This document is the table of contents and introduction for Volume 3, Issue 2 of the Journal of Public Relations Education from November 2017.
The table of contents lists 4 research articles on topics related to public relations education such as analyzing perceptions of job skills between PR students and supervisors. It also lists 3 "GIFT" articles which are teaching ideas/assignments for PR instructors. Finally it lists a book review.
The introduction discusses the benefits of internships for students in terms of career outcomes. It also discusses gaps that can exist between what skills/characteristics students and supervisors perceive as important. The study aims to use coorientation theory to examine the levels of agreement between students and supervisors on key job skills
Thomasena Shaw, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 59-77
Abstract
"Internships have significant early career advantages for undergraduates including less time finding a first employment position, increased monetary compensation and greater overall job satisfaction. Considerable professional and scholarly evidence highlights the important role of undergraduate internships, as well as gaps that exist between students and supervisors regarding the relative importance of specific job skills and professional characteristics. While previous studies have explored the underlying feelings and expectations of the two groups in professional and academic contexts, this exploratory case study uses coorientation as the theoretical framework to examine the levels of agreement, congruency and accuracy that exist between them in relation to key jobs skills and professional characteristics linked with career success; it also provides insight into the extent to which respondents perceive that the internship improved students’ college-learning outcomes. The key findings of this study indicate that the majority of respondents believed that the experience improved performance in relation to college learning outcomes. The study also found that students and supervisors are accurately cooriented with one another in relation to job skills items, but less so when it comes to professional characteristics. This could be particularly problematic for student interns as misperceptions and misunderstanding can potentially lead to missed opportunities for collaboration and integration, and/or a self-fulfilling prophecy where supervisors’ lack of coorientation damages the possibility of a cooperative relationship with current and future student interns, and the academic programs that bring them together."
Ming Wang, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 96-109
http://aejmc.us/jpre/2017/12/29/using-crisis-sim…role-of-presence/
Abstract
"Simulation-based training (SBT) is a useful pedagogical tool used in crisis management training. This paper explores the effects of a crisis simulation activity on students’ crisis management competencies. Pre- and post-test surveys indicated that students significantly improved crisis management competencies after the crisis simulation activity. Moreover, presence was found to be positively associated with post-simulation crisis management competencies, suggesting that presence is critical in designing an effective simulation activity."
The document discusses the challenges that professors face when teaching social media courses. Through interviews with 31 social media professors, several key themes emerged. Professors viewed teaching social media as the most labor-intensive but also most rewarding course, as it requires staying up-to-date with changing tools and trends and grading large volumes of student social media work. However, professors also encountered resistance from students, who did not want to use social media for professional purposes or share personal opinions publicly. Overall, the interviews aimed to understand professors' perspectives on teaching social media and how to best implement social media pedagogy in the classroom.
Journal of Public Relations Education Volume 4, Issue 2, Fall 2018 [complete issue]
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility: Exploring the Mediating Role of Out-of-Class Communication by Carolyn Mae Kim
What do Employers Want? What Should Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of Entry-Level Employment Ads in Public Relations by Brigitta R. Brunner, Kim Zarkin, & Bradford L. Yates
Teaching Digital and Social Media Analytics: Exploring Best Practices and Future Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy by Michele E. Ewing, Carolyn Mae Kim, Emily S. Kinsky, Stefanie Moore, & Karen Freberg
GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHERS 2018
Teaching Briefs
Building a Social Learning Flock: Using Twitter Chats to Enhance Experiential Learning Across Universities by Amanda J. Weed, Karen Freberg, Emily S. Kinsky, & Amber L. Hutchins
Diagnosing Health Campaigns: A Campaign Evaluation Assignment by Laura E. Willis
Teaching Trolling: Management and Strategy by Leslie Rasmussen
Sparking Creativity Through Purpose-Driven Storytelling by Chris Cooney
Looking in to see out: An Introspective Approach to Teaching Ethics in PR by Regina Luttrell & Jamie Ward
Social Media Campaigns: Strategies for Public Relations and Marketing --Book Review by Matthew J. Kushin
Meltwater Media Intelligence Software--Review by Matthew J. Kushin
This document outlines a social media policy assignment given to public relations students. The goal is for students to develop a social media policy for a client organization. Students are instructed to research the organization's social media use, identify risks, and apply their knowledge of ethics and law to create a comprehensive written policy. The policy should guide appropriate social media use, address legal issues, and include resources for compliance. Developing a real-world policy provides valuable experience for students' careers and portfolios. It also allows organizations to adopt the developed policies. The assignment aims to help students think strategically and work with clients to manage social media professionally and ethically.
"Score! How Collegiate Athletic Departments Are Training Student-Athletes About Effective Social Media Use" by Smith and Watkins in Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 4, Issue 1, Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
The primary responsibility of student-athletes is to represent
their institution on the field, but because of social media, that
role has evolved so that now student-athletes are considered
representatives of the institution to a larger public. As such,
athletic departments have implemented social media policies
and/or training programs to guide student-athletes’ online activity.
Drawing on digital literacy, this study investigates motivations
behind the development of social media policies, how student
athletes are trained about effective social media use, and how
social media policies for student athletes are enforced from the
perspective of the institution. In-depth interviews (N = 17) with
representatives from collegiate athletic departments in the U.S.
revealed social media policies were designed primarily to educate,
rather than punish, and that training about the policy helps reduce social media violations. Theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed.
Tiffany Derville Gallicano, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 128-132
"The purpose of this assignment is to adopt a strategic planning approach to the task of creating engaging social media content in a real-world context. For this assignment, students work as a class to set a weekly research-based objective and work in teams to plan the communication department’s Facebook fan page content for every day of a work week (Monday-Friday) during the semester. Other fan page account administrators can post important departmental content throughout the semester without disrupting the week-by-week student takeovers of the fan page. This assignment has been popular in social media and public relations strategy classes. This assignment provides an experiential way for students to apply basic statistical concepts, assessment data, and message design theories. In addition, it has the benefit of serving as a potential resume item and portfolio sample."
Book Review by Teddi A. Joyce, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 133-135
Book Title: Real World Career Preparation: A Guide to Creating a University Student-Run Communications Agency
By: Douglas J. Swanson (2017)
Thomasena Shaw, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 59-77
Abstract
"Internships have significant early career advantages for undergraduates including less time finding a first employment position, increased monetary compensation and greater overall job satisfaction. Considerable professional and scholarly evidence highlights the important role of undergraduate internships, as well as gaps that exist between students and supervisors regarding the relative importance of specific job skills and professional characteristics. While previous studies have explored the underlying feelings and expectations of the two groups in professional and academic contexts, this exploratory case study uses coorientation as the theoretical framework to examine the levels of agreement, congruency and accuracy that exist between them in relation to key jobs skills and professional characteristics linked with career success; it also provides insight into the extent to which respondents perceive that the internship improved students’ college-learning outcomes. The key findings of this study indicate that the majority of respondents believed that the experience improved performance in relation to college learning outcomes. The study also found that students and supervisors are accurately cooriented with one another in relation to job skills items, but less so when it comes to professional characteristics. This could be particularly problematic for student interns as misperceptions and misunderstanding can potentially lead to missed opportunities for collaboration and integration, and/or a self-fulfilling prophecy where supervisors’ lack of coorientation damages the possibility of a cooperative relationship with current and future student interns, and the academic programs that bring them together."
Ming Wang, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 96-109
http://aejmc.us/jpre/2017/12/29/using-crisis-sim…role-of-presence/
Abstract
"Simulation-based training (SBT) is a useful pedagogical tool used in crisis management training. This paper explores the effects of a crisis simulation activity on students’ crisis management competencies. Pre- and post-test surveys indicated that students significantly improved crisis management competencies after the crisis simulation activity. Moreover, presence was found to be positively associated with post-simulation crisis management competencies, suggesting that presence is critical in designing an effective simulation activity."
The document discusses the challenges that professors face when teaching social media courses. Through interviews with 31 social media professors, several key themes emerged. Professors viewed teaching social media as the most labor-intensive but also most rewarding course, as it requires staying up-to-date with changing tools and trends and grading large volumes of student social media work. However, professors also encountered resistance from students, who did not want to use social media for professional purposes or share personal opinions publicly. Overall, the interviews aimed to understand professors' perspectives on teaching social media and how to best implement social media pedagogy in the classroom.
Journal of Public Relations Education Volume 4, Issue 2, Fall 2018 [complete issue]
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility: Exploring the Mediating Role of Out-of-Class Communication by Carolyn Mae Kim
What do Employers Want? What Should Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of Entry-Level Employment Ads in Public Relations by Brigitta R. Brunner, Kim Zarkin, & Bradford L. Yates
Teaching Digital and Social Media Analytics: Exploring Best Practices and Future Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy by Michele E. Ewing, Carolyn Mae Kim, Emily S. Kinsky, Stefanie Moore, & Karen Freberg
GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHERS 2018
Teaching Briefs
Building a Social Learning Flock: Using Twitter Chats to Enhance Experiential Learning Across Universities by Amanda J. Weed, Karen Freberg, Emily S. Kinsky, & Amber L. Hutchins
Diagnosing Health Campaigns: A Campaign Evaluation Assignment by Laura E. Willis
Teaching Trolling: Management and Strategy by Leslie Rasmussen
Sparking Creativity Through Purpose-Driven Storytelling by Chris Cooney
Looking in to see out: An Introspective Approach to Teaching Ethics in PR by Regina Luttrell & Jamie Ward
Social Media Campaigns: Strategies for Public Relations and Marketing --Book Review by Matthew J. Kushin
Meltwater Media Intelligence Software--Review by Matthew J. Kushin
This document outlines a social media policy assignment given to public relations students. The goal is for students to develop a social media policy for a client organization. Students are instructed to research the organization's social media use, identify risks, and apply their knowledge of ethics and law to create a comprehensive written policy. The policy should guide appropriate social media use, address legal issues, and include resources for compliance. Developing a real-world policy provides valuable experience for students' careers and portfolios. It also allows organizations to adopt the developed policies. The assignment aims to help students think strategically and work with clients to manage social media professionally and ethically.
"Score! How Collegiate Athletic Departments Are Training Student-Athletes About Effective Social Media Use" by Smith and Watkins in Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 4, Issue 1, Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
The primary responsibility of student-athletes is to represent
their institution on the field, but because of social media, that
role has evolved so that now student-athletes are considered
representatives of the institution to a larger public. As such,
athletic departments have implemented social media policies
and/or training programs to guide student-athletes’ online activity.
Drawing on digital literacy, this study investigates motivations
behind the development of social media policies, how student
athletes are trained about effective social media use, and how
social media policies for student athletes are enforced from the
perspective of the institution. In-depth interviews (N = 17) with
representatives from collegiate athletic departments in the U.S.
revealed social media policies were designed primarily to educate,
rather than punish, and that training about the policy helps reduce social media violations. Theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed.
Tiffany Derville Gallicano, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 128-132
"The purpose of this assignment is to adopt a strategic planning approach to the task of creating engaging social media content in a real-world context. For this assignment, students work as a class to set a weekly research-based objective and work in teams to plan the communication department’s Facebook fan page content for every day of a work week (Monday-Friday) during the semester. Other fan page account administrators can post important departmental content throughout the semester without disrupting the week-by-week student takeovers of the fan page. This assignment has been popular in social media and public relations strategy classes. This assignment provides an experiential way for students to apply basic statistical concepts, assessment data, and message design theories. In addition, it has the benefit of serving as a potential resume item and portfolio sample."
Book Review by Teddi A. Joyce, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 133-135
Book Title: Real World Career Preparation: A Guide to Creating a University Student-Run Communications Agency
By: Douglas J. Swanson (2017)
Mary E. Brooks and Emily S. Kinsky, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 119-122
"Based off Food Network’s Chopped challenge, the Mystery Basket PR Challenge is a competition that focuses on creativity, speed, and skill in which students are given a box of mystery 'ingredients' (e.g., brand, crisis, strategy, channel, speaker, audience) they have to use to complete an assigned task (e.g., a tweet, an official statement, a headline). For example, a box might have a brand name, a particular crisis, a group of people affected and a celebrity, and the task would be to write a headline for a news release, keeping in mind which crisis response strategy from Benoit (1997) or Coombs (2007) might be most appropriate. Students open the box and have a limited time in their groups to complete the task, which they then pitch to the judges (faculty and local professionals). This requires teamwork and application of lessons learned in class as the student groups compete against each other."
Laura E. Willis, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 110-118
A Dam(n) Failure: Exploring Interdisciplinary, Cross-Course Group Projects on STEM-Translation in Crisis Communication
Abstract
"This exploratory, quasi-experimental study examines whether incorporating an interdisciplinary, cross-course aspect to a group project on the Teton Dam failure in a crisis communication management course would impact public relations students’ ability to translate technical aspects of the crisis for media and public audiences. Results suggest the inclusion of an engineering student as a technical expert negatively impacted project grades and increased student frustration. Possible improvements and lessons for future interdisciplinary, cross-course projects are presented."
Keywords: science communication, STEM translation, cross-course projects, interdisciplinary projects
Diana C. Sisson and Tara M. Moretensen, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 78-95
Educating students for the social, digital and information world: Teaching public relations infographic design
Abstract
"This study employs an exploratory content analysis of current public relations information graphics to examine variables within two concepts pertaining to public relations: transparency and clarity. These two concepts were chosen because they apply to both traditional public relations practice and are also widely taught amongst contemporary infographics design experts. The subjects of the study are nonprofit organizations’ online informational graphics (N = 376) that have been released on Twitter. Findings suggest that nonprofit organizations are not applying traditional public relations principles to their design of online information graphics, demonstrating difficulty in translating these principles to visual design, a skill that is becoming more important. While the study is not intended to generalize, this snapshot of current practice is used to offer improvements in preparing public relations students for communication with information visualizations. This exploration illuminates the need for public relations education geared toward the social, visual, and data-driven environment. To this end, the study uses these findings to develop an initial set of practices for infographic design that can be implemented into current public relations education."
http://aejmc.us/jpre/2017/12/29/educating-studen…fographic-design/
"Competition and Public Relations Campaigns: Assessing the Impact of Competition on Quality of Projects, Partners, and Students" by McCollough in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
Scholars in public relations pedagogy have provided a strong
body of research on the impact of service learning, community
partnerships (Daugherty, 2003), and applied learning on
campaigns, writing, and production courses common to the public
relations curriculum (Wandel, 2005). Rarely explored, however,
is the impact of competition among student groups within a
public relations course on the quality of campaigns, student
experience, client satisfaction, and achievement of learning
outcomes (Rentner, 2012). This study presents a comparative
analysis of campaign courses that employed competitive and noncompetitive
campaign course models to demonstrate the impact
of incorporating competition within public relations courses.
This document describes a new approach to teaching public relations campaigns that aims to address problems with the traditional "divide and conquer" method. The traditional approach has students divide into static teams that each work independently on separate sections of a campaign. This often results in unequal work distribution and a lack of collaboration. The new approach requires students to serve on rotating research, campaign book, and strategy teams throughout the semester. Each team is responsible for developing a specific section, with all students providing input. This encourages collaboration, ensures all students understand the entire campaign, and solves issues around work distribution and quality associated with the traditional method.
