the majority of respondents believed that the experience improved performance in relation to college learning outcomes. The study also found that students and supervisors are accurately cooriented with one another in relation to job skills items, but less so when it comes to professional characteristics. This could be particularly problematic for student interns as misperceptions and misunderstanding can potentially lead to missed opportunities for collaboration and integration, and/or a self-fulfilling prophecy where supervisors’ lack of coorientation damages the possibility of a cooperative relationship with current and future student interns, and the academic programs that bring them together."
1) Some students felt that Twitter helped their learning by allowing the expression of various viewpoints and learning from classmates, though others felt this did not always occur in practice.
2) A major drawback mentioned was the potential for Twitter use to distract students into using social media unrelated to class.
3) Some students disliked having their speech limited to Twitter's 140-character tweets.
"Media Relations Instruction and Theory Development: A Relational Dialectical Approach" by Pettigrew in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
There has been almost no research in the area of media relations
instruction in the public relations literature. This study seeks to fill a
gap in theory-building in the area of media relations and examines
the state of media relations instruction in today’s public relations
curriculum through a survey of public relations professors. The
author suggests relational dialectical theory as a way to better
understand the relationship between public relations practitioners
and journalists, and proposes a relational dialectical approach
to theory-building and in teaching media relations in today’s
changing landscape.
Table of Contents
Research Articles
Can every class be a Twitter chat?: Cross-institutional collaboration and experiential learning in the social media classroom
Authors:
Julia Daisy Fraustino, West Virginia University
Rowena Briones, Virginia Commonwealth University
Melissa Jansoke, University of Memphis
In their own words: A thematic analysis of students’ comments about their writing skills in mass communication programs
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Teaching Briefs
Integrating leadership in public relations education to
develop future leaders
Author:
Juan Meng , University of Georgia
This document is the table of contents and introduction for Volume 3, Issue 2 of the Journal of Public Relations Education from November 2017.
The table of contents lists 4 research articles on topics related to public relations education such as analyzing perceptions of job skills between PR students and supervisors. It also lists 3 "GIFT" articles which are teaching ideas/assignments for PR instructors. Finally it lists a book review.
The introduction discusses the benefits of internships for students in terms of career outcomes. It also discusses gaps that can exist between what skills/characteristics students and supervisors perceive as important. The study aims to use coorientation theory to examine the levels of agreement between students and supervisors on key job skills
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
This study explored student self-perceptions of writing skills in mass communication programs at 13 public state universities in the Mid-Atlantic region. Responses to three open-ended questions revealed heavy student concern with their basic skills, a desire for extensive faculty contact and feedback, and for many respondents, an immaturity or naiveté regarding professional standards. This study addresses implications for faculty members who wish to better understand their students in order to devise more effective writing instruction.
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Abstract
Working professionals may need post-baccalaureate education, but finding time and resources to do so may be difficult. An analysis of 75 university masterís programs in public relations found 22 related programs offering communication certificates. A web audit of these programs, plus a survey and in-depth interviews, indicated professionals are interested in earning certificates, particularly in social and digital media strategy and measurement. Professionals want to attend certificate programs that combine online and face-to-face instruction.
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica†Smith, Abilene Christian University
Abstract
Student-led advertising and/or public relations agencies have increasingly become an educational component of university ad/PR programs. Previous research has established the value that advisers see in the agencies, and this study reports student perceptions of agency involvement. The survey (N = 210) found that participants rated the opportunity to work with real clients, the importance of their universities having agencies, and the increase in their own job marketability as the most positive aspects of the agency experience. Participants said that the most highly rated skills that agency participation built were the ability to work with clients, working in a team structure, and interpersonal skills.
Tiffany Derville Gallicano, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 128-132
"The purpose of this assignment is to adopt a strategic planning approach to the task of creating engaging social media content in a real-world context. For this assignment, students work as a class to set a weekly research-based objective and work in teams to plan the communication department’s Facebook fan page content for every day of a work week (Monday-Friday) during the semester. Other fan page account administrators can post important departmental content throughout the semester without disrupting the week-by-week student takeovers of the fan page. This assignment has been popular in social media and public relations strategy classes. This assignment provides an experiential way for students to apply basic statistical concepts, assessment data, and message design theories. In addition, it has the benefit of serving as a potential resume item and portfolio sample."
Authors:
Juan Meng, University of Georgia
Introduction
Organizations are operating in environments characterized by rapid change and increasing communication complexity. Thus, the development and education of communication leaders who are able to navigate and respond effectively and strategically in such dynamic environments has become equally critical for organizations. As a consequence, the implications for integrating leadership education, training, and development into public relations curriculum are profound. If we, as educators, can enhance both communication skills and leadership development for public relations majors, our graduates will be able to develop a sustainable competitive advantage and provide long-term value to organizations. Although the profession has advocated for leveraging the roles of public relations to a managerial and strategic level, the actual effort in building up the pipeline of future leaders in the profession is delayed. In higher education, there is a remarkable scarcity in designing, integrating, and delivering leadership in public relations teaching and education.
Mary E. Brooks and Emily S. Kinsky, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 119-122
"Based off Food Network’s Chopped challenge, the Mystery Basket PR Challenge is a competition that focuses on creativity, speed, and skill in which students are given a box of mystery 'ingredients' (e.g., brand, crisis, strategy, channel, speaker, audience) they have to use to complete an assigned task (e.g., a tweet, an official statement, a headline). For example, a box might have a brand name, a particular crisis, a group of people affected and a celebrity, and the task would be to write a headline for a news release, keeping in mind which crisis response strategy from Benoit (1997) or Coombs (2007) might be most appropriate. Students open the box and have a limited time in their groups to complete the task, which they then pitch to the judges (faculty and local professionals). This requires teamwork and application of lessons learned in class as the student groups compete against each other."
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility:
Exploring the Mediating Role of
Out-of-Class Communication
ABSTRACT
Every generation experiences distinct events and develops unique
values. As Millennial learners enter classrooms, they bring with
them new views about education, learning and faculty/student
communication. This study explores the mediating role of out-ofclass
communication (OCC) in relation to the historical dimensions
known to compose faculty credibility. Findings indicate that OCC
has a positive, mediating influence that enhances two of the three
key dimensions of credibility for faculty members: trustworthiness
and perceived caring. In addition, this study suggests that there
is a fourth potential dimension that composes the construct
of faculty credibility in the perspectives of Millennial learners:
sociability, which should be included alongside the three historical
dimensions scholars have used in previous studies.
Teaching Digital and
Social Media Analytics:
Exploring Best Practices and Future
Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy
ABSTRACT
One of the growing areas within public relations is digital and social
media analytics. Teaching the use of analytics to communication
students is not new, but studying what is being taught is almost
non-existent. The public relations research literature has supported
exploring the value of data analysis to gain audience insights, to
measure communication strategies, and to evaluate campaign
efforts. The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which
faculty are teaching social media analytics. Two content analyses
were conducted to explore trends of digital and social media
analytics training. Authors analyzed related course syllabi and a
Twitter chat on the subject sponsored by the AEJMC PR Division
and PRSA Educators Academy. Findings and future implications
in teaching digital and social media analytics for educators and
public relations practitioners are discussed.
