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ECOSYSTEM PPT VG.On how to protect ecosystem

The document provides an overview of ecosystems, explaining their concepts, structure, and functions, including biotic and abiotic components, energy flow, and nutrient cycles. It describes the roles of producers, consumers, and decomposers, as well as the dynamics of food chains and food webs within different ecosystems. Additionally, it covers key ecological concepts such as ecological pyramids, trophic levels, and the importance of maintaining ecological balance.

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Energy & environmental engineering (es301/401) MODULE-II ECOSYSTEMs
ECOSYSTEMs CONTENT: • Concept of an ecosystem & its types • Structure and function of an ecosystem(Producers, consumers and decomposers) • Energy flow in the ecosystem (Food chains, food webs & tophic levels) • Ecological succession; • Ecological pyramids; • Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the following ecosystem (a.)Forest ecosystem (b) Grassland ecosystem (c) Desert ecosystem (d) Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)
Concept of an ecosystem • Ecosystem is a system in which biotic and abiotic components interacting to each other. • Biotic (living components)- includes- plants, animals, micro- organisms & human beings. • Abiotic (non-living components) includes- environmental conditions such as climate, water, soil, air, temperature, humidity and so on. • Plants and animals depend on each other to survive. This connection of living things to each other is called biodiversity. • In other word, interaction between biodiversity and non-living components is known as Ecosystem. Living components non-living components Ecosystem
Concept of an ecosystem • Ecosystem is defined as a community of plants, animals and smaller organisms that live, feed, reproduce and interact with each other in the same area or environment. • An ecosystem is a community of living and nonliving things considered as a unit. • Ecosystem is a complex set of relationships among the living resources, habitats and residents of an area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fishes, birds, micro-organisms, air, water, soil and people. • An ecosystem, short for 'ecological system', is a community of living and non-living things that work together. • An ecosystem is a self regulating group of biotic communities interacting with one another and with their non-living environment by exchanging energy and matter. • Ecosystems are dynamic ii nature.
types of an ecosystem Ecosystem Natural Artificial Terrestrial Aquatic Forest Grassland Desert River Stream Marine water Fresh water Still water Flowing water Pond Lake Ex- Farmland, aquarium, space etc. Sea, ocean
Ecology • Ecology Term Coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. • Ecology word Derived from Greek words: • Ecology is the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings. • Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with each other and with their natural environment. • Ecology is the study of ecosystems. OIKOS (Home) LOGOS (Study)
Functions of ecosystem • Habitat functions: ecosystems provide habitat to wild plants and animals and thus conserve biological and genetic diversity. • It supports different food chains and food webs. • Production function: production of wide range of goods ranging from food to raw materials. Habitat functions Production function Regulatory functions Informational function
Functions of ecosystem • Regulatory functions: ecosystem regulates essential ecological processes and life support systems and renders stability. • Responsible for cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components(biogeochemical cycles). • It provides many services that have direct and indirect benefits to humans (i.e., clean air, water and soil). • Every ecosystem regulates and maintains itself and resists any stresses or disturbances upto a certain limit. • This is known as cyberneti system. • Informational function: ecosystems provide an essential 'reference function' and contribute to the maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic experience.
Structure of Ecosystem Ecosystem Living/ Biotic Components Non-Living/ Abiotic Components Producers Consumers Decomposers Physical components Chemical Components Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Detritivores
Biotic Components • Different living organisms constitute the biotic components of an ecosystem. • This refers to large life-forms such as trees or mammals, small life- forms such as insects and algae, and microscopic life-forms such as bacteria. • Biotic, means related to life, are living factors. Plants, animals, fungi and bacteria are all biotic or living factors. Biotic components
Producers • Producers are organisms which are able to manufacture organic compounds from inorganic substances from their environment. • Food is produced both for themselves and for other organisms. • They depend directly on the abiotic component for their survival and production of nutrients. • Producers are also known as autotrophs (derived from Greek words: “autos” meaning self and “trophe” meaning nourishment) Autos = self Trophe= nourishment Producers meaning
Producers • Producers extract nutrients from soil or ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis, in the presence of carbon dioxide and sunlight. 6CO2 +6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 • Producers are also, known as autotrophs. • An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems where there is no sunlight. Here, the primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis. • Chemosynthesis is a process by which certain organisms produce energy, without the utilization of sunlight. • In Chemosynthesis the energy comes from the oxidization of chemicals. • So, producers are either photo-autotrophs or chemo-autotrophs.