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility:
Exploring the Mediating Role of
Out-of-Class Communication
ABSTRACT
Every generation experiences distinct events and develops unique
values. As Millennial learners enter classrooms, they bring with
them new views about education, learning and faculty/student
communication. This study explores the mediating role of out-ofclass
communication (OCC) in relation to the historical dimensions
known to compose faculty credibility. Findings indicate that OCC
has a positive, mediating influence that enhances two of the three
key dimensions of credibility for faculty members: trustworthiness
and perceived caring. In addition, this study suggests that there
is a fourth potential dimension that composes the construct
of faculty credibility in the perspectives of Millennial learners:
sociability, which should be included alongside the three historical
dimensions scholars have used in previous studies.
"Public Relations Ethics, “Alternative Facts,” and Critical Thinking, with a Side of Tuna" by Lambiase in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
"Media Relations Instruction and Theory Development: A Relational Dialectical Approach" by Pettigrew in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
There has been almost no research in the area of media relations
instruction in the public relations literature. This study seeks to fill a
gap in theory-building in the area of media relations and examines
the state of media relations instruction in today’s public relations
curriculum through a survey of public relations professors. The
author suggests relational dialectical theory as a way to better
understand the relationship between public relations practitioners
and journalists, and proposes a relational dialectical approach
to theory-building and in teaching media relations in today’s
changing landscape.
This research examines how popular editions of public relations principles texts and public relations writing texts address media relations. The study consisted of a content analysis of six principles texts and six PR writing texts. One research question was posed,“How do public relations texts address media relations and the journalist/ PR practitioner interaction?” and one hypothesis was posited, “When discussing media relations, PR textbooks focus on relationship building more than specific communication tactics.”The study found that while most texts address media relations from a tactical standpoint, few texts go beyond that to address deeper relational issues, answering the research question and leading to the rejection of the authors’ hypothesis.
Keywords: media relations; public relations education; public relations writing texts; public relations principles texts; public relations introductory texts
What do Employers Want? What Should
Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of
Entry-Level Employment Ads
in Public Relations
ABSTRACT
Public relations remains a popular major at the undergraduate level;
faculty want to provide the best educational experience for their
students to help them secure jobs. This research explores entrylevel
employment ads in public relations as a way to understand
what skills employers want and expect new graduates to have. A
content analysis of 199 entry-level employment ads posted to the
Public Relations Society of America Job Center was conducted.
Major findings include the need for graduates to possess not
only hard skills such as writing but also soft skill abilities, such
as time management, deadline orientation, and collaboration. In
addition, it was found that few job ads specifically request that
future employees have a public relations degree. Finally, although
many of the ads that were examined call for a future employee to
have the skills traditionally associated with the technician role, the
authors suggest a new practitioner role has come into existence.
This role, which bridges the technician and manager, is called
the manager’s apprentice, and it requires knowledge of tactics
and writing, as well as familiarity with measurement, social media
strategy, and data collection.
The Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) is devoted to the presentation of research and commentary that advances the field of public relations education. JPRE invites submissions in the following three categories. All submissions should follow the guidelines of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Research Articles
Hootsuite University: Equipping academics and future PR professionals for social media success
Authors:
Emily S. Kinsky, West Texas A&M University
Karen Freberg, University of Louisville
Carolyn Kim, Biola University
Matt Kushin, Shepherd University
William Ward, Syracuse University
“The best of both worlds”: Student perspectives on student-run advertising and public relations agencies
Authors:
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica Smith, Abilene Christian University
Considering certification?: An analysis of universities’ communication certificates and feedback from public relations professionals
Authors:
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Teaching Briefs
Who wants to be a manager?: Applying the attraction-selection attrition framework to public relations education
Author:
Christopher Wilson, Brigham Young University
Find out more at: http://aejmc.us/jpre
Teaching Digital and
Social Media Analytics:
Exploring Best Practices and Future
Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy
ABSTRACT
One of the growing areas within public relations is digital and social
media analytics. Teaching the use of analytics to communication
students is not new, but studying what is being taught is almost
non-existent. The public relations research literature has supported
exploring the value of data analysis to gain audience insights, to
measure communication strategies, and to evaluate campaign
efforts. The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which
faculty are teaching social media analytics. Two content analyses
were conducted to explore trends of digital and social media
analytics training. Authors analyzed related course syllabi and a
Twitter chat on the subject sponsored by the AEJMC PR Division
and PRSA Educators Academy. Findings and future implications
in teaching digital and social media analytics for educators and
public relations practitioners are discussed.
1) Some students felt that Twitter helped their learning by allowing the expression of various viewpoints and learning from classmates, though others felt this did not always occur in practice.
2) A major drawback mentioned was the potential for Twitter use to distract students into using social media unrelated to class.
3) Some students disliked having their speech limited to Twitter's 140-character tweets.
Table of Contents
Research Articles
Can every class be a Twitter chat?: Cross-institutional collaboration and experiential learning in the social media classroom
Authors:
Julia Daisy Fraustino, West Virginia University
Rowena Briones, Virginia Commonwealth University
Melissa Jansoke, University of Memphis
In their own words: A thematic analysis of students’ comments about their writing skills in mass communication programs
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Teaching Briefs
Integrating leadership in public relations education to
develop future leaders
Author:
Juan Meng , University of Georgia
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica†Smith, Abilene Christian University
Abstract
Student-led advertising and/or public relations agencies have increasingly become an educational component of university ad/PR programs. Previous research has established the value that advisers see in the agencies, and this study reports student perceptions of agency involvement. The survey (N = 210) found that participants rated the opportunity to work with real clients, the importance of their universities having agencies, and the increase in their own job marketability as the most positive aspects of the agency experience. Participants said that the most highly rated skills that agency participation built were the ability to work with clients, working in a team structure, and interpersonal skills.
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
This study explored student self-perceptions of writing skills in mass communication programs at 13 public state universities in the Mid-Atlantic region. Responses to three open-ended questions revealed heavy student concern with their basic skills, a desire for extensive faculty contact and feedback, and for many respondents, an immaturity or naiveté regarding professional standards. This study addresses implications for faculty members who wish to better understand their students in order to devise more effective writing instruction.
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Abstract
Working professionals may need post-baccalaureate education, but finding time and resources to do so may be difficult. An analysis of 75 university masterís programs in public relations found 22 related programs offering communication certificates. A web audit of these programs, plus a survey and in-depth interviews, indicated professionals are interested in earning certificates, particularly in social and digital media strategy and measurement. Professionals want to attend certificate programs that combine online and face-to-face instruction.
Authors:
Juan Meng, University of Georgia
Introduction
Organizations are operating in environments characterized by rapid change and increasing communication complexity. Thus, the development and education of communication leaders who are able to navigate and respond effectively and strategically in such dynamic environments has become equally critical for organizations. As a consequence, the implications for integrating leadership education, training, and development into public relations curriculum are profound. If we, as educators, can enhance both communication skills and leadership development for public relations majors, our graduates will be able to develop a sustainable competitive advantage and provide long-term value to organizations. Although the profession has advocated for leveraging the roles of public relations to a managerial and strategic level, the actual effort in building up the pipeline of future leaders in the profession is delayed. In higher education, there is a remarkable scarcity in designing, integrating, and delivering leadership in public relations teaching and education.
"Developing a Blueprint for Social Media Pedagogy: Trials, Tribulations, and Best Practices" by Zhang and Freberg in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
Social media research, and particularly social media pedagogy,
has increased substantially as a domain in public relations
research. Yet, along with this increased focus on social media
pedagogy, educators and other higher education professionals
are under pressure from industry, professional communities,
and university administrations to keep their classes updated and
relevant for their students. To better understand the current state
and rising expectations facing educators teaching social media,
we interviewed 31 social media professors to explore the trials and
tribulations of their journey and to identify best practices for social
media as a pedagogical tool. The study also suggests a blueprint
for implementing social media pedagogy in the classroom. Future
implications for both research and practice are discussed.
Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of StudentsSubmissionResearchpa
Counseling makes perfect any human being for living life smoothly. According to phycology people required someone near to him/her with whom he/she can share their thoughts, happiness, emotions etc. and this is required in education also, In education we need to give support to our students for knowing their problems and feeling regarding education, life, career, friends, family etc. in this paper researcher tried to find out the importance of the counseling in the mind of students of the effect of the same in students mind because in the recent time importance of the education is more and the use of technology is also more so its big problem for the students for connecting consciously with the learning, and without consciousness people cannot understand many thinks for life long time it’s just for examination. By using the qualitative research study research has tried to find out solution for the same with the sample of 60 students of undergraduate of Parul University. During the research researcher identified major two internal and external factors in which there are six other factors, with the help of the qualitative research technique. by Rahul Chauhan and Bhoomi R. Chauhan 2020. Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of Students. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 5 (Mar. 2020), 34-43. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i5.140. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140/137 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140
Augmenting Higher Education Students Work Experiences Preferred Purposes An...Tony Lisko
This document summarizes a study that examined higher education students' preferred purposes and processes for augmenting their work experiences. A survey of healthcare students found they prefer processes that help gauge and develop their occupational capacities and readiness for employment. They prefer interventions led by teachers or experts over student-led ones. However, students placed low value on peer assistance and feedback, contrary to recent literature indicating peers are highly valued. The study aims to identify effective ways to utilize work experiences and resources invested in them.
Mary E. Brooks and Emily S. Kinsky, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 119-122
"Based off Food Network’s Chopped challenge, the Mystery Basket PR Challenge is a competition that focuses on creativity, speed, and skill in which students are given a box of mystery 'ingredients' (e.g., brand, crisis, strategy, channel, speaker, audience) they have to use to complete an assigned task (e.g., a tweet, an official statement, a headline). For example, a box might have a brand name, a particular crisis, a group of people affected and a celebrity, and the task would be to write a headline for a news release, keeping in mind which crisis response strategy from Benoit (1997) or Coombs (2007) might be most appropriate. Students open the box and have a limited time in their groups to complete the task, which they then pitch to the judges (faculty and local professionals). This requires teamwork and application of lessons learned in class as the student groups compete against each other."
Laura E. Willis, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 110-118
A Dam(n) Failure: Exploring Interdisciplinary, Cross-Course Group Projects on STEM-Translation in Crisis Communication
Abstract
"This exploratory, quasi-experimental study examines whether incorporating an interdisciplinary, cross-course aspect to a group project on the Teton Dam failure in a crisis communication management course would impact public relations students’ ability to translate technical aspects of the crisis for media and public audiences. Results suggest the inclusion of an engineering student as a technical expert negatively impacted project grades and increased student frustration. Possible improvements and lessons for future interdisciplinary, cross-course projects are presented."
Keywords: science communication, STEM translation, cross-course projects, interdisciplinary projects
Diana C. Sisson and Tara M. Moretensen, Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 3, Issue 2, 78-95
Educating students for the social, digital and information world: Teaching public relations infographic design
Abstract
"This study employs an exploratory content analysis of current public relations information graphics to examine variables within two concepts pertaining to public relations: transparency and clarity. These two concepts were chosen because they apply to both traditional public relations practice and are also widely taught amongst contemporary infographics design experts. The subjects of the study are nonprofit organizations’ online informational graphics (N = 376) that have been released on Twitter. Findings suggest that nonprofit organizations are not applying traditional public relations principles to their design of online information graphics, demonstrating difficulty in translating these principles to visual design, a skill that is becoming more important. While the study is not intended to generalize, this snapshot of current practice is used to offer improvements in preparing public relations students for communication with information visualizations. This exploration illuminates the need for public relations education geared toward the social, visual, and data-driven environment. To this end, the study uses these findings to develop an initial set of practices for infographic design that can be implemented into current public relations education."
http://aejmc.us/jpre/2017/12/29/educating-studen…fographic-design/
"Competition and Public Relations Campaigns: Assessing the Impact of Competition on Quality of Projects, Partners, and Students" by McCollough in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
Scholars in public relations pedagogy have provided a strong
body of research on the impact of service learning, community
partnerships (Daugherty, 2003), and applied learning on
campaigns, writing, and production courses common to the public
relations curriculum (Wandel, 2005). Rarely explored, however,
is the impact of competition among student groups within a
public relations course on the quality of campaigns, student
experience, client satisfaction, and achievement of learning
outcomes (Rentner, 2012). This study presents a comparative
analysis of campaign courses that employed competitive and noncompetitive
campaign course models to demonstrate the impact
of incorporating competition within public relations courses.
This document describes a new approach to teaching public relations campaigns that aims to address problems with the traditional "divide and conquer" method. The traditional approach has students divide into static teams that each work independently on separate sections of a campaign. This often results in unequal work distribution and a lack of collaboration. The new approach requires students to serve on rotating research, campaign book, and strategy teams throughout the semester. Each team is responsible for developing a specific section, with all students providing input. This encourages collaboration, ensures all students understand the entire campaign, and solves issues around work distribution and quality associated with the traditional method.
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility:
Exploring the Mediating Role of
Out-of-Class Communication
ABSTRACT
Every generation experiences distinct events and develops unique
values. As Millennial learners enter classrooms, they bring with
them new views about education, learning and faculty/student
communication. This study explores the mediating role of out-ofclass
communication (OCC) in relation to the historical dimensions
known to compose faculty credibility. Findings indicate that OCC
has a positive, mediating influence that enhances two of the three
key dimensions of credibility for faculty members: trustworthiness
and perceived caring. In addition, this study suggests that there
is a fourth potential dimension that composes the construct
of faculty credibility in the perspectives of Millennial learners:
sociability, which should be included alongside the three historical
dimensions scholars have used in previous studies.
"Public Relations Ethics, “Alternative Facts,” and Critical Thinking, with a Side of Tuna" by Lambiase in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
"Media Relations Instruction and Theory Development: A Relational Dialectical Approach" by Pettigrew in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
There has been almost no research in the area of media relations
instruction in the public relations literature. This study seeks to fill a
gap in theory-building in the area of media relations and examines
the state of media relations instruction in today’s public relations
curriculum through a survey of public relations professors. The
author suggests relational dialectical theory as a way to better
understand the relationship between public relations practitioners
and journalists, and proposes a relational dialectical approach
to theory-building and in teaching media relations in today’s
changing landscape.
This research examines how popular editions of public relations principles texts and public relations writing texts address media relations. The study consisted of a content analysis of six principles texts and six PR writing texts. One research question was posed,“How do public relations texts address media relations and the journalist/ PR practitioner interaction?” and one hypothesis was posited, “When discussing media relations, PR textbooks focus on relationship building more than specific communication tactics.”The study found that while most texts address media relations from a tactical standpoint, few texts go beyond that to address deeper relational issues, answering the research question and leading to the rejection of the authors’ hypothesis.
Keywords: media relations; public relations education; public relations writing texts; public relations principles texts; public relations introductory texts
What do Employers Want? What Should
Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of
Entry-Level Employment Ads
in Public Relations
ABSTRACT
Public relations remains a popular major at the undergraduate level;
faculty want to provide the best educational experience for their
students to help them secure jobs. This research explores entrylevel
employment ads in public relations as a way to understand
what skills employers want and expect new graduates to have. A
content analysis of 199 entry-level employment ads posted to the
Public Relations Society of America Job Center was conducted.