What do Employers Want? What Should
Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of
Entry-Level Employment Ads
in Public Relations
ABSTRACT
Public relations remains a popular major at the undergraduate level;
faculty want to provide the best educational experience for their
students to help them secure jobs. This research explores entrylevel
employment ads in public relations as a way to understand
what skills employers want and expect new graduates to have. A
content analysis of 199 entry-level employment ads posted to the
Public Relations Society of America Job Center was conducted.
Major findings include the need for graduates to possess not
only hard skills such as writing but also soft skill abilities, such
as time management, deadline orientation, and collaboration. In
addition, it was found that few job ads specifically request that
future employees have a public relations degree. Finally, although
many of the ads that were examined call for a future employee to
have the skills traditionally associated with the technician role, the
authors suggest a new practitioner role has come into existence.
This role, which bridges the technician and manager, is called
the manager’s apprentice, and it requires knowledge of tactics
and writing, as well as familiarity with measurement, social media
strategy, and data collection.
Social media, social media pedagogy, public relations education
Carolyn Kim, Biola University
Karen Freberg, University of Louisville
Journal of Public Relations Education - JPRE Vol 2 Issue 2 2016
The document discusses the challenges that professors face when teaching social media courses. Through interviews with 31 social media professors, several key themes emerged. Professors viewed teaching social media as the most labor-intensive but also most rewarding course, as it requires staying up-to-date with changing tools and trends and grading large volumes of student social media work. However, professors also encountered resistance from students, who did not want to use social media for professional purposes or share personal opinions publicly. Overall, the interviews aimed to understand professors' perspectives on teaching social media and how to best implement social media pedagogy in the classroom.
Journal of Public Relations Education Volume 4, Issue 2, Fall 2018 [complete issue]
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility: Exploring the Mediating Role of Out-of-Class Communication by Carolyn Mae Kim
What do Employers Want? What Should Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of Entry-Level Employment Ads in Public Relations by Brigitta R. Brunner, Kim Zarkin, & Bradford L. Yates
Teaching Digital and Social Media Analytics: Exploring Best Practices and Future Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy by Michele E. Ewing, Carolyn Mae Kim, Emily S. Kinsky, Stefanie Moore, & Karen Freberg
GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHERS 2018
Teaching Briefs
Building a Social Learning Flock: Using Twitter Chats to Enhance Experiential Learning Across Universities by Amanda J. Weed, Karen Freberg, Emily S. Kinsky, & Amber L. Hutchins
Diagnosing Health Campaigns: A Campaign Evaluation Assignment by Laura E. Willis
Teaching Trolling: Management and Strategy by Leslie Rasmussen
Sparking Creativity Through Purpose-Driven Storytelling by Chris Cooney
Looking in to see out: An Introspective Approach to Teaching Ethics in PR by Regina Luttrell & Jamie Ward
Social Media Campaigns: Strategies for Public Relations and Marketing --Book Review by Matthew J. Kushin
Meltwater Media Intelligence Software--Review by Matthew J. Kushin
This document summarizes a study that interviewed 8 business professors about their perceptions of how social media has influenced students' critical thinking and job skills. 5 themes emerged from the interviews: 1) applying concepts across contexts, 2) case method teaching, 3) discussing and collaborating online, 4) building information literacy, and 5) learning from experts on social media. The professors felt social media exposure helped students develop these skills through intentional learning experiences represented by these 5 themes. The implications include enhancing education in business schools and helping employers understand graduates' social media-influenced skills.
JPRE: Can every class be a Twitter chat? Cross-institutional collaboration an...Robert French
JPRE Vol. 1, No. 1 - Can every class be a Twitter chat? Cross-institutional collaboration and experiential learning in the social media classroom, Journal of Public Relations Education
This document summarizes a study that explored the use of Twitter among Korean boy band fan club members in Thailand. The study used a survey of 68 fans to examine how their Twitter usage and behaviors may change based on the number of followers they have. The study found that having more followers can create pressure to post certain types of content and restrict expressing opinions. It also found that Twitter is used for social interactions, information sharing, and expressing opinions, which aligns with Uses and Gratification theory about motivations for using different media.
This document discusses how the shipping company Maersk Line uses social media to create transparency, empowerment, and engagement with its audiences. It focuses on Maersk's listen-and-learn strategy on social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter. The strategy aims to build relationships by understanding audience interests and topics and selecting the appropriate social media channels and content. When done effectively through ongoing dedication and alignment, a social media strategy can help form valuable connections with key stakeholders.
Creating Virtual Communities of Practice with the Visual Social Media Platfor...Rochell McWhorter
This paper reports results of a mixed methods study on the use of the visual social media platform Pinterest in the higher education classroom. Research methods included data collection of Pre-Experience and Post-Experience student surveys from two disciplines, Education and Business, regarding students’ experiences using Pinterest for learning. A total of 227 students (189 undergraduate and 38 graduate students) participated in the study. Findings included student attitudes regarding the usability of Pinterest in the classroom setting, student learning and development, and ways Pinterest facilitated the development of a virtual community of practice. Recommendations for future classroom use is given. Note: This is the last author’s copy prior to publishing. The final, definitive version of this article has been published in International Journal of Social Media and Interactive Environments, 2(3). Available at http://www.inderscience.com/offer.php?id=64205
New Visual Social Media for the Higher Education ClassroomRochell McWhorter
Authors: Julie A. Delello and Rochell R McWhorter
This chapter examines how next-generation visual social platforms motivate students to capture authentic evidence of their learning and achievements, publish digital artifacts, and share content across visual social media. Educators are facing the immediate task of integrating social media into their current practice to meet the needs of the twenty-first century learner. Using a case study, this chapter highlights through empirical work how nascent visual social media platforms such as Pinterest are being utilized in the college classroom and concludes with projections on ways visual networking platforms will transform traditional models of education.
The document discusses utilizing weight allocation in a term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) environment to identify and remove noisy data from social media for improved customer segmentation and targeted advertising. Specifically, it aims to recognize keywords that can help cluster social media users based on demographics and behaviors while eliminating uninfluential data. The approach assigns higher weight to words that frequently appear in a document but rarely in the entire collection compared to common words.
Getting graphic About Infographics: Design Lessons Learned From Popular Infog...Patrick Lowenthal
People learn and remember more efficiently and effectively through the use of text and visuals than through text alone. Infographics are one way of presenting complex and dense informational content in a way that supports cognitive processing, learning, and future recognition and recollection. But the power of infographics is that they are a way of delivering the maximum amount of content in the least amount of space while still being precise and clear; because they are visual presentations as opposed to oral or text presentations, they can quickly tell a story, show relationships, and reveal structure. The following paper reports on an exploration of top 20 “liked” infographics on a popular infographic sharing website in an effort to better understand what makes an effective infographic in order to better prepare graduate students as consumers and designers of infographics. The paper concludes with recommendations and strategies on how educators might leverage the power of infographics in their classrooms.
This guide was created for NeuroDevNet researchers and trainees (however it could also be useful to practitioners and KT professionals) with an interest in exploring infographics as a KT product. It begins with an evidence-informed introduction followed by an annotated bibliography of web-based resources and ends with appendices of evidence-informed worksheets (see Appendices A-E) created by the KT Core for you to use during the design and creation of your infographic. This guide is intended to provide you with information including: what is an infographic, what are the different types of infographics, what should you consider when planning your infographic, how you can either do it yourself or work with a graphic designer, and a form-fillable tool you can use to help you think through and collate the information you need before sketching a draft of your infographic.