Consumers • Consumers are organisms that obtain nutrients by consuming other organisms. • These organisms are formally referred to as heterotrophs (derived from Greek words “heteros” meaning another/ different and “trophe” meaning nourishment. • A heterotroph is an organism that cannot synthesize their own food and must obtain it ready made. • They can be herbivores, carnivores, omnivores or detritivores. Consumers heteros= another/ different Trophe= nourishment meaning
Consumers -(Herbivores) • Herbivores Animals who derive their required energy directly from consuming the plants and plants only. Also known as primary consumers. • Herbivores have special digestive systems that let them digest all kinds of plants, including grasses. • Eg. Rabbit, horse, sheep, zebra, panda, dear, elephant, cow insects, etc. Herbivores
Consumers (carnivores) • Carnivores Animals that feed on other animals. • Carnivores generally eat herbivores (primary consumers), but occasionally eat other carnivores (secondary & tertiary consumers). • Eg: lion, tiger, cats, birds of prey, sharks, frogs, etc. Carnivores Predators Scavengers
Predators and Scavengers • Predators- A predator is an organism that hunts and kills other organisms for food.Eg: lions, tigers, sharks, wolves, snakes, etc. • Scavengers-Scavengers eat the food that has been killed and left behind by predators.Eg: vultures, racoons, hyena,etc. • Scavengers play an important role in the ecosystem by consuming the carcass of of animals that have been left to decompose. Decomposers and detritivores complete this process, by consuming the remains left by scavengers.
Omnivores • Omnivores Animals that feed on both plants and animals. • Omnivores often are opportunistic, general feeders with neither carnivore nor herbivore specializations for acquiring or processing food, • They are capable of consuming both animal protein and vegetation. • Many omnivores depend on a suitable mix of animal and plant food for long-term good health and reproduction. • Eg, bear, dogs, foxes, crow, certain insects, and even humans
Detritivores • They feed on dead plant and animal matter, but perform an additional function which is to return essential nutrients back to the ecosystem in the process. • Detritivores actually eat organic matter of dead plant & animal material such as carcasses, fallen leaves, dead plants, animal droppings. etc. • They are essential for recycling of nutrients, without them dead plant material would not be returned to the soil for new growth. • By breaking down dead matter into smaller pieces, detritivores speed up the process of decomposition. Eg: worms,millipedes, sea stars, crabs, dung flies.
Decomposers/ Saprobes • These are micro-organisms which break-down organic matter into inorganic compounds and derive their nutrition in the process. • Decomposers break down complex compound into simpler compounds without eating them. • For example, fungi can grow on organic matter, such as a dead tree trunk or a piece of bread, and breaks it down and absorbing the nutrients without eating the wood or the bread. • These are organisms that aid in decomposition of already dead or dying organisms. • Decomposers secrete enzymes to digest organic matter and then absorb resulting molecules. • Eg: bacteria, fungi, etc.
Abiotic Components • The nonliving materials in an ecosystem, such as minerals, gases, liquids and chemicals are referred to as abiotic or non-biotic factors. • Abiotic, meaning not alive, are nonliving factors that affect living organisms. • Environmental factors such habitat (pond, lake, ocean, desert, mountain) are the abiotic factors. • Weather condition such as temperature, cloud, rain, snow, hurricanes, etc. are the abiotic factors. • An abiotic factor is a nonliving thing, such as soil, water air etc. that influences or affects an ecosystem and the organisms in it. • Abiotic factors determine, which species of organisms will survive in a given environment. abiotic components
Abiotic Components Abiotic Components Physical Components Sunlight, water, air, temperature, rainfall, soil texture, wind speed and direction,, etc. Chemical Components Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, iron, copper, zinc, etc.