Major findings include the need for graduates to possess not
only hard skills such as writing but also soft skill abilities, such
as time management, deadline orientation, and collaboration. In
addition, it was found that few job ads specifically request that
future employees have a public relations degree. Finally, although
many of the ads that were examined call for a future employee to
have the skills traditionally associated with the technician role, the
authors suggest a new practitioner role has come into existence.
This role, which bridges the technician and manager, is called
the manager’s apprentice, and it requires knowledge of tactics
and writing, as well as familiarity with measurement, social media
strategy, and data collection.
The Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) is devoted to the presentation of research and commentary that advances the field of public relations education. JPRE invites submissions in the following three categories. All submissions should follow the guidelines of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Research Articles
Hootsuite University: Equipping academics and future PR professionals for social media success
Authors:
Emily S. Kinsky, West Texas A&M University
Karen Freberg, University of Louisville
Carolyn Kim, Biola University
Matt Kushin, Shepherd University
William Ward, Syracuse University
“The best of both worlds”: Student perspectives on student-run advertising and public relations agencies
Authors:
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica Smith, Abilene Christian University
Considering certification?: An analysis of universities’ communication certificates and feedback from public relations professionals
Authors:
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Teaching Briefs
Who wants to be a manager?: Applying the attraction-selection attrition framework to public relations education
Author:
Christopher Wilson, Brigham Young University
Find out more at: http://aejmc.us/jpre
Teaching Digital and
Social Media Analytics:
Exploring Best Practices and Future
Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy
ABSTRACT
One of the growing areas within public relations is digital and social
media analytics. Teaching the use of analytics to communication
students is not new, but studying what is being taught is almost
non-existent. The public relations research literature has supported
exploring the value of data analysis to gain audience insights, to
measure communication strategies, and to evaluate campaign
efforts. The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which
faculty are teaching social media analytics. Two content analyses
were conducted to explore trends of digital and social media
analytics training. Authors analyzed related course syllabi and a
Twitter chat on the subject sponsored by the AEJMC PR Division
and PRSA Educators Academy. Findings and future implications
in teaching digital and social media analytics for educators and
public relations practitioners are discussed.
1) Some students felt that Twitter helped their learning by allowing the expression of various viewpoints and learning from classmates, though others felt this did not always occur in practice.
2) A major drawback mentioned was the potential for Twitter use to distract students into using social media unrelated to class.
3) Some students disliked having their speech limited to Twitter's 140-character tweets.
Table of Contents
Research Articles
Can every class be a Twitter chat?: Cross-institutional collaboration and experiential learning in the social media classroom
Authors:
Julia Daisy Fraustino, West Virginia University
Rowena Briones, Virginia Commonwealth University
Melissa Jansoke, University of Memphis
In their own words: A thematic analysis of students’ comments about their writing skills in mass communication programs
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Teaching Briefs
Integrating leadership in public relations education to
develop future leaders
Author:
Juan Meng , University of Georgia
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Joyce Haley, Abilene Christian University
Margaret Ritsch, Texas Christian University
Jessica†Smith, Abilene Christian University
Abstract
Student-led advertising and/or public relations agencies have increasingly become an educational component of university ad/PR programs. Previous research has established the value that advisers see in the agencies, and this study reports student perceptions of agency involvement. The survey (N = 210) found that participants rated the opportunity to work with real clients, the importance of their universities having agencies, and the increase in their own job marketability as the most positive aspects of the agency experience. Participants said that the most highly rated skills that agency participation built were the ability to work with clients, working in a team structure, and interpersonal skills.
Authors:
Scott Kuehn, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
Andrew Lingwall, Clarion University of Pennsylvania
This study explored student self-perceptions of writing skills in mass communication programs at 13 public state universities in the Mid-Atlantic region. Responses to three open-ended questions revealed heavy student concern with their basic skills, a desire for extensive faculty contact and feedback, and for many respondents, an immaturity or naiveté regarding professional standards. This study addresses implications for faculty members who wish to better understand their students in order to devise more effective writing instruction.
Journal of Public Relations Education, Vol. 2 Issue 1
Authors
Julie O’Neil, Texas Christian University
Jacqueline Lambiase, Texas Christian University
Abstract
Working professionals may need post-baccalaureate education, but finding time and resources to do so may be difficult. An analysis of 75 university masterís programs in public relations found 22 related programs offering communication certificates. A web audit of these programs, plus a survey and in-depth interviews, indicated professionals are interested in earning certificates, particularly in social and digital media strategy and measurement. Professionals want to attend certificate programs that combine online and face-to-face instruction.
Authors:
Juan Meng, University of Georgia
Introduction
Organizations are operating in environments characterized by rapid change and increasing communication complexity. Thus, the development and education of communication leaders who are able to navigate and respond effectively and strategically in such dynamic environments has become equally critical for organizations. As a consequence, the implications for integrating leadership education, training, and development into public relations curriculum are profound. If we, as educators, can enhance both communication skills and leadership development for public relations majors, our graduates will be able to develop a sustainable competitive advantage and provide long-term value to organizations. Although the profession has advocated for leveraging the roles of public relations to a managerial and strategic level, the actual effort in building up the pipeline of future leaders in the profession is delayed. In higher education, there is a remarkable scarcity in designing, integrating, and delivering leadership in public relations teaching and education.
"Developing a Blueprint for Social Media Pedagogy: Trials, Tribulations, and Best Practices" by Zhang and Freberg in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
ABSTRACT:
Social media research, and particularly social media pedagogy,
has increased substantially as a domain in public relations
research. Yet, along with this increased focus on social media
pedagogy, educators and other higher education professionals
are under pressure from industry, professional communities,
and university administrations to keep their classes updated and
relevant for their students. To better understand the current state
and rising expectations facing educators teaching social media,
we interviewed 31 social media professors to explore the trials and
tribulations of their journey and to identify best practices for social
media as a pedagogical tool. The study also suggests a blueprint
for implementing social media pedagogy in the classroom. Future
implications for both research and practice are discussed.
Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of StudentsSubmissionResearchpa
Counseling makes perfect any human being for living life smoothly. According to phycology people required someone near to him/her with whom he/she can share their thoughts, happiness, emotions etc. and this is required in education also, In education we need to give support to our students for knowing their problems and feeling regarding education, life, career, friends, family etc. in this paper researcher tried to find out the importance of the counseling in the mind of students of the effect of the same in students mind because in the recent time importance of the education is more and the use of technology is also more so its big problem for the students for connecting consciously with the learning, and without consciousness people cannot understand many thinks for life long time it’s just for examination. By using the qualitative research study research has tried to find out solution for the same with the sample of 60 students of undergraduate of Parul University. During the research researcher identified major two internal and external factors in which there are six other factors, with the help of the qualitative research technique. by Rahul Chauhan and Bhoomi R. Chauhan 2020. Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of Students. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 5 (Mar. 2020), 34-43. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i5.140. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140/137 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140
Augmenting Higher Education Students Work Experiences Preferred Purposes An...Tony Lisko
This document summarizes a study that examined higher education students' preferred purposes and processes for augmenting their work experiences. A survey of healthcare students found they prefer processes that help gauge and develop their occupational capacities and readiness for employment. They prefer interventions led by teachers or experts over student-led ones. However, students placed low value on peer assistance and feedback, contrary to recent literature indicating peers are highly valued. The study aims to identify effective ways to utilize work experiences and resources invested in them.
Enhancement of Student Preparation for Global Serviceinventionjournals
University students are expected to acquire proficiency in skills used in the profession and to serve globally as they graduate. Efficacy of this has been supported in studies in which skill mastery was enhanced through provision of experiential assignments. Service learning is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience. Problem-based learning provides active, hands-on learning that is centered on real-world problems or issues. A qualitative study was conducted by the researchers with five online courses in graduate counselor education and a total of 536 students over a 2.5 year period to assess student application of course concepts in a realworld environment with cultural diversity. Student projects focused on identification of needs and individual work to serve those needs, such as volunteering with a cultural group other than their own and development of websites to address collective population issues of need. This paper shares reflections and benefits found in student projects with these courses. Results of the study supported efficacy of Service Learning and ProblemBased Learning to enhance student mastery of course content and preparation for global service after degree completion.
This document provides a literature review on service-learning in higher education. It explores service-learning in terms of student development, faculty involvement, and institutional support. The review finds that service-learning can positively impact students' academic understanding, critical thinking, and awareness of social issues, but may also negatively impact commitment if not well-supported. It suggests universities improve faculty compensation and explore offering service-learning across disciplines. Long-term planning involving faculty and administrators is also recommended to strengthen service-learning programs.
The document discusses the growing use of assessment methods in higher education that measure observable student behaviors and attitudes, such as attendance records, class participation grading, and group project grading. While previous research has focused on the potential learning benefits of these "performative" assessment methods, the author argues they have not been adequately analyzed from the perspective of student rights within higher education. The article then presents results from a survey of undergraduates at a Hong Kong university, which found that attendance records, class participation grading, and group project grading are commonly used and that many students have concerns regarding the appropriateness and fairness of these assessment practices.
This document discusses service learning in higher education. It defines service learning as experiential education where students engage in community service activities designed to promote student learning and development through structured reflection. Research shows positive impacts on student academic and developmental outcomes. The document outlines the history of service learning, tracing its roots to John Dewey's philosophy of experiential learning and its rise in the late 20th century as a way to make college curriculum more relevant and engage faculty in teaching. Service learning programs in Utah higher education institutions are also mentioned.
A Quasi-Experimental Investigation Of How The Gates Millennium Scholars Progr...Liz Adams
The document discusses a study that uses a regression discontinuity approach to investigate whether participation in the Gates Millennium Scholars program changes how college students allocate their time to studying, working, and extracurricular activities. The Gates program aims to improve access to higher education for low-income, high-achieving minority students by providing full scholarships. The study finds that receiving a Gates scholarship reduces the number of hours students work per week and influences higher participation in volunteering and cultural events. Subgroup analyses show racial/ethnic differences in responses to the scholarship.
This article summarizes a study on collaboration in university programs that involve students participating in real-world experiences. Interviews were conducted with students, partner organizations, and instructors involved in a learning through participation (LTP) program. The study initially aimed to explore online technologies used to support collaboration. However, emerging themes from the data shifted the focus to the nature of collaboration in LTP. Key findings include that LTP involves new collaborative roles for all parties that are not always explicitly addressed. Challenges to collaboration include time constraints and communication issues. While online tools were used, face-to-face interaction was still seen as important to collaboration in LTP.
The Journal of Research in Business Education 1BENEFITS OF.docxjmindy
The Journal of Research in Business Education 1
BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATING IN SERVICE-
LEARNING, BUSINESS-RELATED CLASSES:
ASSESSING THE IMPACT ON THE COMMUNITY
PARTNERS
Nancy Vizenor
Tasha J. Souza
Joshua Jordan Ertmer
Abstract
Problem: Many universities offer service-learning classes that provide opportunities
for students and community partners to work together on semester-long projects.
Researchers have been especially interested in the benefits students receive in service-
learning classes, and those benefits have been well recognized (Eyler, Giles, Stenson,
& Gray, 2001). However, the benefits to community partners have been assumed but
seldom explored empirically (Bringle & Steinberg, 2010; Cruz & Giles, 2000; Dorado &
Giles, 2004). Research Questions: How beneficial were the service-learning projects to
the community partners? What were the community partners’ experiences working with
the students? Research Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive design was used to
investigate the uses and benefits of 30 community partners from five different business-
related, project-based, cooperative, service-learning university classes. Results: The
results indicated that community partners used and benefited from working with students
in such classes. More than 95% of the community partners implemented at least some of
what the students created or recommended, and 39% of the community partners said that
what the students provided was completely new information, insights, or strategies that
they had not yet considered or done. Another key finding was that 80% of the community
partners stated that the projects made a “pretty big” to an “extremely large” impact on
their organization. These results suggest that working with the business-related, project-
based, cooperative, service-learning university classes had an overall positive impact on
the community partners.
Keywords: service-learning, community partners, business classes
Nancy Vizenor ([email protected]) is an assistant professor of Management at Humboldt
State University, Arcata, CA.
Tasha J. Souza ([email protected]) is the associate director of the Center for Teaching and
Learning and professor of Communication at Boise State University, Boise, ID.
Joshua Jordan Ertmer ([email protected]) is currently an accounting associate at USDM
Life Sciences in Santa Barbara, CA.
Introduction
University classrooms have changed over the last century with more instructors
implementing high-impact educational practices (Kuh, 2008). Teaching and
learning practices such as service-learning, undergraduate research, and
collaborative projects, have consistently shown benefits for university students.
The use of such high-impact practices, especially when combined, can increase
rates of student engagement and retention (Kuh, 2008).
2 Volume 58, No. 1, 2017
BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATING IN SERVICE-LEARNING
ASSESSING THE IMPACT ON THE COMMUNITY PARTNERS
Service-learning is define.
This study examined administrative support for mentoring activities of junior faculty at two higher education institutions. The findings show that while administrators communicated the importance of mentoring and provided some resources, nearly half of participants reported that their institutions did not have formal mentoring programs. The most important finding was the lack of mentoring programs to provide junior faculty with guidance to navigate tenure requirements. The study recommends that HBCU administrators establish formal mentoring programs to support junior faculty and help them successfully obtain tenure.
Perceptions of Tenured and Adjunct Faculty Regarding the Role of the Adjunct ...inventionjournals
This study purpose was to explore the perceptions of adjuncts and tenured faculty about the role of the adjunct in higher education. Through purposeful sampling, the lived experiences of nine adjuncts and nine tenured faculty members were considered from three historically black colleges and universities in the southeastern United States. The Critical Social Theory guided this qualitative phenomenological study as it relates to organizational culture. The Critical Social Theory framework illuminates the perceptions of the more powerful players in an organization and the impact of these perceptions on the workplace culture. Six themes that emerged from the analysis of the data: (a) Professional Development and Support, (b) Increased Collaboration, (c)Standard Recruiting and Retention Practices, (d) Shared Responsibilities, (e) Their Perceived Student Perceptions of Adjuncts and Tenured Faculty in the Classroom, and (f) The Relationship between Adjuncts and their University. These themes gave rise to a general description of the perceptions and the workplace culture. The findings from the study yielded several unexpected outcomes.
Assessing Learning in Service-Learning Courses Through Critical Reflection.pdfEmma Burke
This document describes a model called the DEAL Model for assessing student learning through critical reflection in service-learning courses. The model utilizes student reflective writings to assess depth of learning and critical thinking skills. Results from implementing the model in two service-learning courses found that it was useful for documenting student learning, though students had more difficulty with higher-order thinking skills like evaluation and critical analysis. Upperclassmen demonstrated greater depth of learning and critical thinking compared to freshmen. The model shows potential as a rigorous tool for assessing learning outcomes in service-learning.
Is Service-Learning Effective 1 IS SERVICE-LEARNIN.docxchristiandean12115
Is Service-Learning Effective?