This document discusses the convergence of media platforms, the rise of computational communication, and the continuity challenges this presents for public relations (PR). It notes that algorithms now play a central role in how communication and data are distributed, organized, and made sense of. This shifts some social power away from human PR practitioners towards algorithms. It raises ethical questions around algorithmic responsibility and transparency. However, PR can work with algorithms by creating engaging content tailored to them. Overall, computational communication will require PR to invest in new data and algorithm skills while maintaining human elements.
The document discusses how digital media and technology are impacting education in the information age. It notes that the amount of available information has exploded due to technology, requiring new cognitive skills from students. Technologies are allowing education to become more customized, individualized, and accessible from anywhere. The future of education will be increasingly digital. It explores how technologies are altering learning theories and requiring new media literacies from students. Non-linear media in particular allows for multidimensional, interactive learning compared to traditional linear formats. Overall, technologies are transforming education by making it more accessible, adaptive, and customized to individual students.
Digital Transformation in Higher Education – New Cohorts, New Requirements?. ...eraser Juan José Calderón
The document discusses digital transformation in higher education and how usage of digital platforms differs between groups in a university setting. A qualitative study was conducted through semi-structured interviews of bachelor students, master students, PhD students, and employees. The interviews aimed to understand how factors like team experience, task complexity, and technology accessibility influence platform usage. Preliminary results found bachelor and master students prefer social media for collaboration while PhD students and employees do not, and communication between groups still relies heavily on email.
Summary of the Impact of a Non-Fiction, Low Budget, Digital Social Media ProjectIJITE
This summary includes a synopsis of a 5-year social media exploratory project: non-fiction Facebook
advert plus a literature review to support the dissemination of the results relating to the technique and the
theme of 'making digital work'.
A digital marketing strategy ideally should incorporate a range of methods and budgets (qualitative and
quantitative in design) and this has been an aim of this work. To summarise, the 'reach' of 26 Facebook
posts (this included adverts and social messages: organic and non-organic design) for an approximate
£50.00 budget resulted in 6,239 people (reach/saw the advert) outside of Britain. The impact is the
primary data ‘reach’ results for this project. Collectively, by 2024, the primary and secondary methods
provided a result of 86,860 findings.
Social computing refers to the intersection of social behavior and computational systems. It involves using technology to support social interactions and the formation of online communities. In education, social computing tools can facilitate collaboration on projects between students located in different places. They make it easy for people to jointly work on projects and share ideas. Teachers can use social computing to evaluate student work in progress and provide feedback.
SUPPORTING STATISTICAL LITERACY WITH ICT-BASED TEACHING SCENARIOijejournal
Statistical literacy is gaining recognition as something that people should have in order to function fully in 21st century’s society. On a daily basis an enormous volume of data are available through the Web; making the best of it demands possession of a high level of statistical training. In this paper we present a new technology-augmented teaching scenario, implemented in a way that it may be fully utilized by both teachers and students. Using the features of the web-based platform statistics4school – a free online educational tool for statistical analysis in the Greek language – it paths a teaching method that can be readily facilitated in the classroom. The presented worksheet allows students to have an interdisciplinary approach and be actively involved in the learning process through the exploratory teaching method. In this manner we maintain they will be able to correctly comprehend the goals of the teaching scenario, as they progressively develop their statistical, optical, and digital literacy.
Interactive media usage among millennial consumerAsliza Hamzah
This article analyzes interactive media usage patterns among millennial consumers compared to Generation X and Baby Boomer cohorts. The study uses decision tree analysis of survey data from over 3,000 US consumers to generate models of usage across 21 technology applications. The models show that millennials use interactive media significantly more than older cohorts for 14 applications. Millennials employ interactive technologies for both utilitarian purposes like information gathering as well as entertainment. However, they are less likely to purchase online compared to older groups, presenting opportunities for multi-channel retailers and challenges for online-only retailers.
Interactive media usage among millennial consumerAsliza Hamzah
The document summarizes a study that uses decision tree analysis to generate models comparing interactive media usage among Millennial, Generation X, and Baby Boomer consumers. The study finds:
1) Millennial respondents indicate significantly higher usage of interactive media (such as social media and online reviews) compared to older generations for most activities.
2) Models show Millennials use interactive technologies for both utilitarian purposes like information gathering as well as entertainment, though they are less likely to purchase online than older groups.
3) Findings provide both empirical support and extensions to previous research on motivations for interactive media usage from a "uses and gratifications" perspective, and suggest directions for understanding economic versus emotional uses of technologies
Digital literacy is an important skill for social services practitioners to effectively access and use online information resources. It includes skills like identifying trustworthy online information, communicating digitally, and participating in online communities of practice. Developing digital literacy can help practitioners overcome barriers like limited internet access and preference for verbal communication, and allow for knowledge sharing networks. A pilot project created an online community for practitioners to discuss cases, share evidence, and build research and information literacy skills through supported collaboration.
This document discusses the benefits of online social networks (OSNs) for young people's daily lives. It finds that OSNs can help with educational outcomes, identity formation, and promoting belonging and self-esteem. OSNs allow young people to share content, maintain relationships, and engage in peer-based and interactive learning outside of formal education settings. The informal knowledge and skills developed on OSNs, such as media literacy, can also benefit young people. However, risks like privacy breaches and cyberbullying still exist, so developing strategies to manage online risks is important.
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This document summarizes the Fall 2018 issue of the Journal of Public Relations Education. It includes an introduction from the editor, a table of contents listing three research articles and teaching briefs on public relations education topics, and two software reviews of social media monitoring tools. The issue reflects work from previous editors and reviewers to select and format research and teaching content for publication.
This document provides instructions for a two-part assignment in which students create a multimedia story about their transformation from a college student to a communication professional. In part one, students write a structured narrative describing their personal and professional goals grounded in their values. In part two, students translate this narrative into a multimedia presentation using Adobe Spark, learning strategic content creation and digital storytelling. The assignment aims to develop students' problem-solving, creativity, and multimedia storytelling skills for public relations practice.
This teaching brief describes a group assignment where students evaluate real-world health communication campaigns developed by the CDC. Students are divided into groups and each analyzes a different CDC campaign. They discuss how the campaign addressed key components of design like research, messaging, and evaluation. They also consider how the CDC communicates about the campaigns on its website. The goal is for students to apply their learning and get experience critically analyzing actual public health campaigns. Student feedback indicates the assignment helps them better understand how theory and research inform strategic health communication in practice.
"Improving PR Campaigns with a Roll of the Dice: Assuming New Identities to Strengthen Diversity and Inclusion" by Bruhn in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol 4, Issue 1, Spring 2018
"Developing a Blueprint for Social Media Pedagogy: Trials, Tribulations, and Best Practices" by Zhang and Freberg in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
Social media research, and particularly social media pedagogy,
has increased substantially as a domain in public relations
research. Yet, along with this increased focus on social media
pedagogy, educators and other higher education professionals
are under pressure from industry, professional communities,
and university administrations to keep their classes updated and
relevant for their students. To better understand the current state
and rising expectations facing educators teaching social media,
we interviewed 31 social media professors to explore the trials and
tribulations of their journey and to identify best practices for social
media as a pedagogical tool. The study also suggests a blueprint
for implementing social media pedagogy in the classroom. Future
implications for both research and practice are discussed.
Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
Book Review of "Public Relations and the Corporate Persona: The Rise of the Affinitive Organization" by Burton St. John III; review by Christie Kleinmann
Research Articles
I love tweeting in class, but.... A qualitative study of student perceptions of the impact of Twitter in large lecture classes Jenny Tatone, University of Oregon Tiffany Derville Gallicano, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Alec Tefertiller, University of Oregon
Preparing students for the global workplace: Current practices and future directions in international public relations education
Rajul Jain, DePaul University
Teaching media relationships: What’s in the textbooks? Justin E. Pettigrew, Kennesaw State University Kristen Heflin, Kennesaw State University
Teaching Briefs
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Educating students for the social, digital and information world: Teaching public relations infographic design
1. INTRODUCTION
Social media have transformed public relations education, forcing students to
apply traditional public relations principles, such as transparency and clarity, to new
forms of communications such as infographics. Infographics are design pieces that may
include “data visualizations, illustrations, text, and images together into a format that
tells a complete story” (Krum, 2013, p. 6). In the contemporary mediascape that caters
to low-attention spans, infographics have become hugely popular forms of communica-
tion. Public relations firms are using the medium to build awareness of products and
brands, provide information to shareholders, and increase the value of the brand or
cause (Krum, 2013, p. 88). Effectively creating infographics requires an understanding
Journal of Public Relations Education
Volume 3 (2), 2017, 78-95
Educating students for the social, digital & information world:
Teaching public relations infographic design
Diana C. Sisson, Auburn University
Tara M. Mortensen, University of South Carolina
Abstract
This study employs an exploratory content analysis of current public
relations information graphics to examine variables within two con-
cepts pertaining to public relations: transparency and clarity. These
two concepts were chosen because they apply to both traditional public
relations practice and are also widely taught amongst contemporary
infographics design experts. The subjects of the study are nonprofit
organizations’ online informational graphics (N = 376) that have been
released on Twitter. Findings suggest that nonprofit organizations are
not applying traditional public relations principles to their design of
online information graphics, demonstrating difficulty in translating
these principles to visual design, a skill that is becoming more im-
portant. While the study is not intended to generalize, this snapshot of
current practice is used to offer improvements in preparing public re-
lations students for communication with information visualizations.
This exploration illuminates the need for public relations education
geared toward the social, visual, and data-driven environment. To this
end, the study uses these findings to develop an initial set of practices
for infographic design that can be implemented into current public re-
lations education.
Keywords: infographics, public relations, visual communication, non-
profit organizations, public relations education, visual literacy
2. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 79
of visual communication principles and for niche industries such as public relations,
requires translating legacy principles to new forms of communication. Data visualiza-
tions are compelling to audiences, and “present the illusion of trustworthiness due to
their visual nature and presentation of statistical information” (Toth, 2013, p. 449).
Thus, understanding how to correctly present data in visual form is imperative.
No research was found by the researchers regarding how public relations pro-
fessionals are applying traditional principles to the design of information graphics, nor
how students can better prepare to work in a modern media environment. Given the
popularity of infographic use among nonprofit organizations in an online environment,
these are significant gaps. This exploratory study examines public relations graphics
released via Twitter to identify the manner in which the principles of transparency and
clarity are being applied, and to ultimately offer an initial list of suggestions for public
relations educators.
Based on a review of the literature in the following sections, opportunities for
further study arose and research questions are proposed. Visuals as a form of communi-
cation in the contemporary visual-social mediascape will be introduced, concentrating
on infographics. A discussion of the importance and communicative powers of visuals
will also be undertaken. Following, the variables within the concepts of transparency
and clarity will be laid out as they pertain to public relations and visual communication,
specifically infographics.
LITERATURE REVIEW
An Onion article jokes that people “shudder” at large blocks of uninterrupted
text, requiring a colorful photo, an illustration, or a chart to comprehend the information
(“Nation shudders,” 2010). Satire aside, contemporary news consumers are indeed
skimmers, primarily reading exciting words and facts, as well as headlines and visuals
(Nielsen, 2011; Rosenwald, 2014). This trend has contributed to a massive increase in
the use of infographics to spread information, as well as a need for educators to teach
new tools.
Between 2013 and 2015, Google searches for infographics increased 800%
(Meacham, 2015). Infographics intend to tell a story primarily in pictures, while mini-
mizing the number of words and maximizing visual impact (Meacham, 2015). The pro-
duction of data and its graphic representation were once specialized trades but are now
accessible to nearly everyone (Yaffa, 2011). Infographics harness the power of visuals
to grab readers’ attention, reduce the amount of time it takes to understand data, provide
context by showing comparisons, and make messages more emotional, memorable and
accessible (Kimball & Hawkins, 2008; Kostelnick & Roberts, 2010; Schafer, 1995;
Tufte, 2003).
In an age of “fake news” and audience mistrust of traditional media sources,
understanding how to communicate truthfully in multiple forms is particularly important
for students (Rutenberg, 2016). The 2016 presidential elections brought the term “fake
news” into mainstream awareness, raising widespread knowledge of the viral spread of
untruthful information via social-networking sites (Wingfield, Isaac, & Benner, 2016).
Twitter and Facebook have been urged to take their part of the responsibility in this
spread, and tomorrow’s communicators, too, must be prepared to understand, identify,
and create truthful and clear visual-statistical messages. Members of the media, follow-
ing Kellyanne Conway, have used the term “alternative facts” to describe a problematic
trend of a growing perception of multiple truths, which affects the credibility of politi-
cians, corporations and the media (Rutenberg, 2017, para. 7). Data design has special
3. Sisson 80
considerations in this regard (Kienzler, 1997; Rosenquist, 2012; Stallworth, 2008; Tufte,
2001). Visual content creators can accidentally and easily mislead their audience be-
cause visuals earn more importance and emotional impact than texts (Kienzler, 1997).
Infographics can unintentionally distort or make data opaque to gain viewers (McArdle,
2011). As Toth (2013) noted, infographics represent an extension of fundamental issues,
including “presenting information clearly and succinctly, targeting audiences, defining
clear purposes, developing ethos, understanding document design principles, using per-
suasion techniques effectively, branding, and conducting and summarizing research” (p.
451).
Public Relations Education and Visual Communication
Educational materials for creating and disseminating infographics have only
recently been developed and are not widely adopted within the various streams of com-
munication education. Experts on infographics contend that there are thousands of poor-
ly-constructed infographics online, but “the good designs rise to the top and are the de-
signs that most often go viral in social networks” (Krum, 2013, p. 271). The challenge is
melding the principles of various fields, including public relations, with the principles of
infographic design and visual communication.