1
IS SERVICE-LEARNING EFFECTIVE?: A LOOK AT CURRENT RESEARCH
Clayton A. Hurd
Colorado State University
June 2006
Please do not quote without permission of the author
______________________________________
Abstract
The growth of service-learning in higher education is related to the way it both helps students
achieve personal and academic goals and serves broader institutional goals of civic engagement for
students and outreach to communities (Campus Compact 2000). This article looks closely at current
research assessing the impact of academic service-learning in such areas as enhanced academic
learning, instructional effectiveness, civic responsibility, appreciation of diversity, and student
retention. Research has demonstrated that courses incorporating service learning components
generally provide greater learning benefits than those that do not, including a deeper understanding
of course material, a better understanding of the complex problems people face, and an ability to
apply course material to new situations and real world problems. Research also suggests that faculty
integration of service-learning pedagogy and practice enhances the achievement of curricular goals
of the course, facilitates deeper faculty-student connections and better understanding of student
learning styles, provides more meaningful engagement with and commitment to teaching, and
promotes a greater sense of connection to other faculty and the institution. With regard to student
retention, emerging research highlights the ways in which service-learning classes promote
academic (cognitive) and social (affective) integration and facilitate the development of meaningful
connections between students, faculty, and community members in ways that allow for diversity and
encourage retention.
DEFINING SERVICE LEARNING
Service-learning is a pedagogical practice that integrates service and academic learning to promote
increased understanding of course content while helping students develop knowledge, skills, and
cognitive capacities to deal effectively with the complex social issues and problems. It is an approach
that emphasizes reflection and field-based learning as a way to engage the learner personally with the
curriculum. As pedagogy, service learning emphasizes meaningful student learning through applied,
active, project-based learning that draws on multiple knowledge sources (academic, student
knowledge and experience, and community knowledge) and provides students with ample
opportunities for ethical and critical reflection and practice. By confronting issues and problems in
complex natural contexts, service learning courses help students develop a deeper understanding of
subject matter, a practical knowledge of community decision making processes, and strategies for
transferring knowledge and problem solving skills to new situations. Effective service-learning
class.
JOURNAL REVIEW: Students learning through service learning
Hebert A and Hauf P: “Students learning through service learning” Effects on academic development, civic responsibility, interpersonal skills and practical skills. Active Learning in Higher Education Vol.16, 2015, 37-49
Academic Self-Concept And Critical Thinking Dispositions Devising A Predicti...Sabrina Green
This document discusses a study that aimed to develop a predictive model of college students' degree commitment based on their academic self-concept and critical thinking dispositions. It provides background on factors related to degree commitment such as attrition rates. It also discusses academic self-concept and critical thinking dispositions as potential predictors of degree commitment. A literature review covers research on degree commitment, critical thinking dispositions, academic self-concept, and the need to explore these factors among Greek college students. The study used a questionnaire to examine relationships between the predictors and degree commitment for 120 Greek college students.
Ijaems apr-2016-25 BS Mathematics Student’s Personal Beliefs in Engaging in a...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
This document summarizes a study that explored the changing beliefs of students in the BS Mathematics program at De La Salle Lipa in the Philippines. The study found that most students did not initially choose the BS Mathematics program and had negative beliefs about mathematics due to difficulty and lack of awareness of the program. Through qualitative interviews, students reported that their views changed over time due to the supportive learning environment and experiences provided by the school and teachers. They gained more interest in mathematics and adapted to the program. The findings suggest that providing an encouraging learning environment can help promote positive achievement and reception of mathematics among students.
Service-learning is defined as experiential education where students engage in activities to address human and community needs while also focusing on student learning and development. It benefits both the student and recipient of service. Some key aspects of service-learning include reflection, reciprocity, and ensuring equal focus on both the service provided and learning that occurs. Students involved in service-learning gain hands-on, insightful experience outside the classroom that can help prepare them for future careers and leadership roles in building their communities.
The document presents the design and validation of the COMGAU questionnaire to evaluate university students' generic competencies and employability potential. It was administered to 564 university students in Spain. Through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and tests of internal consistency, the results supported the questionnaire's validity and reliability. The COMGAU incorporates prior theoretical frameworks and provides a validated tool to advance research on service-learning and employability.
Similar to Journal of Public Relations Education, Volume 3, Issue 2 (20)
This document summarizes the Fall 2018 issue of the Journal of Public Relations Education. It includes an introduction from the editor, a table of contents listing three research articles and teaching briefs on public relations education topics, and two software reviews of social media monitoring tools. The issue reflects work from previous editors and reviewers to select and format research and teaching content for publication.
This document provides instructions for a two-part assignment in which students create a multimedia story about their transformation from a college student to a communication professional. In part one, students write a structured narrative describing their personal and professional goals grounded in their values. In part two, students translate this narrative into a multimedia presentation using Adobe Spark, learning strategic content creation and digital storytelling. The assignment aims to develop students' problem-solving, creativity, and multimedia storytelling skills for public relations practice.
This teaching brief describes a group assignment where students evaluate real-world health communication campaigns developed by the CDC. Students are divided into groups and each analyzes a different CDC campaign. They discuss how the campaign addressed key components of design like research, messaging, and evaluation. They also consider how the CDC communicates about the campaigns on its website. The goal is for students to apply their learning and get experience critically analyzing actual public health campaigns. Student feedback indicates the assignment helps them better understand how theory and research inform strategic health communication in practice.
"Improving PR Campaigns with a Roll of the Dice: Assuming New Identities to Strengthen Diversity and Inclusion" by Bruhn in Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol 4, Issue 1, Spring 2018
Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) Vol. 4, Issue 1 Spring 2018
Book Review of "Public Relations and the Corporate Persona: The Rise of the Affinitive Organization" by Burton St. John III; review by Christie Kleinmann
Research Articles
I love tweeting in class, but.... A qualitative study of student perceptions of the impact of Twitter in large lecture classes Jenny Tatone, University of Oregon Tiffany Derville Gallicano, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Alec Tefertiller, University of Oregon
Preparing students for the global workplace: Current practices and future directions in international public relations education
Rajul Jain, DePaul University
Teaching media relationships: What’s in the textbooks? Justin E. Pettigrew, Kennesaw State University Kristen Heflin, Kennesaw State University
Teaching Briefs
From divide and conquer to dynamic teamwork: A new approach to teaching public relations campaigns Kristen Heflin, Kennesaw State University Shana Meganck, Virginia Commonwealth University
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This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
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Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
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Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
3. INTRODUCTION
The internship experience is broadly regarded by practitioners and educators as
a critical event that often serves as a transition to an entry-level position (Gault, Reding-
ton, & Schlager, 2000; Gibson, 2001) and better employment opportunities for students
(Knouse & Fontenot, 2008; Knouse, Tanner, & Harris, 1999; Redeker, 1992; Taylor,
1988). Internships improve college performance via experiential learning (Cantor, 1997;
Ciofalo, 1989; McCarthy, 2006), improve personal habits such as time management and
dependability (Sapp & Zhang, 2009; Taylor, 1988), have the potential to strengthen
academic programs via service learning and citizenship (Fall, 2006; Mendel-Reyes,
1998), and help students make valuable connections with industry (Tovey, 2001) and
community partners (Bringle, 2002; Soska & Butterfield, 2013). Internships provide
Journal of Public Relations Education
Volume 3 (2), 2017, 59-77
Mind The Gap: An Exploratory Case Study Analysis of Public
Relations Student Intern and On-Site Supervisors’ Perceptions
of Job Skills and Professional Characteristics
Thomasena Shaw, Bridgewater State University
Abstract
Internships have significant early career advantages for undergradu-
ates including less time finding a first employment position, increased
monetary compensation and greater overall job satisfaction. Considera-
ble professional and scholarly evidence highlights the important role of
undergraduate internships, as well as gaps that exist between students
and supervisors regarding the relative importance of specific job skills
and professional characteristics. While previous studies have explored
the underlying feelings and expectations of the two groups in profes-
sional and academic contexts, this exploratory case study uses coorien-
tation as the theoretical framework to examine the levels of agreement,
congruency and accuracy that exist between them in relation to key jobs
skills and professional characteristics linked with career success; it also
provides insight into the extent to which respondents perceive that the
internship improved students’ college-learning outcomes. The key find-
ings of this study indicate that the majority of respondents believed that
the experience improved performance in relation to college learning
outcomes. The study also found that students and supervisors are accu-
rately cooriented with one another in relation to job skills items, but
less so when it comes to professional characteristics. This could be par-
ticularly problematic for student interns as misperceptions and misun-
derstanding can potentially lead to missed opportunities for collabora-
tion and integration, and/or a self-fulfilling prophecy where supervi-
sors’ lack of coorientation damages the possibility of a cooperative re-
lationship with current and future student interns, and the academic
programs that bring them together.
4. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 60
students with a unique opportunity to gain valuable interpersonal, social, and contextual
attitudes necessary for entry into non-academic settings (Anson & Forsberg, 1992), and
crystallize personal interests and career ambitions (Coco, 2000).
Professional and scholarly evidence suggests a gap exists between students and
supervisors regarding the relative importance of specific job skills and professional
characteristics (CPRE, 1999; CPRE, 2006; Daugherty, 2011; Neff, Walker, Smith, &
Creedon, 1999; Todd, 2014). While these and other studies have explored the underly-
ing feelings and expectations of the two groups in professional and academic contexts,
this study uses coorientation as the theoretical framework. Specifically, the researcher
examines the levels of accuracy, congruency and agreement that exist between the two
groups in relation to a number of job skills and professional characteristics considered
necessary for a positive internship experience and future career success. The results are
intended to extend existing understanding of the topic and suggest intentional changes
to course design and dialogue regarding teaching practices that could improve student
learning outcomes – ultimately laying the groundwork for the two groups to “coorient”
toward one another accurately.
In the next section of this paper, a review of literature defines and examines the
benefits of the internship experience, explores it in a public relations program context,
and outlines the study’s theoretical framework: coorientation. Next, the researcher out-
lines the survey methodology employed, describes results, and discusses implications of
the findings.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Benefits of the Internship Experience
Internships help students transition to entry-level positions (Gault, Redington,
& Schlager, 2000; Gibson, 2001), improve interconnections between service learning
and citizenship education (Fall, 2006; Mendel-Reyes, 1998), and have the potential to
strengthen relationships between the academy and business and community partners
(Tovey, 2001). An article in The Chronicle of Higher Education states that academic
internships are valuable partnerships that allow students to collaborate closely with fac-
ulty, and strengthen ties between the academy and the community—whether students
are paid or not (Westerberg & Wickersham, 2011). Regarding the benefits to the organi-
zation, internships provide direct business contact for students in an employment setting
(Gupta, Burns, & Schiferl, 2010), prepare students with realistic expectations of their
future careers, and an opportunity to gain on-the-job experience (Paulins, 2008). They
provide additional well-educated, talented labor capacity (Brindley & Ritchie, 2000;
Callanan & Benzing, 2004; Mihail, 2006), “compensation efficiencies,” and an oppor-
tunity to see how much potential a student has in the field before hiring them (Coco,
2000). Indeed, Watson (1995) estimated that it is $15,000 per person less expensive to
hire interns than to recruit and select candidates from an at-large pool. Maertz, Stoeberl,
and Philipp (2014) assert that interns are often more loyal toward the company and stay
longer than the average non-intern hire.
College Internship Experiences Defined
The earliest recorded college-endorsed employment program was established
in 1906 at the University of Cincinnati’s Cooperative Education Program (Thiel & Hart-
ley, 1997). Typical contemporary internship programs have the following attributes:
they offer a specific number of work hours, paid or unpaid employment, credit for col-
5. Shaw 61
lege classes, supervision by a faculty coordinator or other university contact, and super-
vision by an organization mentor (DiLorenzo-Aiss & Mathisen, 1996; Gault, Redington,
& Schlager, 2000; Roznowski & Wrigley, 2003). To maximize the internship experi-
ence, Coco (2000) asserts that students should be held accountable for projects and
deadlines. Lubbers and Bourland-Davis (2012) suggest that on-site supervisors should
provide incoming interns with some kind of orientation, where goals are clearly articu-
lated, and with access to regular meaningful feedback. This type of internship experi-
ence resembles what Kuh (2008) describes as high impact . Learning experiences such
as internships are considered high impact practices when they are effortful, help stu-
dents build substantive relationships, help students engage across differences, provide
students with rich feedback, help students apply and test what they are learning in new
situations, and provide opportunities for students to reflect on the people they are be-
coming.
Divine, Linrud, Miller, and Wilson (2007) indicate that approximately 90% of
U.S. colleges offer internships or similar experiential opportunities. In 2016, a US News
and World Report survey of 324 ranked colleges and universities found that on average
40% of the undergraduate class of 2014 had internship experience. At the eight schools
with the highest rates of participation, 100% of undergraduates completed an internship
(Smith-Barrow, 2016). A National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE,
2016) report found that more than 56% of students from the class of 2015 who partici-
pated in an internship had received at least one job offer by April of that year (compared
to only 36.5% of undergrads who did not have an internship) and that the intern conver-
sion rate was 51.7%.
The Internship Experience in a Public Relations Program Context
Internships are strongly encouraged and valued among both public relations
educators and employers; the experience lends credibility to university public relations
programs (Van Leuven, 1989a), and allows students to observe public relations practi-
tioners in the roles of manager, strategist, planner, problem solver and counselor to
management (Baxter, 1993). Lubbers, Bourland-Davis and Rawlins (2008) describe it
as a process of socialization through which interns learn the values associated with the
profession.
The industry’s largest organization of public relations professionals, the Public
Relations Society of America (PRSA), encourages internships as a key way for students
to enhance their education, résumé, portfolio, networking, and technical skills (Beebe,
Blaylock, & Sweetser, 2009). A national study conducted by the Commission on Public
Relations Education entitled “A Port of Entry” recommends a supervised work experi-
ence as one of the core courses for students majoring or pursuing an emphasis in public
relations (CPRE, 1999); the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass
Communications (ACEJMC) also advocates and encourages opportunities for internship
and other professional experiences outside the classroom (ACEJMC, 2013).
Research also supports the notion that a quality public relations internship in-
creases job satisfaction after graduation (Horowitz, 1997), is a necessity for mass com-
munication students making the transition from college to career (Beard & Morton,
1999), and is typically favored by students to seek mentoring and to make contacts
(Basow & Byrne, 1993).
With regard to discipline-specific skills supervisors believed most necessary
for public relations interns, Beard and Morton (1999) identify six predictors for intern-
ship success in a public relations context: (1) academic preparedness, (2) proactivity/
aggressiveness, (3) positive attitude, (4) quality of worksite supervision, (5) organiza-
6. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 62
tional practices and policies, and (6) compensation. Brown and Fall (2005) identified
writing, oral, and organizational skills, and note that the most valued professional char-
acteristics were intangible: motivation and “healthy, upbeat attitudes” (p. 303). The
aforementioned “Port of Entry” report (1999, p. 12) identified the following as core
skills: mastery of language in written/oral communication; community relations, con-
sumer relations, employee relations and other practice areas; research methods and anal-
ysis; problem solving and negotiation; and informative and persuasive writing.
Disparities Regarding Learning Outcomes
Despite the obvious benefits of the internship experience, research does indi-
cate that disparities exist between how public relations practitioners, academic pro-
grams, and students perceive the importance of job skills and professional characteris-
tics, which has the potential to lead to missed opportunities for all parties.
A study conducted on behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Uni-
versities (Hart, 2016) indicated that the college learning outcomes employers considered
top priorities include demonstration in “cross-cutting skills” related to communication,
teamwork, ethical decision-making, critical thinking, and applying knowledge in real-
world settings (p.1). Sixty percent of employers indicated that they would be much
more likely to consider a candidate that had recently completed an internship. However,
44% felt that recent college graduates were not well-prepared to apply their knowledge
in real-world settings, and gave students low scores for preparedness across a range of
college learning outcomes including ability to communicate orally, working effectively
with others in teams, and critical thinking and analytical reasoning skills. There was
alignment in the category referred to as staying current with new technologies; however,
students were more than twice as likely as employers to think they were prepared in
terms of oral communication, written communication, critical thinking, and creativity.
Two separate Commission on Public Relations Education reports (CPRE,
1999; CPRE, 2006) indicate that a number of key competencies and skills were weak or
missing among entry-level public relations graduates, including: writing skills, under-
standing of business practices, and critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Neff,
Walker, Smith, and Creedon (1999) assert that gaps exist between the outcomes educa-
tors and employers desire and those presently achieved in public relations education.
They found that public relations graduates don’t always meet entry-level outcome com-
petencies expected by employers, and recommended changes in curriculum, pedagogy
and assessment.
It would appear that these disparities also spill over into the internship experi-
ence. Meng (2013) found differences between students and practitioners; practitioners
ranked strategic decision-making capability, ability to solve problems and produce de-
sired results, and communication knowledge and expertise highest. Meanwhile, public
relations students rated ability to solve problems and produce desired results, being
trustworthy and dependable, and relationship-building abilities highest. Sapp and Zhang
(2009) found that industry supervisors rated students’ performance in the categories of
attitude and interaction the highest, and skills related to the students’ writing skills,
ability to take initiative, professional skills, spoken communication skills, and time
management skills among the lowest. In Daugherty’s (2011) study, students indicated
that they wanted more skill development and hands-on training, while on-site supervi-
sors saw their role as more holistic. Todd (2014) found that public relations managers
rated the job skills and professional characteristics of their entry-level millennial charg-
es significantly lower than the latter group rated themselves.
7. Shaw 63
Many of the research articles, studies and reports detailed above explore the
public relations internship experience from a variety of perspectives, including that of
student interns and their on-site supervisors, but none have explored the degree of coor-
ientation—agreement, congruence and accuracy—each group perceives the other to
have with his/her own evaluations in relation to recognized job skills and professional
characteristics. Coorientation rests on the assumption that a person’s behavior is based
on a combination of his/her personal construction of the world and the perception of
orientations of those around them (Heider, 1958; Newcomb, 1953). As such, the theory
suggests methods for measuring the degree of mutual orientation of individuals, groups
or organizations toward an object, or the consensus among them about an object
(Pearson, 1989). In this study, coorientation theory will be used to explore if perceptions
regarding the job skills/professional characteristics necessary for a successful public
relations internship experience are accurate or not. This will identify underlying dispari-
ties (if they exist), and facilitate discussion of implications for public relations educa-
tors, student interns, and on-site supervisors.
Theoretical Framework: Coorientation
Coorientation theory stems from the study of social psychology. Essentially,
the term coorientation refers to simultaneous orientations, so if person A (on-site super-
visor) feels negatively toward B (student intern) and positively about X (job skills and/
or professional characteristics), and finds out that B feels positively about X as well,
then the system can be said to be imbalanced, or asymmetrical. Ultimately, this imbal-
ance can impede any moves toward balance or improvement of the relationship between
the two parties. Therefore, coorientation can be seen as a relational term, and it is via
communication that it is achieved. According to Johnson (1989), from this perspective,
it is imperative that consensus is examined as an interaction between people rather than
being the property of a single individual.
Perhaps the most recognizable names in this research stream are McLeod and
Chaffee (1973) who developed a coorientation measurement model with three variables:
agreement, congruency and accuracy. Perfect communication between the two groups
(A and B), totally free of constraints, would not necessarily improve agreement, and it
might even reduce congruency. Indeed, if the two are motivated to coorient, it can actu-
ally facilitate understanding, but it should always improve accuracy, even to the point
where each person knows exactly what the other is thinking; this would be perfect com-
munication in a quite literal sense.
The model, outlined in Figure 1, provides a visual representation of coorienta-
tion in relation to this study, which explores the relationship between the two
groups’ (on-site supervisors and student interns) self-reported attitudes toward an object
(rating of job skills and professional characteristics) as well as their perceptions of each
other’s self-report. This produces three coorientation variables: agreement, congruency
and accuracy.
Coorientation Variables Defined: Agreement, Congruency and Accuracy
Agreement indicates the degree to which the two groups’ beliefs on the issue (rating of
job skills and professional characteristics) are similar. Perceived disagreement/
agreement on the issue by the two groups is described as congruency. Accuracy is the
extent to which one group’s cognition (e.g., interns’ perception of supervisors’ ranking
According to Kim (1986), of the three measurements, accuracy is considered to
be the most important because it can provide a clear picture of the effects of communi-
8. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 64
cation. For example, in terms of this study, agreement on the focal point—what job
skills and professional characteristics are most important—must take place before true
understanding can occur. Although communication may often produce some increase in
accuracy, it rarely produces total agreement because each person arrives at his/her be-
liefs through personal experiences. Communication can produce marked increases in
9. Shaw 65
accuracy between the two groups because the more two parties coorient by communi-
cating private values to each other, the more accurate perceptions of those values have
the potential to become (Chaffee & McLeod, 1968).
It is important to note at this point that the coorientation variables—agreement,
congruency and accuracy—are not functionally independent of one another, since each
is based on two measures. Thus, if agreement is low and congruency is high, accuracy is
necessarily low; if agreement and congruency are both high (or low), accuracy is high.
A change in one of these variables will affect change in another if the third is held con-
stant (Chaffee & McLeod, 1968). For example, if a public relations program makes stu-
dent interns more accurate in their perceptions of the rigors and demands of actual pub-
lic relations practice, then congruency for that public will also change. The direction of
the change, higher or lower congruency, depends on the degree to which the initial su-
pervisors’ definition of the issue was similar to student interns’ views.
Examples of the theory being used by public relations researchers include use
in the exploration of public issues (Broom, 1977), media relations (Kopenhaver, Martin-
son, & Ryan, 1977), understanding between government organizations and interest
groups (Grunig, 1972), non-profit organizations and donors (Waters, 2009), journalist
and practitioner attitudes toward social media (Avery, Lariscy, & Sweetser, 2011), and
international relations (Verčič & Verčič, 2007).
There can be no doubt that student interns are operating in more competitive
and dynamic environments than ever before, and it is therefore imperative that both
groups identify issues that may help or hinder their relationship. Expanding knowledge
of the role and importance of the relationship that exists between them, as well as how
each group reacts to similar stimuli/events (i.e., improving the level of coorientation),
will potentially lead to improved student effectiveness and success, and more fruitful
collaborations between academic programs and real-world industry/organizations.
Research Questions
This study will address the following research questions:
RQ1a: How do respondents’ rate/score specific job skills (JS) and professional
characteristics (PC)?
RQ1b: Is there a significant difference in the levels of coorientation (agreement,
congruency and accuracy) regarding JS and PC between the two groups?
RQ2: Do respondents perceive that the internship experience improves students’
learning outcomes?
METHODS
Survey instrument
The researcher secured IRB approval, and pre-tested the survey with a small
sample of faculty and students to verify categorical representation, and assess validity
and comprehension. A Qualtrics survey link was then distributed to all students listed as
belonging to the Strategic Communication/Public Relations concentration in the final
three weeks of a traditional 15-week fall (2015) semester (N = 135) at a mid-sized pub-
lic Northeastern regional university. All of the students who participated had completed
(or were currently taking) a public relations practicum class, which uses a 120-hour
required field experience as a focal point (course prerequisites include Introduction to
Public Relations and Strategic Writing). Students worked at the job site 6-8 hours per
week with an on-site supervisor (who is employed in a public relations capacity at the
job site) and engaged in similar types of activities—event planning and coordination,
10. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 66
strategic writing, preparing strategic awareness/promotion materials, etc. The on-site
supervisor survey was emailed to students’ supervisors (students provided contact infor-
mation in their survey). An initial solicitation email with a web-link to the survey was
distributed to both groups and followed up with one reminder email; this yielded 32
completed student surveys (n = 32; response rate = 22%) and 15 supervisor surveys (n =
15, response rate = 50%).
The survey was comprised of three sections. The first gathered relevant demo-
graphic data from respondents, the second section asked respondents to rate/score eight
job skills and 12 professional characteristics according to (1) his/her own perceptions,
and (2) how they predict the other group would rank them (1 being most important, 12
least important).
This section has preliminary convergent validity as it adapts criteria presented
in a study conducted by Todd (2014) that also divided tasks and responsibilities into two
of these constructs. The third section of the survey explored the extent to which the in-
ternship experience improved students’ abilities related to a number of college learning
outcomes (5-point Likert scale; 1 = no improvement, 2 = slight improvement, 3 = mod-
erate improvement, 4 = significant improvement, 5 = not applicable). This section has
preliminary convergent validity because it uses several of the same constructs presented
in a study conducted on behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Universi-
ties that identified college learning outcomes employers considered top priorities. The
Cronbach's α score was 0.86, which demonstrates acceptable internal reliability. The
final section of the survey asked respondents to answer open-ended questions related to
the overall experience, and challenges/suggestions. The convenience nature of the sur-
vey and small sample size mean that external validity for both the quantitative and qual-
itative parts of the study are low; therefore, only face validity can be assumed.
RESULTS
Description of Respondents
Of the 47 respondents participating in the study, 68% (n = 32) were student
interns and 32% (n = 15) were on-site supervisors. Sixty-eight percent (n = 24) of the
interns were female and 32% (n = 8) were male; on-site supervisors were 53% female (n
= 8) and 47% male (n = 7). Student respondents were mostly aged 21-25 (93% of stu-
dents; n = 28); on-site supervisors’ ages ranged from 26-65, the median age being 39.
The majority of both student and on-site supervisors identified as Caucasian (81%; stu-
dents n = 26 and supervisors n = 13). The student respondents were mostly seniors
(93%; n = 28), 19 % (n = 6) were juniors. All on-site supervisors (n = 15) reported hav-
ing a 4-year college degree, two of them (20%) have a master’s degree. In the on-site
supervisor group, 67% (n = 10) work in private not-for profit (charitable organization),
the remainder work in other non-profit settings (local government n = 2; state govern-
ment n = 2). Just over half of the students (53%; n = 17) reported that this was their first
internship; 22% (n = 7) have had two; 19% (n = 6) have had three internships. In terms
of how many hours students have worked at their internships, 66% (n = 21) worked
under 10 hours; 19% (n = 6) worked over 15 hours. On-site supervisors indicated that
47% (n = 7) have had just one student intern, 33% (n = 5) have had more than three,
and 20% (n = 3) had two interns. The majority of supervisors indicated that interns
worked fewer than 10 hours per week (80%; n = 12).
11. Shaw 67
RQ1a: How do respondents rate/score the importance of related job skills and pro-
fessional characteristics?
Job skills: student interns. With regard to the eight job skills (see Table 1),
student interns reported their top four (in order of preference) as, quality of work (M =
6.28, SD = 1.37), overall performance (M = 5.72, SD = 2.55), writing skills (M = 5.56,
SD = 1.62), and job task preparation (M = 5.06, SD = 2.15). Their bottom four were
oral communication skills (M = 4.81, SD = 1.92), knowledge of social media (M = 3.19,
SD = 2.07), computer skills (M = 3.0, SD = 1.66), and research skills (M = 2.4, SD =
1.38).
Table 1
Job skills – Students’ and Supervisors’ Self Mean
Job skills: on-site supervisors. On-site supervisors reported their top four job
skills (see Table 1) in order of preference as, quality of work (M = 6.5, SD = 1.50),
writing skills (M = 5.91, SD = 1.22), oral communication skills (M = 5.48, SD = 1.84),
and job task preparation (M = 5.13, SD = 2.40). Their bottom four were research skills
(M = 3.84, SD = 2.54), overall performance (M = 3.31, SD = 2.84), knowledge of social
media (M = 3.14, SD = 1.33), and computer skills (M = 2.9, SD = 1.03).
Professional characteristics: students. As there are 12 professional charac-
teristics (PC), the researcher divided them into two groups—top and bottom (see Table
2). Student interns reported the top PC needed by interns as, willingness to learn (M =
9.75, SD = 2.47), time management (M = 9.12, SD = 1.69), attention to details (M =
9.03, SD = 2.54), accept responsibility (M = 7.87, SD = 2.54), follow instructions (M =
7.84, SD = 2.7), and punctuality (M = 6.34, SD = 3.17). The bottom lower ranked were,
take on new tasks (M = 6.12, SD = 2.98), cooperation (M = 5.96, SD = 2.23), accept
criticism (M = 5.65, SD = 2.71), work independently (M = 5.25, SD = 3.3), aware of
ethics (M = 2.65, SD = 2.85), and understand diversity (M = 2.37, SD = 1.94).
Professional characteristics: on-site supervisors. On-site supervisors reported
their top PC as (see Table 2), willingness to learn (M = 11.87, SD = 0.516), attention to
details (M = 10.13, SD = 1.55), follow instructions (M = 7.93, SD = 2.54), time man-
agement (M = 7.4, SD = 2.13), accept responsibility (M = 7.27, SD = 1.94), and work
independently (M = 6.93, SD = 3.47). The bottom ranked PCs were, cooperation (M =
6.07, SD = 1.86), accept criticism (M = 5.93, SD = 1.94), take on new tasks (M = 5.2,
SD = 1.78), punctuality (M = 3.93, SD = 2.78), aware of ethics (M = 3.07, SD = 3.49),
Job Skill
Student self-
mean
Supervisor
self-mean
Difference
in means
Research skills 2.4 3.84 -1.44
Computer skills 3.0 2.9 .10
Knowledge of social media 3.19 3.14 .05
Oral communication skills 4.81 5.48 -.67
Job task preparation 5.06 5.13 -.07
Writing skills 5.56 5.91 .35
Overall performance 5.72 3.31 2.41
Quality of work 6.28 6.5 .22
12. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 68
and understand diversity (M = 2.27, SD = .88).
Table 2
Job skills – Students’ and Supervisors’ Self Mean
RQ1b: Is there a significant difference in the levels of coorientation (agreement,
accuracy, congruence) between the two groups?
Coorientation variables.
Agreement. When respondents’ self–reports are compared to the self-reports
of members of the other group, a coorientational insight into the level of agreement that
exists between the two groups was obtained by utilizing a non-parametric statistical
measure: the Mann-Whitney U test. The central question here is: Do students and super-
visors agree on the rating/scoring of the items (student self vs supervisor self)?
Mann-Whitney U-tests indicated that, for the most part, the two groups agreed
with one another on the ratings/scores of the eight JS presented in the survey. The only
exception relates to the item overall performance (z = -2.813, p = 0.005). Here, stu-
dents’ mean scores were higher than supervisors’ self-reports (student mean = 5.7; su-
pervisor mean = 3.30).