Researchers and professionals have noted the increased need for education in
infographics in public relations due to employers’ demand for such skills and increased
usage in the field (Gallicano, Ekachai, & Freberg, 2014). Advocates of visual literacy
have long held that visual education, including knowledge of how to create visuals, is
the missing piece of contemporary education (Metros, 2008; Sosa, 2009). Visuals have
a powerful impact on audiences in ways that text does not. Visuals grab readers’ atten-
tion (Boerman, Smith, & van Meurs, 2011) and stick in the memory longer than other
forms of communications (Graber, 1990). Krum (2013) referred to this as the “picture
superiority effect” (p. 20). Further, images are subject to less scrutiny than other forms
of communication (Messaris, 1994, p. x). In other words, viewers of images tend to be-
lieve what they see (Newton, 2013; Wheeler, 2001), and this is especially the case with
visualized data (Cairo, 2012; Krum, 2013). While modern college students are consum-
ers and producers of highly visual content on the web, they lack the skills to effectively
communicate visually (Metros, 2008). Visual intelligence influences perceptions and
interpretations of visual materials (Moriarty, 1996). Schools are encouraged to introduce
concepts of visual literacy to understand, analyze, interpret and create effective visual
information (Burns, 2006).
ACEJMC suggests, broadly, that all programs should teach students to apply
the appropriate tools and technologies for the communication professions in which they
work. There is greater importance to teach students visual communication skills due to
the digital landscape and shorter attention spans (Lester, 2015). This need is particularly
pertinent to public relations students and infographics. The Commission on Public Rela-
tions Education met in 2015 to discuss undergraduate public relations education, noting
a need for better verbal as well as graphic communications (p. 8). Kent (2013), in his
suggestions for using social media in public relations, states that publics are better
served by thoughtful, thorough, and relevant information including high-quality in-
fographics that contain complete information, rather than “eye-candy” (p. 343). Richard
Edelman (2012) said to public relations educators that, “There is a huge place for deep-
er, more informative visuals…which infographics – visual representations of infor-
mation, data or knowledge – provide” (p. 4).
The following sections of this paper review two principles of public relations,
and within each principle, rules of effective infographic design are applied. Transparen-
4. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 81
cy and clarity were examined because: 1) organizational transparency is necessary to
provide coherence, visibility, and clarity (Albu & Wehmeier, 2014); and, 2) clarity as-
sures that information communicated is easily understood by various publics and does
not contain jargon (Rawlins, 2009). Further, concepts of transparency and clarity each
encompass variables that theoretically and practically derive from and can be applied to
visual communications, specifically infographics. The researchers were interested in
studying the junction of these two fields and extracting implications for students who
will be working within this increasingly-popular, professional niche.
Transparency
Public relations students are taught to be transparent, but may not know how this
applies to infographic design. According to Rawlins (2009):
Transparency is the deliberate attempt to make available all legally releasable in-
formation—
whether positive or negative in nature—in a manner that is accurate, timely, bal-
anced, and
unequivocal, for the purpose of enhancing the reasoning ability of publics and
holding
organizations accountable for their actions, policies, and practices. (p. 75)
Plaisance (2007) argued while transparency “is not always a sufficient condition for
more ethical behavior, its absence is a prerequisite for deception” (p. 193). Transparen-
cy has been studied from conceptual (Rawlins, 2006, 2009), journalistic (Plaisance,
2007), and social media campaign (Burns, 2008; DiStaso & Bortree, 2012) perspectives.
Rawlins (2006) argued transparency is comprised of three components: participa-
tion, substantial information, and accountability. Drawing on previous transparency
literature, as well as on the Global Reporting Index (GRI) Guidelines and other guide-
lines promoting transparent communication, Rawlins (2006) found substantial infor-
mation was the “strongest predictor among transparency components” (p. 433). From
this perspective, Rawlins (2009) noted disclosure is about providing information, but
can be used to distort perspectives, rather than provide clarity.
Transparency has been studied from a social media campaign perspective (Burns,
2008) and from a dialogic perspective with particular focus on mutual understanding
(Albu & Wehmeier, 2014). Using content analysis, Burns (2008) examined the Wal-
Mart and Edelman “Wal-Marting Across America” blog crisis to argue that a lack of
transparency in blogging leads to harsh criticism despite classic crisis response strate-
gies such as apology. DiStaso and Bortree (2012) echoed similar sentiments about trans-
parency through their evaluation of award-winning campaigns. DiStaso and Bortree
(2012) found that many of the campaigns reflected transparency in that they “provid[ed]
information that is useful for others to make informed decisions” (p. 513). Transparency
in social media tactics kept organizations accountable to their publics (DiStaso &
Bortree, 2012). Albu and Wehmeier (2014) argued that transparency and dialogue were
“interconnected,” which was often overlooked in the literature (p. 129). Echoing
Rawlins (2009), they posited that disclosure alone was insufficient for publics’ under-
standing; rather, true understanding was based in the coherence, clarity, and visibility of
information (Albu & Wehmeier, 2014). In communicating transparently to foster mutual
understanding, Albu and Wehmeier (2014) argued accountability, credibility, and loyal-
ty of stakeholders may be heightened.
5. Sisson 82
Transparency and visual communications. While transparency is a vital prin-
ciple for public relations professionals to abide by, contemporary public relations educa-
tional materials fall short of teaching the application of transparency to infographics
design. On the same token, textbooks specific to visual communication explain the im-
portance of transparency in infographic design, but do little to translate these principles
to public relations (e.g., Knaflic, 2015; Krum, 2013; Smiciklas, 2012). Transparency
with data is, in fact, of utmost importance in the creation of infographics. Viewers tend
to see visualized data as both important and scientifically true, placing increased pres-
sure on infographic designers to be transparent about the data. To be transparent, the
infographic needs to “address the sources of the data included in the design in an open
and honest manner” (Krum, 2013, p. 295). Sharing where the data came from, the age of
the data, and the credibility of the data source can help establish the believability of the
data. Further, copyright law means that the designer of the infographic and the names of
any contributing illustrators and photographers be given credit (Lester, 2015; Walter &
Gioglio, 2014).
Still, a massive portion of information graphics appearing online have either no
data source listed, vague data sources provided, or simply provide questionable data
sources, including personal blogs and websites. Krum (2013) suggested infographic
designers should track down and cite the original source of data, list the source, and list
a specific URL to the exact report or dataset that was used, as well as including the date
of the data. Once an infographic is released online, its whereabouts will become unpre-
dictable. In fact, a purpose of infographic design is to “go viral.” Therefore, in addition
to source information, then, the bottom of an infographic must include the name of the
company that originally released it and a landing page URL that sends the viewer to the
original source of the infographic.
Transparency measures. The Global Reporting Index offers guidelines for
promoting transparent communication (Rawlins, 2009). The GRI indicated clarity, rele-
vance, timeliness, neutrality, sustainability context, and comparability were important
components in transparent communication (Rawlins, 2009).
Transparent communication should aid with decision-making by providing
relevant information to members of key publics (Global Reporting Index, as cited in
Rawlins, 2009). Transparent communication should be timely. The Global Reporting
Index defined timeliness as providing “information within a time frame that makes the
information usable” (as cited in Rawlins, 2009, p. 82). Transparent communication
should be neutral in order to avoid perceptions of deception. The GRI defined neutrality
as “avoid[ing] bias and striv[ing] for a balanced account of the company’s perfor-
mance” (as cited in Rawlins, 2009, p. 81). While transparent communication should be
neutral and timely, it should also provide a sustainability context to information. The
Global Reporting Index defined sustainability context as “identify[ing] how organiza-
tional behavior is contributing to effects on the environment, economy, and/or social
welfare” (as cited in Rawlins, 2009, p. 80). Furthermore, transparent communication
should be comparable. The GRI defined comparability as “easily compar[ing] to both
earlier performance of the company and to other similar organizations” (as cited in
Rawlins, 2009, p. 81).