Regarding the 12 PCs, respondents’ scores were similar on the majority of the
items except for three items: (1) willingness to learn (z = -3.474, p = 0.001)—
supervisors rated it higher than students (supervisor mean = 11.80; student mean =
9.70); (2) time management (z = -2.601, p = 0.009)—students rated it higher than super-
visors (student mean = 9.1; supervisor mean = 7.40); and (3) punctuality (z = -2.503, p
= 0.012)—students rated it higher that their on-site counterparts (student mean = 6.3;
supervisor mean = 3.9).
Congruency. To achieve coorientational insight into the level of congruency,
respondents’ self–reports are compared to their projections of “other group” responses.
Mann-Whitney U-tests compared respondents’ selections. The central question here is:
Professional Characteristics
Student self-
mean
Supervisor
self-mean
Difference
in means
Understand diversity 2.38 2.27 .11
Aware of ethics 2.66 3.07 -.41
Work independently 5.25 6.93 -1.68
Accept criticism 5.66 5.93 -.27
Cooperation 5.97 6.07 -.10
Take on new tasks 6.12 5.20 .92
Punctuality 6.34 3.93 2.41
Follow instructions 7.83 7.93 -.10
Accept responsibility 7.88 7.27 .61
Attention to details 9.03 10.13 -1.10
Time management 9.13 7.40 1.73
Willingness to learn 9.75 11.87 -2.12
13. Shaw 69
How similar are respondents’ ratings/scores of job skills and professional characteristics
to how they perceive their counterparts will rate/score the items (student self vs. student
other; supervisor self vs. supervisor other)?
Student interns. Student intern ratings/scores were congruent with their per-
ceptions of how supervisors would rate/score the items. No significant differences oc-
curred in the JS category. Regarding professional characteristics, congruence also exists
across all items; students’ ratings/scores were similar to their perceptions of how super-
visors’ would rate/score the items across all items.
Table 3
Professional Characteristics – Supervisor Congruency
On-site supervisors. Supervisors’ ratings/scores of job skills were congruent
with their perceptions of how students would rate/score all JS items except for social
media (z = -1.900, p = 0.050). However, in the PC category, there was a distinct lack of
congruency across all items except work independently (z = -1.827, p = 0.068; see Ta-
ble 3); supervisors’ ratings/scores were significantly different to their perceptions of
how students would rate/score the items.
The central question was: How similar are respondents’ ratings/scores of job
skills and professional characteristics to how they perceive their counterparts will rate/
score the items (student self vs. student other; supervisor self vs. supervisor other)? Stu-
dents displayed high levels of congruency—how they ranked all items in the job skills
and professional characteristics categories matched how they perceived their supervisor
counterparts would rank the items. On-site supervisors also displayed high levels of
congruency in the job skills section; however, in the professional characteristics catego-
ry, supervisors perceived that students’ selections would be different to their choices.
Accuracy. Finally, when student intern self-reports (or on-site supervisors)
were compared to their projections of how the other group would respond, a coorienta-
tional insight into the level of accuracy that exists between the two groups is obtained.
Mann-Whitney U-tests calculated accuracy within the student intern and on-site super-
visor groups respectively. The central question here is: How do respondents’ (self) rat-
ings/scores compare with their counterparts’ perceptions (other) of how they will rate/
Professional Characteristics z score p value
Willingness to learn -4.670 .000
Attention to details -2.585 .010
Follow instructions -1.996 .046
Time management -2.936 .003
Accept responsibility -3.330 .001
Punctuality -4.037 .000
Cooperation -4.231 .000
Accept criticism -3.639 .000
Take on new tasks -4.648 .000
Work independently -1.827 .068
Understand diversity -4.670 .000
Aware of ethics -3.656 .000
14. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 70
score the items (student self vs. supervisor other; supervisor self vs. student other)?
Student interns. Regarding JS, student interns’ ratings/scores compared with
on-site supervisors’ perceptions of how they would respond was mostly accurate, except
in relation to the item overall performance (z = -2.447, p = 0.014). Regarding the PC
items listed in the survey, student interns’ ratings/scores compared with supervisors’
perceptions of how they would respond was accurate for just three items: willingness to
learn, attention to details, and time management. Inaccuracy existed in relation to the
ratings/scores of nine items: following instructions (z = -2.338, p = 0.019), taking re-
sponsibility (z = -2.453, p = 0.014), punctuality (z = -3.320, p = 0.001), cooperation (z =
-4.197, p = 0.000), accept criticism (z = -4.197, p = 0.000), taking on new tasks (z = -
3.680, p = 0.000), working independently (z = -3.982, p = 0.000), diversity (z = -5.362, p
= 0.000), and ethics (z = -4.801, p = 0.00).
On-site supervisors: Regarding JS items, supervisor’ ratings/scores compared
with student interns’ perceptions of how they would respond was mostly accurate. The
only exception was regarding the items oral communication (z = -2.754, p = 0.006) and
overall performance (z = -2.716, p = 0.007). In relation to the rating/score of PC items,
on-site supervisors’ ratings/scores compared with students’ perceptions of how they
would respond was accurate across most of the items. Inaccuracy existed in relation to
three: willingness to learn (z = -3.103, p = 0.002), time management (z = -2.556, p =
0.011), and punctuality (z = -2.687, p = 0.007)
The central question here is: How do respondents’ (self) ratings/scores com-
pare with their counterparts’ perceptions (other) of how they will rate/score the items?
In this study, supervisors provided stronger evidence of coorientational accuracy than
their student counterparts. When asked to project themselves as the opposite group, su-
pervisors were better at predicting on-site supervisors’ responses (inaccuracy only oc-
curred in two job skills items: oral communication and overall performance; and three
professional characteristics items: willingness to learn, time management and punctuali-
ty). Students did display evidence of accuracy in their predictions of supervisors’ ratings
of job skills (except for one item, overall performance); however, they were very poor at
predicting their counterparts’ responses in the majority (nine) of the professional char-
acteristics categories (they only accurately predicted students’ ratings of willingness to
learn, attention to detail and time management).
RQ3: Do respondents perceive that the internship experience improved students’
learning outcomes?
A Mann-Whitney U-test revealed that significant differences did not exist be-
tween the two groups regarding perceptions of whether the internship experience im-
proved students’ learning outcomes; both groups reported that the experience resulted in
moderate to significant improvement across all 12 recognized college learning outcomes
(Cronbach's α = 0.86).
Students. On a 5-point Likert scale (1 = no improvement, 2 = slight improve-
ment, 3 = moderate improvement, 4 = significant improvement, 5 = not applicable), the
majority of student respondents (N = 32) indicated that they improved across all college
learning outcome categories while working as an intern (M = 3.43).
Supervisors. On a 5-point Likert scale (1 = no improvement, 2 = slight im-
provement, 3 = moderate improvement, 4 = significant improvement, 5 = not applica-
ble), the majority of on-site supervisors indicated that students improved across all col-
lege learning outcome categories while working as interns (M = 3.49).
Responses to open-ended questions
15. Shaw 71
Students and supervisors were asked several open-ended questions about chal-
lenges they experienced related to the internship, and suggestions related to curriculum/
coursework to make the internship experience more successful.
Students. Student interns indicated that the most significant challenges they
faced related to:
Time and work-load management
[My challenges] were definitely being able to balance the work load [while]
still being a full time [sic] student. Being involved on campus, having 3 intern-
ships in total, and still trying to make money [with] a part time job. It was
tough balancing everything, as all the work from each of these things was in-
credibly important…at times it was really hard to make [priority] decisions.
The unpaid nature of internships. “[When] the internship is unpaid, it makes it
very difficult to make ends meet. This is especially true when having to travel
to the job site.”
The strong emphasis on writing ability:
I think one of my biggest challenges was being able to write press releases
since I never [wrote] them at a professional level before. I definitely had trou-
ble with certain types of writing such as creating brochures and news releases.
Adapting to working in a ‘professional’ environment. “Learning the expecta-
tions of my co-workers/supervisor and making sure I always met, and/or ex-
ceeded them. This was a challenge at times because I was new to the real world
[sic] environment and didn't know what to expect.”
With regard to suggestions to the curriculum/coursework to make the intern-
ship experience more successful, most students did not respond to this question. Those
who did were very satisfied with their preparation and experience: “I wouldn't change a
thing, it was a great experience. I loved the balance between the classroom and the field
experience.” Another student stated: “I can't imagine it being more successful. I learned
so much.”
Some student suggestions included: “[Adding] a writing refresher workshop
prior to beginning [the] internship would be beneficial,” and “Taking a business man-
agement class may have really helped too.” Additionally:
Possibly a class with reminders on basic guidelines on how to write press re-
leases and other basic PR writing tools. I found myself looking at past assign-
ments from previous years for help, my writing was not always as strong as I
wanted it to be.
When asked what the internship taught them about their major/discipline, stu-
dents indicated that they learned more about the scope of public relations: “It taught me
valuable writing skills and how to tailor wording to meet the needs of specific audienc-
es. I think I improved my listening skills as well. Two other students responded:
I learned that there are many different facets to public relations, and problems
are always going to occur. Working for a non-profit was challenging, but there
were also many benefits. I now know that it requires passion and a dedication
not required in most regular office jobs.
16. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 72
I definitely learned how to communicate in a more professional setting, i.e.
through emails, phone calls, person-to-person, etc. This experience opened my
eyes to not only the inner workings of a real world business, but also to new
workplace skills that I will definitely use in the future.
Supervisors. With regard to challenges, for supervisors it seems that the
biggest issue related to the limited time interns worked on-site: “[The] only challenge
was that she only worked two days a week and [I] felt bad trying to reach her to follow
up on items during days when she wasn't working.” Another student stated:
I couldn't be happier with the experience I've had with my intern. All of her
work has been of the highest quality and she never hesitates to take on new
tasks and responsibilities. She consistently surpasses expectations and brings
great insight and value to my department. The only challenge I may have en-
countered was keeping her busy because she was so efficient!
Regarding suggestions, supervisors indicated that perhaps more interaction
with academic advisors would be helpful:
More correspondence from the advisers is always helpful - I like having a
weekly bi-weekly or monthly check-in with the college staff to ensure the stu-
dent, adviser, and internship supervisor are all on the same page.
I felt like my intern had a very strong grasp of communication principles, spe-
cifically in regards to public relations and social media. Her coursework abso-
lutely prepared her for work in those fields. Communications work can often
come with broad job descriptions and require the communicator to wear many
‘hats’ [sic]. It seems to me that my intern had a strong academic foundation
that would be an asset in adapting to this kind of situation.
Finally, additional comments offered by supervisors were complimentary of
interns:
Our experience so far has been awesome. We currently have two different
interns here for different reasons and they are both very motivated, intelligent
and helpful. They are a great addition to our organization.
I'd just like to compliment the faculty on offering a generation of new commu-
nicators such a high level of preparation for an industry that changes daily with
the advent of new technologies and vehicles for messaging. I'm excited to see
what these future professionals will bring to the table!
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Discipline-specific skills that supervisors consider most necessary for public
relations interns include strategic writing, oral, and organizational skills, research skills;
problem solving and negotiation; and informative and persuasive writing (Brown &
Fall, 2005; CPRE, 1999). Meng (2013) and Sapp and Zhang (2009) found that the prac-
titioners rank strategic decision-making capability, problem solving, and communica-
tion knowledge and expertise highest, while public relations students rate ability to
solve problems and produce desired results, writing skills, oral communication skills,
and time management skills among the lowest. The results of this study indicate that
students mostly agreed with on-site supervisors (and vice-versa) in relation to their rat-
17. Shaw 73
ings of job skills and professional characteristics. Students placed high ratings on
quality of work, overall performance, writing skills, and job task responsibility; oral
communication, knowledge of social media, computer skills and research skills were
lower rated. On-site supervisors’ top-rated job skills were quality of work, writing
skills, oral communication and job task responsibility; lower rated items were re-
search skills, overall performance, knowledge of social media and computer skills.
While there are many benefits related to the internship experience, dispari-
ties do exist between how students and supervisors perceive the importance of job
skills and professional characteristics, which can lead to missed opportunities for all
(Meng, 2013; Sapp & Zhang 2009; Todd, 2014). This survey indicates that regarding
job skills, student interns and on-site supervisors are both cooriented to one another
across all three coorientation variables (agreement, congruency and accuracy). Re-
garding professional characteristics items, both groups were also cooriented to one
another regarding the agreement variable (student self vs. supervisor self); however,
significant differences exist among on-site supervisors regarding the congruency vari-
able (supervisor self vs supervisor other), and students regarding the accuracy varia-
ble (student self vs supervisor other). This finding is potentially more problematic for
student interns than on-site supervisors because, according to Kim (1986), of the
three measurements, accuracy is the most important; it must take place before true
understanding can occur. Misperceptions and misunderstanding have the potential to
result in missed opportunities for collaboration and integration, and/or a self-fulfilling
prophecy where a lack of coorientation between both students and supervisors dam-
ages the possibility of a cooperative relationship with current and future student in-
terns, and the academic programs that provide access to students.
With regard to college learning outcomes, literature indicates that employers
believe that engaging students in internships improves college-learning outcomes,
makes students better prepared for career success, and potentially a high-impact
learning experience that deepens learning (Hart, 2016; O’Neill 2010). In this study,
the majority of students perceived that improvement was “significant,” while supervi-
sors’ perceived improvement was “moderate.” These findings differ from several
reports that indicate that public relations graduates re not meeting entry-level out-
come competencies (CPRE, 1999; CPRE, 2006; Neff, Walker, Smith, & Creedon,
1999). The high-impact focus of the internship experience respondents of this study
participated in may have deepened perceptions of learning and successful outcomes
for students.
In the open-ended portion of the survey, students stated that they valued the
real-world nature of the experience, and learned a lot about the scope of public rela-
tions; challenges mostly related to time and work-load management, the unpaid na-
ture of experience, and the strong emphasis on writing ability. Supervisors identified
limited time interns worked on site as a key challenge, but for the most part, they
reported being very satisfied with their interns.
The findings of this study suggest that both groups were cooriented to one
another in relation to perceptions of the job skills associated with the internship expe-
rience; however, in relation to the professional characteristics category, supervisors
indicated lower levels of congruency (supervisor self vs. supervisor other), which
means accuracy and overall coorientation between the two groups is low. Blindly
assuming that all parties share a common understanding of goals, outcomes, tasks and
responsibilities can lead to missed opportunities for collaboration and integration,
and/or damage the possibility of a cooperative relationship with current and future
student interns, and the academic programs that provide access to students
18. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 74
Suggestions to overcome discrepancies
1. Faculty supervisors should clearly communicate to all parties (not just students)
what practical expectations, roles, and responsibilities are associated with the expe-
rience. This can be achieved by encouraging collaboration between student and
supervisor (prior to the start of the internship) in the learning goals and outcomes
identification process.
2. Details related to projects and deadlines, expectations regarding the degree of au-
tonomy/independence versus teamwork/direction could also be established. This
could be achieved by collaborating in the creation of a “contract” document in the
opening days/weeks of the internship.