Clarity
Public relations students are taught about presenting information clearly, but
infographic design has special implications for this principle, which may be less under-
stood. As delineated by the Global Reporting Index guidelines, information is clear, or
6. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 83
has clarity, when the information communicated is easily understood by various publics
and does not contain jargon (as cited in Rawlins, 2009). Furthermore, the GRI indicated
that clarity enhances understanding of information (as cited in Rawlins, 2009). Jargon,
or highly technical and industry-specific words or acronyms, hinders understanding of
organizational communication by members of key publics. Marken (1996) contended
that public relations professionals have a responsibility to communicate on behalf of
their organizations in a clear and concise manner, and public relations students are
taught to present information clearly.
Clarity and infographic design. When creating infographics, several prin-
ciples of design promote clarity. A primary purpose of creating infographics is to pro-
vide clarity to disorganized and difficult-to-understand data or ideas (Cairo, 2012). A
well-designed infographic should present information in a way that readers can see,
read, and explore information which would be too difficult to digest in its raw data form
(Cairo, 2012). As Krum (2013) said, “Nobody wants to read a text article that has been
converted into a JPG image file and then called an infographic” (p. 291), and further
stresses: “Using big fonts in an infographic to make the numbers stand out is not data
visualization…. Displaying the number in a large font doesn’t make it any easier for the
audience to understand” (p. 219). Therefore, the visualization of data in order to in-
crease comprehension of information is essential.
Charts (pie, line, bar), graphs, illustrations, maps, and diagrams, when used
correctly, help make complex information more clear and understandable (Cairo, 2012).
Additionally, considered by many the Father of Data Visualization, Edward Tufte is
described by Yaffa (2011) as saying “the first grand principle of analytical design:
above all else, always show comparisons” (para. 12). Doing so allows clear data presen-
tation and interpretation to viewers. According to Yaffa (2011), Tufte believes, “there is
no such thing as information overload . . . . Only bad design,” which impedes rather
than enhances clarity (para. 36). In addition to choosing the proper visualization method
for the given data, clarity is increased when viewers do not have to look back and forth
to discern the meaning of the visualizations or colors. This is why pioneer infographic
designer Scott Farrand said to “avoid legends like the plague” (personal communication,
March 23, 2016), and Randy Krum said using legends are “evil” (p. 293). Tufte (1983)
coined the term “chart junk” (p. 67) to refer to anything that gets in the way of a viewer
interpreting the data.
Research Questions
Given the popularity of infographics use by nonprofit organizations and the
call from the Commission on Public Relations Education (2015) and other scholars, this
area should be examined, and improvements should be offered for the next generation
of public relations practitioners. For this reason, the following research questions are
offered:
RQ1: To what degree are nonprofit organizations’ information graphics trans-
parent?
RQ2: To what degree do nonprofit organizations present the information in
graphics clearly?
METHOD
A content analysis was conducted to systematically and quantitatively evaluate
transparency and clarity strategies in nonprofits’ online information graphics (Stempel,
7. Sisson 84
2003). Content analysis allowed for conclusions to be drawn from the observations that
emerge from analysis of data (Stempel, 2003).
Sampling
Information graphics (N = 376) released by 18 nonprofit organizations on
Twitter were analyzed. The researchers defined an infographic for this study as a graph-
ic that contains information. This graphical information did not necessarily need to be
quantitative, but could also be words, facts, or illustrations. None of the infographics
were “clickable” or lead to other pages. Note that the definition is broad. While Fernan-
do (2012) defines an infographic as “a form of storytelling that people can use to visual-
ize data in a way that illustrates knowledge, experiences, or events” (Fernando, 2012, p.
2), a wider definition is adopted for the present study in order to accommodate those
infographics that fall out of the expert definition. Infographics distributed through Twit-
ter were selected for this study because 21% of American adults use the social media
platform for their news consumption (Greenwood, Perrin, & Duggan, 2016). As this is
an exploratory study, only one social-networking website was used. Future studies
should examine transparency and clarity of nonprofit organizations on other social net-
works, such as Facebook.
Nonprofit organizations were selected for analysis based on a sampling frame
of Top Nonprofits.com’s Top 100 Nonprofits on the Web list. The sample frame was
selected for its reliance on “publicly available web, social, and fiscal responsibility met-
rics” (Top 100 Nonprofits on the Web, n.d., para. 2), as well as for its rankings method-
ology of nonprofits online. Each of the chosen nonprofit organizations’ Twitter feeds
were accessed to gather infographics. Data collection occurred from November 1, 2015
to November 31, 2015 for this study. All non-animated, non-clickable infographics col-
lected were released in November 2015, as well as up to six months prior in May 2015
in order to collect a substantive sample. This time frame allowed the researchers to ex-
amine a snapshot of nonprofit organizations’ infographic use and design practices prior
to December and January, which are traditionally peak fundraising periods. Duplicates
were excluded.
Nonprofit organizations found in the Top Nonprofits.com’s Top 100 Nonprof-
its on the Web list were divided into “more than 10” and “less than 10” infographics
categories. The rationale for this categorization was to ensure that the researchers were
not pulling infographics from nonprofit organizations that used the visual communica-
tion infrequently; this categorization was intended to ensure representativeness of info-
graphic use and frequency. The researchers collected infographics from the Top 100
Nonprofits on the Web list using this categorization until an adequate sample size was
met. The sample was not random, as generalizing to the broader social media sphere
was not the purpose of the paper. Rather, the purpose of the examination is to gather a
snapshot of contemporary public relations infographics and offer suggestions for im-
provement in education.
Nonprofit organizations analyzed in this study and listed in Top 100 Nonprof-
its on the Web include: Human Rights Campaign (15.2%, n = 57), UNICEF (15%, n =
55), Save the Children (8.2%, n = 31), ACLU (8%, n = 29), Conservation International
(7%, n = 25), International Rescue Committee (7%, n = 25), Wounded Warrior Project
(6.4%, n = 24), Amnesty International (6.1%, n = 23), Teach for America (5.1%, n =
19), Feeding America (5%, n = 18), Susan G. Komen (5%, n = 18), March of Dimes
(5%, n = 17), Rotary International (4%, n = 13), ASPCA (3%, n = 10), Livestrong
(1.1%, n = 4), Samaritan’s Purse (1%, n = 3), Ronald McDonald House (1%, n = 3),
and Kliva (1%, n = 2).
8. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 85
Coding and Variables
Variables for measuring transparency and clarity were gleaned from the aca-
demic and professional literature on public relations and infographic design, as de-
scribed in the literature review. Each concept contained variables pertaining to the inter-
section of infographic design and public relations. Transparency was the largest of the
three concepts, and specifically measured using variables and variable definitions found
in Table 1.
Table 1
Transparency variables and definitions
Variable Variable Definition
Data attribution Whether or not the data was attributed at all
Data availability Whether the original data itself is available to viewers: A link on info-
graphic? Link on landing page? Spreadsheet on landing page? Data source
not available at all? Each was coded as yes or no.