3. In addition to collaboration related to expectations, the provision of rich feedback to
the student from both the faculty and on-site supervisor can benefit all parties and
the hallmark of ‘high impact’ internships. This feedback can relate to the practical
day-to-day tasks/responsibilities, but also engaging students and their supervisors in
reflective conversations related to the interns’ career goals and opportunities to re-
flect on the people they are becoming.
4. Scaffolding relevant prior learning (Introduction to Public Relations and Public
Relations Writing classes as prerequisites), and encouraging reflection on challeng-
es/opportunities can take the form of journals—shared with faculty and on-site su-
pervisors—that hone writing skills and prompt students to engage in critical think-
ing related to the experience; it can also provide an opportunity to coorient more
accurately with one another.
To conclude, the two groups in this study have a lot more in common than they
don’t; perfect communication may not necessarily improve accuracy between these two
groups, but if two are motivated to coorient, it can facilitate understanding. For the public
relations educator and student intern, the goal of communication must be to improve accu-
racy, even if they agree to disagree or even choose not to coorient to the same things in the
same degree. As such, greater dialogue about the fact that students are more cooriented to
supervisors regarding the importance of jobs skills and professional characteristics than
supervisors suspected, will ultimately lead to greater understanding and opportunities for
all parties involved.
Limitations and Future Study
Although the survey was sent to over 135 strategic communication/public rela-
tions concentration students, the response rate and subsequent sample size was small. The
convenience sample nature of the supervisor sample—determined by student interns
providing their supervisors’ contact information—is also a limitation and while the re-
sponse rate was relatively high, the researcher acknowledges that external validity for the
study is low. The study’s results may not be generalizable with a certain margin of error
toward the larger population of student interns and on-site supervisors. Another limitation
is that that the majority of students who participated in the study worked at the internship
site fewer than 10 hours; their experiences would likely differ from students whose intern-
ships require them to work significantly greater hours. Despite these limitations, the results
provide a valuable exploratory insight into how respondents’ rate job skills and profession-
al characteristics, the level of coorientation that exists between them, and the extent to
which they view the internship experience improves a variety of college learning out-
comes.
19. Shaw 75
Future research could expand this study by incorporating some qualitative ele-
ments, and increasing the representativeness and generalizability of the study by increas-
ing sample size (including other universities). The researcher intends to incorporate a lon-
gitudinal approach, continuing to gather and analyze information from student interns and
their supervisors and explore the implications of their orientations on the quality of the
experience for both parties.
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www.chronicle.com/article/Internships-Have-Value/127231/.
22. INTRODUCTION
Social media have transformed public relations education, forcing students to
apply traditional public relations principles, such as transparency and clarity, to new
forms of communications such as infographics. Infographics are design pieces that may
include “data visualizations, illustrations, text, and images together into a format that
tells a complete story” (Krum, 2013, p. 6). In the contemporary mediascape that caters
to low-attention spans, infographics have become hugely popular forms of communica-
tion. Public relations firms are using the medium to build awareness of products and
brands, provide information to shareholders, and increase the value of the brand or
cause (Krum, 2013, p. 88). Effectively creating infographics requires an understanding
Journal of Public Relations Education
Volume 3 (2), 2017, 78-95
Educating students for the social, digital & information world:
Teaching public relations infographic design
Diana C. Sisson, Auburn University
Tara M. Mortensen, University of South Carolina
Abstract
This study employs an exploratory content analysis of current public
relations information graphics to examine variables within two con-
cepts pertaining to public relations: transparency and clarity. These
two concepts were chosen because they apply to both traditional public
relations practice and are also widely taught amongst contemporary
infographics design experts. The subjects of the study are nonprofit
organizations’ online informational graphics (N = 376) that have been
released on Twitter. Findings suggest that nonprofit organizations are
not applying traditional public relations principles to their design of
online information graphics, demonstrating difficulty in translating
these principles to visual design, a skill that is becoming more im-
portant. While the study is not intended to generalize, this snapshot of
current practice is used to offer improvements in preparing public re-
lations students for communication with information visualizations.
This exploration illuminates the need for public relations education
geared toward the social, visual, and data-driven environment. To this
end, the study uses these findings to develop an initial set of practices
for infographic design that can be implemented into current public re-
lations education.
Keywords: infographics, public relations, visual communication, non-
profit organizations, public relations education, visual literacy
23. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 79
of visual communication principles and for niche industries such as public relations,
requires translating legacy principles to new forms of communication. Data visualiza-
tions are compelling to audiences, and “present the illusion of trustworthiness due to
their visual nature and presentation of statistical information” (Toth, 2013, p. 449).
Thus, understanding how to correctly present data in visual form is imperative.
No research was found by the researchers regarding how public relations pro-
fessionals are applying traditional principles to the design of information graphics, nor
how students can better prepare to work in a modern media environment. Given the
popularity of infographic use among nonprofit organizations in an online environment,
these are significant gaps. This exploratory study examines public relations graphics
released via Twitter to identify the manner in which the principles of transparency and
clarity are being applied, and to ultimately offer an initial list of suggestions for public
relations educators.
Based on a review of the literature in the following sections, opportunities for
further study arose and research questions are proposed. Visuals as a form of communi-
cation in the contemporary visual-social mediascape will be introduced, concentrating
on infographics. A discussion of the importance and communicative powers of visuals
will also be undertaken. Following, the variables within the concepts of transparency
and clarity will be laid out as they pertain to public relations and visual communication,
specifically infographics.
LITERATURE REVIEW
An Onion article jokes that people “shudder” at large blocks of uninterrupted
text, requiring a colorful photo, an illustration, or a chart to comprehend the information
(“Nation shudders,” 2010). Satire aside, contemporary news consumers are indeed
skimmers, primarily reading exciting words and facts, as well as headlines and visuals
(Nielsen, 2011; Rosenwald, 2014). This trend has contributed to a massive increase in
the use of infographics to spread information, as well as a need for educators to teach
new tools.
Between 2013 and 2015, Google searches for infographics increased 800%
(Meacham, 2015). Infographics intend to tell a story primarily in pictures, while mini-
mizing the number of words and maximizing visual impact (Meacham, 2015). The pro-
duction of data and its graphic representation were once specialized trades but are now
accessible to nearly everyone (Yaffa, 2011). Infographics harness the power of visuals
to grab readers’ attention, reduce the amount of time it takes to understand data, provide
context by showing comparisons, and make messages more emotional, memorable and
accessible (Kimball & Hawkins, 2008; Kostelnick & Roberts, 2010; Schafer, 1995;
Tufte, 2003).
In an age of “fake news” and audience mistrust of traditional media sources,
understanding how to communicate truthfully in multiple forms is particularly important
for students (Rutenberg, 2016). The 2016 presidential elections brought the term “fake
news” into mainstream awareness, raising widespread knowledge of the viral spread of
untruthful information via social-networking sites (Wingfield, Isaac, & Benner, 2016).
Twitter and Facebook have been urged to take their part of the responsibility in this
spread, and tomorrow’s communicators, too, must be prepared to understand, identify,
and create truthful and clear visual-statistical messages. Members of the media, follow-
ing Kellyanne Conway, have used the term “alternative facts” to describe a problematic
trend of a growing perception of multiple truths, which affects the credibility of politi-
cians, corporations and the media (Rutenberg, 2017, para. 7). Data design has special
24. Sisson 80
considerations in this regard (Kienzler, 1997; Rosenquist, 2012; Stallworth, 2008; Tufte,
2001). Visual content creators can accidentally and easily mislead their audience be-
cause visuals earn more importance and emotional impact than texts (Kienzler, 1997).
Infographics can unintentionally distort or make data opaque to gain viewers (McArdle,
2011). As Toth (2013) noted, infographics represent an extension of fundamental issues,
including “presenting information clearly and succinctly, targeting audiences, defining
clear purposes, developing ethos, understanding document design principles, using per-
suasion techniques effectively, branding, and conducting and summarizing research” (p.
451).
Public Relations Education and Visual Communication
Educational materials for creating and disseminating infographics have only
recently been developed and are not widely adopted within the various streams of com-
munication education. Experts on infographics contend that there are thousands of poor-
ly-constructed infographics online, but “the good designs rise to the top and are the de-
signs that most often go viral in social networks” (Krum, 2013, p. 271). The challenge is
melding the principles of various fields, including public relations, with the principles of
infographic design and visual communication.
Researchers and professionals have noted the increased need for education in
infographics in public relations due to employers’ demand for such skills and increased
usage in the field (Gallicano, Ekachai, & Freberg, 2014). Advocates of visual literacy
have long held that visual education, including knowledge of how to create visuals, is
the missing piece of contemporary education (Metros, 2008; Sosa, 2009). Visuals have
a powerful impact on audiences in ways that text does not. Visuals grab readers’ atten-
tion (Boerman, Smith, & van Meurs, 2011) and stick in the memory longer than other
forms of communications (Graber, 1990). Krum (2013) referred to this as the “picture
superiority effect” (p. 20). Further, images are subject to less scrutiny than other forms
of communication (Messaris, 1994, p. x). In other words, viewers of images tend to be-
lieve what they see (Newton, 2013; Wheeler, 2001), and this is especially the case with
visualized data (Cairo, 2012; Krum, 2013). While modern college students are consum-
ers and producers of highly visual content on the web, they lack the skills to effectively
communicate visually (Metros, 2008). Visual intelligence influences perceptions and
interpretations of visual materials (Moriarty, 1996). Schools are encouraged to introduce
concepts of visual literacy to understand, analyze, interpret and create effective visual
information (Burns, 2006).
ACEJMC suggests, broadly, that all programs should teach students to apply
the appropriate tools and technologies for the communication professions in which they
work. There is greater importance to teach students visual communication skills due to
the digital landscape and shorter attention spans (Lester, 2015). This need is particularly
pertinent to public relations students and infographics. The Commission on Public Rela-
tions Education met in 2015 to discuss undergraduate public relations education, noting
a need for better verbal as well as graphic communications (p. 8). Kent (2013), in his
suggestions for using social media in public relations, states that publics are better
served by thoughtful, thorough, and relevant information including high-quality in-
fographics that contain complete information, rather than “eye-candy” (p. 343). Richard
Edelman (2012) said to public relations educators that, “There is a huge place for deep-
er, more informative visuals…which infographics – visual representations of infor-
mation, data or knowledge – provide” (p. 4).
The following sections of this paper review two principles of public relations,
and within each principle, rules of effective infographic design are applied. Transparen-
25. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 81
cy and clarity were examined because: 1) organizational transparency is necessary to
provide coherence, visibility, and clarity (Albu & Wehmeier, 2014); and, 2) clarity as-
sures that information communicated is easily understood by various publics and does
not contain jargon (Rawlins, 2009). Further, concepts of transparency and clarity each
encompass variables that theoretically and practically derive from and can be applied to
visual communications, specifically infographics. The researchers were interested in
studying the junction of these two fields and extracting implications for students who
will be working within this increasingly-popular, professional niche.
Transparency
Public relations students are taught to be transparent, but may not know how this
applies to infographic design. According to Rawlins (2009):
Transparency is the deliberate attempt to make available all legally releasable in-
formation—
whether positive or negative in nature—in a manner that is accurate, timely, bal-
anced, and
unequivocal, for the purpose of enhancing the reasoning ability of publics and
holding
organizations accountable for their actions, policies, and practices. (p. 75)
Plaisance (2007) argued while transparency “is not always a sufficient condition for
more ethical behavior, its absence is a prerequisite for deception” (p. 193). Transparen-
cy has been studied from conceptual (Rawlins, 2006, 2009), journalistic (Plaisance,
2007), and social media campaign (Burns, 2008; DiStaso & Bortree, 2012) perspectives.
Rawlins (2006) argued transparency is comprised of three components: participa-
tion, substantial information, and accountability. Drawing on previous transparency
literature, as well as on the Global Reporting Index (GRI) Guidelines and other guide-
lines promoting transparent communication, Rawlins (2006) found substantial infor-
mation was the “strongest predictor among transparency components” (p. 433). From
this perspective, Rawlins (2009) noted disclosure is about providing information, but
can be used to distort perspectives, rather than provide clarity.
Transparency has been studied from a social media campaign perspective (Burns,
2008) and from a dialogic perspective with particular focus on mutual understanding
(Albu & Wehmeier, 2014). Using content analysis, Burns (2008) examined the Wal-
Mart and Edelman “Wal-Marting Across America” blog crisis to argue that a lack of
transparency in blogging leads to harsh criticism despite classic crisis response strate-
gies such as apology. DiStaso and Bortree (2012) echoed similar sentiments about trans-
parency through their evaluation of award-winning campaigns. DiStaso and Bortree
(2012) found that many of the campaigns reflected transparency in that they “provid[ed]
information that is useful for others to make informed decisions” (p. 513). Transparency
in social media tactics kept organizations accountable to their publics (DiStaso &
Bortree, 2012). Albu and Wehmeier (2014) argued that transparency and dialogue were
“interconnected,” which was often overlooked in the literature (p. 129). Echoing
Rawlins (2009), they posited that disclosure alone was insufficient for publics’ under-
standing; rather, true understanding was based in the coherence, clarity, and visibility of
information (Albu & Wehmeier, 2014). In communicating transparently to foster mutual
understanding, Albu and Wehmeier (2014) argued accountability, credibility, and loyal-
ty of stakeholders may be heightened.
26. Sisson 82
Transparency and visual communications. While transparency is a vital prin-
ciple for public relations professionals to abide by, contemporary public relations educa-
tional materials fall short of teaching the application of transparency to infographics
design. On the same token, textbooks specific to visual communication explain the im-
portance of transparency in infographic design, but do little to translate these principles
to public relations (e.g., Knaflic, 2015; Krum, 2013; Smiciklas, 2012). Transparency
with data is, in fact, of utmost importance in the creation of infographics. Viewers tend
to see visualized data as both important and scientifically true, placing increased pres-
sure on infographic designers to be transparent about the data. To be transparent, the
infographic needs to “address the sources of the data included in the design in an open
and honest manner” (Krum, 2013, p. 295). Sharing where the data came from, the age of
the data, and the credibility of the data source can help establish the believability of the
data. Further, copyright law means that the designer of the infographic and the names of
any contributing illustrators and photographers be given credit (Lester, 2015; Walter &
Gioglio, 2014).
Still, a massive portion of information graphics appearing online have either no
data source listed, vague data sources provided, or simply provide questionable data
sources, including personal blogs and websites. Krum (2013) suggested infographic
designers should track down and cite the original source of data, list the source, and list
a specific URL to the exact report or dataset that was used, as well as including the date
of the data. Once an infographic is released online, its whereabouts will become unpre-
dictable. In fact, a purpose of infographic design is to “go viral.” Therefore, in addition
to source information, then, the bottom of an infographic must include the name of the
company that originally released it and a landing page URL that sends the viewer to the
original source of the infographic.
Transparency measures. The Global Reporting Index offers guidelines for
promoting transparent communication (Rawlins, 2009). The GRI indicated clarity, rele-
vance, timeliness, neutrality, sustainability context, and comparability were important
components in transparent communication (Rawlins, 2009).
Transparent communication should aid with decision-making by providing
relevant information to members of key publics (Global Reporting Index, as cited in
Rawlins, 2009). Transparent communication should be timely. The Global Reporting
Index defined timeliness as providing “information within a time frame that makes the
information usable” (as cited in Rawlins, 2009, p. 82). Transparent communication
should be neutral in order to avoid perceptions of deception. The GRI defined neutrality
as “avoid[ing] bias and striv[ing] for a balanced account of the company’s perfor-
mance” (as cited in Rawlins, 2009, p. 81). While transparent communication should be
neutral and timely, it should also provide a sustainability context to information. The
Global Reporting Index defined sustainability context as “identify[ing] how organiza-
tional behavior is contributing to effects on the environment, economy, and/or social
welfare” (as cited in Rawlins, 2009, p. 80). Furthermore, transparent communication
should be comparable. The GRI defined comparability as “easily compar[ing] to both
earlier performance of the company and to other similar organizations” (as cited in
Rawlins, 2009, p. 81).
Clarity
Public relations students are taught about presenting information clearly, but
infographic design has special implications for this principle, which may be less under-
stood. As delineated by the Global Reporting Index guidelines, information is clear, or
27. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 83
has clarity, when the information communicated is easily understood by various publics
and does not contain jargon (as cited in Rawlins, 2009). Furthermore, the GRI indicated
that clarity enhances understanding of information (as cited in Rawlins, 2009). Jargon,
or highly technical and industry-specific words or acronyms, hinders understanding of
organizational communication by members of key publics. Marken (1996) contended
that public relations professionals have a responsibility to communicate on behalf of
their organizations in a clear and concise manner, and public relations students are
taught to present information clearly.
Clarity and infographic design. When creating infographics, several prin-
ciples of design promote clarity. A primary purpose of creating infographics is to pro-
vide clarity to disorganized and difficult-to-understand data or ideas (Cairo, 2012). A
well-designed infographic should present information in a way that readers can see,
read, and explore information which would be too difficult to digest in its raw data form
(Cairo, 2012). As Krum (2013) said, “Nobody wants to read a text article that has been
converted into a JPG image file and then called an infographic” (p. 291), and further
stresses: “Using big fonts in an infographic to make the numbers stand out is not data
visualization…. Displaying the number in a large font doesn’t make it any easier for the
audience to understand” (p. 219). Therefore, the visualization of data in order to in-
crease comprehension of information is essential.
Charts (pie, line, bar), graphs, illustrations, maps, and diagrams, when used
correctly, help make complex information more clear and understandable (Cairo, 2012).
Additionally, considered by many the Father of Data Visualization, Edward Tufte is
described by Yaffa (2011) as saying “the first grand principle of analytical design:
above all else, always show comparisons” (para. 12). Doing so allows clear data presen-
tation and interpretation to viewers. According to Yaffa (2011), Tufte believes, “there is
no such thing as information overload . . . . Only bad design,” which impedes rather
than enhances clarity (para. 36). In addition to choosing the proper visualization method
for the given data, clarity is increased when viewers do not have to look back and forth
to discern the meaning of the visualizations or colors. This is why pioneer infographic
designer Scott Farrand said to “avoid legends like the plague” (personal communication,
March 23, 2016), and Randy Krum said using legends are “evil” (p. 293). Tufte (1983)
coined the term “chart junk” (p. 67) to refer to anything that gets in the way of a viewer
interpreting the data.
Research Questions
Given the popularity of infographics use by nonprofit organizations and the
call from the Commission on Public Relations Education (2015) and other scholars, this
area should be examined, and improvements should be offered for the next generation
of public relations practitioners. For this reason, the following research questions are
offered:
RQ1: To what degree are nonprofit organizations’ information graphics trans-
parent?
RQ2: To what degree do nonprofit organizations present the information in
graphics clearly?
METHOD
A content analysis was conducted to systematically and quantitatively evaluate
transparency and clarity strategies in nonprofits’ online information graphics (Stempel,
28. Sisson 84
2003). Content analysis allowed for conclusions to be drawn from the observations that
emerge from analysis of data (Stempel, 2003).
Sampling
Information graphics (N = 376) released by 18 nonprofit organizations on
Twitter were analyzed. The researchers defined an infographic for this study as a graph-
ic that contains information. This graphical information did not necessarily need to be
quantitative, but could also be words, facts, or illustrations. None of the infographics
were “clickable” or lead to other pages. Note that the definition is broad. While Fernan-
do (2012) defines an infographic as “a form of storytelling that people can use to visual-
ize data in a way that illustrates knowledge, experiences, or events” (Fernando, 2012, p.
2), a wider definition is adopted for the present study in order to accommodate those
infographics that fall out of the expert definition. Infographics distributed through Twit-
ter were selected for this study because 21% of American adults use the social media
platform for their news consumption (Greenwood, Perrin, & Duggan, 2016). As this is
an exploratory study, only one social-networking website was used. Future studies
should examine transparency and clarity of nonprofit organizations on other social net-
works, such as Facebook.
Nonprofit organizations were selected for analysis based on a sampling frame
of Top Nonprofits.com’s Top 100 Nonprofits on the Web list. The sample frame was
selected for its reliance on “publicly available web, social, and fiscal responsibility met-
rics” (Top 100 Nonprofits on the Web, n.d., para. 2), as well as for its rankings method-
ology of nonprofits online. Each of the chosen nonprofit organizations’ Twitter feeds
were accessed to gather infographics. Data collection occurred from November 1, 2015
to November 31, 2015 for this study. All non-animated, non-clickable infographics col-
lected were released in November 2015, as well as up to six months prior in May 2015
in order to collect a substantive sample. This time frame allowed the researchers to ex-
amine a snapshot of nonprofit organizations’ infographic use and design practices prior
to December and January, which are traditionally peak fundraising periods. Duplicates
were excluded.
Nonprofit organizations found in the Top Nonprofits.com’s Top 100 Nonprof-
its on the Web list were divided into “more than 10” and “less than 10” infographics
categories. The rationale for this categorization was to ensure that the researchers were
not pulling infographics from nonprofit organizations that used the visual communica-
tion infrequently; this categorization was intended to ensure representativeness of info-
graphic use and frequency. The researchers collected infographics from the Top 100
Nonprofits on the Web list using this categorization until an adequate sample size was
met. The sample was not random, as generalizing to the broader social media sphere
was not the purpose of the paper. Rather, the purpose of the examination is to gather a
snapshot of contemporary public relations infographics and offer suggestions for im-
provement in education.
Nonprofit organizations analyzed in this study and listed in Top 100 Nonprof-
its on the Web include: Human Rights Campaign (15.2%, n = 57), UNICEF (15%, n =
55), Save the Children (8.2%, n = 31), ACLU (8%, n = 29), Conservation International
(7%, n = 25), International Rescue Committee (7%, n = 25), Wounded Warrior Project
(6.4%, n = 24), Amnesty International (6.1%, n = 23), Teach for America (5.1%, n =
19), Feeding America (5%, n = 18), Susan G. Komen (5%, n = 18), March of Dimes
(5%, n = 17), Rotary International (4%, n = 13), ASPCA (3%, n = 10), Livestrong
(1.1%, n = 4), Samaritan’s Purse (1%, n = 3), Ronald McDonald House (1%, n = 3),
and Kliva (1%, n = 2).
29. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 85
Coding and Variables
Variables for measuring transparency and clarity were gleaned from the aca-
demic and professional literature on public relations and infographic design, as de-
scribed in the literature review. Each concept contained variables pertaining to the inter-
section of infographic design and public relations. Transparency was the largest of the
three concepts, and specifically measured using variables and variable definitions found
in Table 1.
Table 1
Transparency variables and definitions
Variable Variable Definition
Data attribution Whether or not the data was attributed at all
Data availability Whether the original data itself is available to viewers: A link on info-
graphic? Link on landing page? Spreadsheet on landing page? Data source
not available at all? Each was coded as yes or no.
Data quality Whether the data source is vague, questionable, reliable, or not identified.
Vague data sources are those that only contain the name of the host site
that publishes the data without any additional information about a specific
report or article. Questionable data sources are those that are Wikipedia,
blogs, or personal sites, and unclear sites are those where the source is not
clearly identified. Each was coded as yes or no.
Data date Whether the date of the data was provided. Coded as yes or no.
Designer credit Whether credit was given to the individual that designed the infographic.
Coded as yes or no.
Photographer or
graphic credit
Whether credit was given to the individual(s) who created any graphical
elements or photographs used in the infographic. Coded as yes or no.
Landing page Whether a URL was provided that directs the user back to the original
web location of the infographic. Coded as yes or no.
Relevance Whether the infographic contains information specific to the organization.
Coded as yes or no.
Sustainability
context
Whether the infographic identifies how organizational behavior is contrib-
uting to effects on the environment, economy, and/or social welfare. Cod-
ed as yes or no.
Neutrality Whether the infographic contains information from organizations other
than itself. Coded as yes or no.
Comparability Whether the infographic compares its performance to itself or to other/
similar organizations. Coded as yes or no.
Timeliness Whether the infographic contains information in a timeframe usable to
stakeholders. Coded as yes or no.
30. Sisson 86
Clarity contained three variables: two derived from the infographic literature
and one derived from public relations literature, which can be found in Table 2. They
were infographic type, presence of a legend, and presence of industry jargon.
In addition, the researchers coded the organization that released the infograph-
ic, the topic, tone, and type of data visualization. Tone was coded as humorous/
entertaining, informational, utility/how-to, serious/somber, other and none, and each
category was coded as yes or no, as these categories are not mutually exclusive. Humor
or entertaining infographics were light-hearted or comical; informational infographics
were merely fact-based; utility-based infographics were those that taught a user how to
do something; serious or somber infographics contained serious information aimed at
persuading users. As this article is aimed towards education, infographic types exam-
ined (e.g., pie charts, maps) were selected from two leading textbook authors, Cairo
(2012) and Krum (2013). A detailed visual codebook was developed and refined
through five separate practice sessions by two independent coders. Following refine-
ment of the codebook, three more practice coding sessions of a subsample of in-
fographics were undertaken, with intermittent discussions and clarifications, until a lev-
el of agreement was achieved. Coders reached a good to excellent level of intercoder
reliability. The Cohen’s Kappas were all α > 0.9, with three exceptions: Type: 0.87;
Neutrality = 0.87; and Attribution = 0.87. To examine the data from the visual and tex-
tual content analysis, frequencies and descriptive statistics of each category were con-
ducted.
FINDINGS
Findings from this study highlighted the nuances of how nonprofits approach
transparency and clarity practices. The following sections address the results of each
research question.
RQ1: To what degree are nonprofit organizations’ infographics transparent?
Frequencies of infographic transparency variables, infographic quality of data
source of those that list a source, and data availability were conducted. As Table 3
shows, only 18.6% of the infographics attributed the source of their data. For each vari-
able, there were fewer positive instances of transparency than negative.
Table 2
Clarity variables and definitions
Variable Variable Definition
Infographic
type
Timeline, pie chart, line graph, how-to diagram, bar graph, bubble
chart, flow chart, list, numbers only, words/facts only, or other. For
each of these, coded as present or not present.
Legend Whether or not the infographic contained a legend. Coded as yes or
no.
Jargon Whether or not the infographic contained jargon. Coded as yes or no.
31. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 87
The inclusion of a landing page was the one tool used most often by the non-
profits in this sample (31.9%). Very few infographics included a credit to the designer
(0.8%) or image source (14.1%). Relevance, or whether the infographic contained infor-
mation about an action taken by the organization, was present in 17.3% of infographics.
Similarly, 14.1% of infographics contained information about how organizational be-
havior is contributing to effects on the community, environment, or social welfare of
groups or individuals.
As Table 4 shows, of the infographics that list a data source (18.6%, n = 70),
64 of the sources were vague, or only listed the host site without additional information
about the specific report or article; three were “questionable” (e.g., a blog, Wikipedia, or
personal site); and three were not clearly identified.
Table 3
Frequencies of infographic transparency variables
Variable Yes No Total
Data attribution 70 (18.6%) 306 (81.4%) 376 (100%)
Data date 53 (14.1%) 323 (85.9%) 376 (100%)
Designer credit 3 (0.8%) 373 (99.2%) 376 (100%)
Photographer credit 28 (7.4%) 348 (92.6%) 376 (100%)
Landing page 120 (31.9%) 255 (67.8%) 376 (100%)
Relevance 65 (17.3%) 311 (82.7%) 376 (100%)
Sustainability context 53 (14.1%) 322 (85.6%) 376 (100%)
Neutrality 30 (8.0%) 345 (91.8%) 376 (100%)
Comparability 9 (2.4%) 366 (97.3%) 376 (100%)
Timeliness 39 (10.4%) 336 (90%) 376 (100%)
Table 4
Infographic quality of data source of those that list a source
Data quality Number of infographics Total
Vague 64 (91.4%) 70 (100%)
Questionable 3 (4.3%) 70 (100%)
Unclear 3 (4.3%) 70 (100%)
32. Sisson 88
As Table 5 shows, audiences wishing to clarify the source of data would be
mostly unable to, as only 16 (4.2%) of the infographics in the total sample contained a
way to find the source of the data.
Finally, image source (4%) was associated with numbers-only infographics.
Image source (4%) was also associated with infographics with only words and facts.
Designer credit (1%) was most associated with list infographics. Landing page URLs
(12%) were most associated with infographics with only words and facts. Landing page
URLs (8%) were also associated with list infographics.
RQ2: To what degree do nonprofit organizations present the information in in-
fographics clearly?
For the present paper, the construct of clarity was measured using three varia-
bles culled from the literature: type of infographic, the use of jargon, and the use of leg-
ends. Inclusion of jargon (Figure 1, from our sample) and inclusion of a legend (Figure
3, from our sample) inhibit clarity.
Table 5
How nonprofit organizations make data available
Data availability Number of infographics Total
Link on infographic 5 (1.3%) 376 (100%)
Link on landing page 8 (2.1%) 376 (100%)
Spreadsheet on landing page 3 (.8%) 376 (100%)
Data source not readily available 360 (95.7%) 376 (100%)
Figure 1. Infographic example of jargon and avoiding legend (ACLU, 2015, May 31)
33. Volume 3 (2), 2017 Journal of Public Relations Education 89
Figure 2. “Big numbers” (ACLU, 2015, October 28)
Figure 3. Infographic example of unnecessary legend (ACLU, 2015, May 21)
Nonprofit organizations used and disseminated different types of infographics
through Twitter. Infographic types examined included: numbers only (66%, n = 248),
word and facts (27%, n = 103), lists (13%, n = 103), pie charts (9%, n = 32), bar
graphs (4%, n = 16), how-to (3%, n = 12), maps (3%, n = 12), line graphs (2%, n = 6),
timelines (1.1%, n = 4), and flowcharts (1%, n = 2).
Most of the infographics (89.6%, n = 337) examined did not contain a data
visualization, thus precluding the need to consider whether a legend must be used. Of
the 39 (10.4%) infographics in this analysis that did contain data visualization (e.g., a
chart or graph), 14 (3.7%) used a legend unnecessarily, while 25 (6.6%) did not use a
legend, thus clarifying data interpretation. Of the infographics examined, 35 (9.5%)
contained instances of jargon, or highly technical, industry-specific words or acronyms
that may not be understood by all members of the lay audience.