Data quality Whether the data source is vague, questionable, reliable, or not identified.
Vague data sources are those that only contain the name of the host site
that publishes the data without any additional information about a specific
report or article. Questionable data sources are those that are Wikipedia,
blogs, or personal sites, and unclear sites are those where the source is not
clearly identified. Each was coded as yes or no.
Data date Whether the date of the data was provided. Coded as yes or no.
Designer credit Whether credit was given to the individual that designed the infographic.
Coded as yes or no.
Photographer or
graphic credit
Whether credit was given to the individual(s) who created any graphical
elements or photographs used in the infographic. Coded as yes or no.
Landing page Whether a URL was provided that directs the user back to the original
web location of the infographic. Coded as yes or no.
Relevance Whether the infographic contains information specific to the organization.
Coded as yes or no.
Sustainability
context
Whether the infographic identifies how organizational behavior is contrib-
uting to effects on the environment, economy, and/or social welfare. Cod-
ed as yes or no.
Neutrality Whether the infographic contains information from organizations other
than itself. Coded as yes or no.
Comparability Whether the infographic compares its performance to itself or to other/
similar organizations. Coded as yes or no.
Timeliness Whether the infographic contains information in a timeframe usable to
stakeholders. Coded as yes or no.
9. Sisson 86
Clarity contained three variables: two derived from the infographic literature
and one derived from public relations literature, which can be found in Table 2. They
were infographic type, presence of a legend, and presence of industry jargon.
In addition, the researchers coded the organization that released the infograph-
ic, the topic, tone, and type of data visualization. Tone was coded as humorous/
entertaining, informational, utility/how-to, serious/somber, other and none, and each
category was coded as yes or no, as these categories are not mutually exclusive. Humor
or entertaining infographics were light-hearted or comical; informational infographics
were merely fact-based; utility-based infographics were those that taught a user how to
do something; serious or somber infographics contained serious information aimed at
persuading users. As this article is aimed towards education, infographic types exam-
ined (e.g., pie charts, maps) were selected from two leading textbook authors, Cairo
(2012) and Krum (2013). A detailed visual codebook was developed and refined
through five separate practice sessions by two independent coders. Following refine-
ment of the codebook, three more practice coding sessions of a subsample of in-
fographics were undertaken, with intermittent discussions and clarifications, until a lev-
el of agreement was achieved. Coders reached a good to excellent level of intercoder
reliability. The Cohen’s Kappas were all α > 0.9, with three exceptions: Type: 0.87;
Neutrality = 0.87; and Attribution = 0.87. To examine the data from the visual and tex-
tual content analysis, frequencies and descriptive statistics of each category were con-
ducted.
FINDINGS
Findings from this study highlighted the nuances of how nonprofits approach
transparency and clarity practices. The following sections address the results of each
research question.
RQ1: To what degree are nonprofit organizations’ infographics transparent?
Frequencies of infographic transparency variables, infographic quality of data
source of those that list a source, and data availability were conducted. As Table 3
shows, only 18.6% of the infographics attributed the source of their data. For each vari-
able, there were fewer positive instances of transparency than negative.
Table 2
Clarity variables and definitions
Variable Variable Definition
Infographic
type
Timeline, pie chart, line graph, how-to diagram, bar graph, bubble
chart, flow chart, list, numbers only, words/facts only, or other. For
each of these, coded as present or not present.
Legend Whether or not the infographic contained a legend. Coded as yes or
no.
Jargon Whether or not the infographic contained jargon. Coded as yes or no.
10. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 87
The inclusion of a landing page was the one tool used most often by the non-
profits in this sample (31.9%). Very few infographics included a credit to the designer
(0.8%) or image source (14.1%). Relevance, or whether the infographic contained infor-
mation about an action taken by the organization, was present in 17.3% of infographics.
Similarly, 14.1% of infographics contained information about how organizational be-
havior is contributing to effects on the community, environment, or social welfare of
groups or individuals.
As Table 4 shows, of the infographics that list a data source (18.6%, n = 70),
64 of the sources were vague, or only listed the host site without additional information
about the specific report or article; three were “questionable” (e.g., a blog, Wikipedia, or
personal site); and three were not clearly identified.
Table 3
Frequencies of infographic transparency variables
Variable Yes No Total
Data attribution 70 (18.6%) 306 (81.4%) 376 (100%)
Data date 53 (14.1%) 323 (85.9%) 376 (100%)
Designer credit 3 (0.8%) 373 (99.2%) 376 (100%)
Photographer credit 28 (7.4%) 348 (92.6%) 376 (100%)
Landing page 120 (31.9%) 255 (67.8%) 376 (100%)
Relevance 65 (17.3%) 311 (82.7%) 376 (100%)
Sustainability context 53 (14.1%) 322 (85.6%) 376 (100%)
Neutrality 30 (8.0%) 345 (91.8%) 376 (100%)
Comparability 9 (2.4%) 366 (97.3%) 376 (100%)
Timeliness 39 (10.4%) 336 (90%) 376 (100%)
Table 4
Infographic quality of data source of those that list a source
Data quality Number of infographics Total
Vague 64 (91.4%) 70 (100%)
Questionable 3 (4.3%) 70 (100%)
Unclear 3 (4.3%) 70 (100%)
11. Sisson 88
As Table 5 shows, audiences wishing to clarify the source of data would be
mostly unable to, as only 16 (4.2%) of the infographics in the total sample contained a
way to find the source of the data.
Finally, image source (4%) was associated with numbers-only infographics.
Image source (4%) was also associated with infographics with only words and facts.
Designer credit (1%) was most associated with list infographics. Landing page URLs
(12%) were most associated with infographics with only words and facts. Landing page
URLs (8%) were also associated with list infographics.
RQ2: To what degree do nonprofit organizations present the information in in-
fographics clearly?
For the present paper, the construct of clarity was measured using three varia-
bles culled from the literature: type of infographic, the use of jargon, and the use of leg-
ends. Inclusion of jargon (Figure 1, from our sample) and inclusion of a legend (Figure
3, from our sample) inhibit clarity.
Table 5
How nonprofit organizations make data available
Data availability Number of infographics Total
Link on infographic 5 (1.3%) 376 (100%)
Link on landing page 8 (2.1%) 376 (100%)
Spreadsheet on landing page 3 (.8%) 376 (100%)
Data source not readily available 360 (95.7%) 376 (100%)
Figure 1. Infographic example of jargon and avoiding legend (ACLU, 2015, May 31)
12. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 89
Figure 2. “Big numbers” (ACLU, 2015, October 28)
Figure 3. Infographic example of unnecessary legend (ACLU, 2015, May 21)
Nonprofit organizations used and disseminated different types of infographics
through Twitter. Infographic types examined included: numbers only (66%, n = 248),
word and facts (27%, n = 103), lists (13%, n = 103), pie charts (9%, n = 32), bar
graphs (4%, n = 16), how-to (3%, n = 12), maps (3%, n = 12), line graphs (2%, n = 6),
timelines (1.1%, n = 4), and flowcharts (1%, n = 2).
Most of the infographics (89.6%, n = 337) examined did not contain a data
visualization, thus precluding the need to consider whether a legend must be used. Of
the 39 (10.4%) infographics in this analysis that did contain data visualization (e.g., a
chart or graph), 14 (3.7%) used a legend unnecessarily, while 25 (6.6%) did not use a
legend, thus clarifying data interpretation. Of the infographics examined, 35 (9.5%)
contained instances of jargon, or highly technical, industry-specific words or acronyms
that may not be understood by all members of the lay audience.
13. Sisson 90
DISCUSSION
The present study sits at the intersection of public relations, infographics, and
education. By examining infographic design principles as applied to public relations
practices, these exploratory findings lend to the development of more effective educa-
tion in the area of visual literacy, particularly, public relations infographics design. The
study suggests that while making heavy use of infographics on social media, the non-
profit organizations studied do not often translate concepts of transparency and clarity
into their infographic-based communications online. This finding magnifies educators’
and researchers’ calls for better visual literacy education among students and lends to
suggestions for such literacy in the area of infographic design.
The nonprofit organizations in this study did not often practice transparency in
their infographics. Only 19% of the infographics examined included the data source at
all, and even fewer provided details such as the date of the data (14.1%). Those that did
include a source were most often vague about it, including the name of a company (e.g.,
“Humane Society”) instead of directing the user to an actual dataset or name of a study.
In fact, very few (4.2%) infographics made the dataset available to viewers, inhibiting
the viewer’s ability to explore, ask questions, and assess credibility (Cairo, 2012). Non-
profit organizations were most opaque in their sourcing of photographers (7.4%) and
designers (0.8%), an ethical and legal blunder (e.g., Lester, 2015; Newton, 2013). Only
32% of the infographics examined included at least a URL leading back to the landing
page from where the infographic originated, leaving most viewers in the dark as to the
origins of the graphic itself to fill in any of the transparency gaps.
Further, the infographics studied in this sample did not reflect transparent com-
munication practices as outlined by Global Reporting Index guidelines (as cited in
Rawlins, 2009). Only 17.3% of the infographics released by nonprofit organizations in
this study communicated their actions (i.e., relevance), while even fewer (14.1%) com-
municated using a sustainability context how their actions impact the community, envi-
ronment, or social welfare of groups or individuals. Given this finding, nonprofit organ-
izations are missing an opportunity to communicate what they do and how they impact
society, which may provide a competitive advantage and enhance relationships with
current and potential donors.
Limited (8%) infographics communicated neutral information about the non-
profit organization’s actions from a third party, which may create skewed perceptions.
Third-party endorsements provide organizations an additional layer of credibility with
members of key publics; therefore, not incorporating this information may impact per-
ceptions of organizational credibility. Very few (2.4%) infographics provided compara-
ble information about nonprofit organizations’ past and present performance, which
would show its effectiveness to donors and members of key publics. While using social
media to provide information quickly, few (10.4%) infographics provided timely infor-
mation that would aid donors and key publics in decision-making. Timeliness refers to
the information date in relation to the information distribution in infographic via Twit-
ter.
The infographics examined could also improve clarity. Nonprofit organizations
are not taking full advantage of the power of infographics to visualize otherwise diffi-
cult data or information, a primary purpose of using infographics (Cairo, 2012). Most
nonprofits are releasing big numbers, big words, or lists, a strategy recommended
against by experts on the topic (e.g., Cairo, 2012; Krum, 2013). Very few other types of
data visualizations were used, with pie charts being the most popular, present in 9% of
the graphics. Other forms of visualization, while potentially more appropriate, were
each used in less than 5% of the sample. Of the infographics using data visualizations,
14. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 91
just under half used legends, adding unnecessary work for viewers trying to decipher
the meaning of the visualization.
Practical Implications. Findings from this study inform public relations
educators by presenting gaps in practice that can be addressed by teaching students
about transparency and clarity with regard to infographics. Students should keep in
mind that once an infographic is released onto the Internet, its eventual whereabouts are
unpredictable. Students should be prepared to conduct a communication audit of their
infographic use to ensure that communication has clarity and communicates dedication
to transparency practices. Students should employ a thematic analysis of current mes-
saging in their communication audits guided by the measures of transparency and clari-
ty offered in this study.
In the same way that public relations professionals are trained in management,
strategy, writing, and research, the visual landscape of information overload dictates a
need for basic education in communicating these ideas in data using visuals. Given the
findings from this study, the following suggestions for infographic design are offered as
a first step toward suggestions on infographic design for educational purposes:
1. Data source, designer credit, and photographer credit must be included directly on
all types of infographics to lend to transparency;
2. Nonprofit organizations must enhance credibility with members of key publics
through the use of neutral information or data to show unbiased impact on society
through their organizational efforts;
3. Nonprofit organizations must strive to communicate clearly by avoiding the use of
legends and jargon, which may be confusing and add unnecessary work for mem-
bers of key publics;
4. Nonprofit organizations would improve their commitment to clarity and harness the
power of visuals by incorporating more visualization of data and fewer graphics
with mere large numbers which may make the numbers seem important. Tufte sug-
gests to always show comparisons in data visualizations, allowing the viewer to
better understand. Showing, not telling, is at the heart of infographic design;
5. And, designers and public relations professionals must consider the apparent be-
lievability of data visualizations and be vigilant in their transparency efforts by
including a data source, a link to the dataset, the date, and a landing page link on
the infographic itself, lending to credibility.
Limitations and suggestions for future studies
Despite the relevant and important findings of this study, there are still some
limitations worth noting. This study is intended as a snapshot into the current state of
nonprofit infographics online with a purpose of opening up a dialogue about improve-
ment and leading to future, more thorough studies on the topic and for developing an
initial set of suggestions for teaching public relations students about infographic design.
The sample was purposeful and not random; thus, these findings cannot be generalized
to all infographics online, or even those from public relations agencies. The goal of the
paper was not to generalize, but to glean a snapshot of practices in order to offer best
practices for students.
The shortcomings of this study and unaddressed issues open up the door for
future studies. Infographics disseminated by nonprofit organizations on Twitter were
the only type of infographic studied. Other scholars would add to the literature by ex-
ploring other types of infographics and other social networks. Second, there is an im-
15. Sisson 92
portant area in need of examination with regard to infographics, and that is data de-
ception. For example, bubble charts are infamous for misrepresenting the size and
scale of area, rendering data comparisons misleading (Cairo, 2012; Tufte, 1983). No
studies, to the authors’ knowledge, have taken on the task of carefully examining the
accuracy of data visualizations. This second, larger step would add richness to the
present understanding of infographics. This is an important area of study, and offer-
ing students instructions in this regard is relevant.
Further study regarding best practices of visual, social and primarily nonlin-
ear and web-based forms of communications will enhance current practices in the
public relations industry and will help to bolster the credibility of an organization
during a time when that is desperately needed. The buzz surrounding the proliferation
of “fake news” and so-called “alternative facts” calls educators’ attention to the need
to teach transparency and clarity as applied to all forms of communications. This
study opens up conversations and invites further study into best practices of perform-
ing public relations in the contemporary media landscape. Future studies can add to
and move beyond the three concepts examined here, and study not only infographics,
but the myriad other forms of online communications, including memes, GIFs, ani-
mations, and snaps.
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