ENERGY FLOWS IN AN ECOSYSTEM • Flow of energy in an ecosystem is governed by following cycles: Water Cycle Carbon Cycle Oxygen Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Energy Flow (unidirectional) E N E R G Y F L O W
Water cycle • The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle. • It is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. • It is a complex system that includes many different processes. • Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form of rain and snow. • There are four main stages in the water cycle. They are - 1. Evaporation 2. Condensation 3. Precipitation and collection 4. Transpiration Evaporation Condensation Precipitation Transpiration Water cycle
Water cycle condensation precipitation Transpiration Evaporation
Carbon cycle • The carbon, which occurs in organic compounds, is included in both the abiotic and biotic parts of the ecosystem. • Carbon is a building block of both plant and animal tissues. • In atmosphere, carbon occurs as carbon dioxide. • Through photosynthesis, plants form carbohydrates that contain carbon and emit oxygen which is used by animals for respiration. • Plants are consumed by animals for derivation of energy. • Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during respiration. • Carbon is returned to soil in form of wastes from animals and plants and in the form of dead matter when decomposed. Carbon cycle
Carbon cycle Sunlight Organic carbon Animal respiration Decay organism Root respiration Photosynthesis Auto & factory emission
Oxygen Cycle • Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the atmosphere (air), biosphere (plants and animals) and the lithosphere (the Earth's crust). • The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free oxygen is made available in each of these regions, as well as how it is used. • The entire cycle can be summarized as, the oxygen cycle begins with the process of photosynthesis. • Oxygen is used up in : 1. Respiration -All organisms use oxygen for respiration. 2. Decomposing-When plants and animals die, they decompose. 3. Rusting-Called oxidation, this process causes metals to rust. 4. Combustion-Process by which fire is generated also requires oxygen, along with heat and fuel.
Oxygen Cycle Oxygen cycle Oxygen Carbon dioxide Oxygen Photosynthesi s
Nitrogen Cycle • About 78% of Earth’s atmosphere is Nitrogen, in free form. • Living things require nitrogen in compound form (not in free form), to build proteins and other important chemicals. • Not all the nitrogen that gets fixed is used by plants and animals. • Some of it is returned to the atmosphere through a process called denitrification. • Bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium perform denitrification of nitrates in anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen). • They use the nitrate in the place of oxygen during respiration. • Effectively, they breathe nitrate and exhale nitrogen gas back into the atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle
ENERGY flow • The ultimate source of energy (for most of the ecosystems) is the sun. • The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat. • Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain as one organism eats another. • Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms. • Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not. • Flow of energy in an ecosystem is uni-directional. • Flow of energy in an ecosystem is governed by laws of thermodynamics, which are: • Energy cannot be created or destroyed (but it can be transformed into stored energy & heat) • Energy is lost as energy is transformed.
ENERGY flow Energy flow Energy Nutrients
Integration of Cycles in Nature • All these cycles are responsible for maintenance of life on earth. • If mankind disturbs these cycles beyond the limits that nature can sustain, they will eventually break down and lead to a degraded earth on which man will not be able to survive.
Food chain • Every living organism/ thing requires energy to survive, whether it be plants, animals or humans. • Energy is required by living beings to grow. • Plants get their energy from photosynthesis. • Animals get energy from the food they consume. • A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an ecosystem) to obtain nutrition. • A food chain shows how each living thing gets food, and how nutrients and energy are passed from creature to creature. • A simple food chain can be seen below:
Food chain Energy producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Sun Grass Grasshopper Bird Fox
Food chain • A food chain starts with the primary energy source and end with top predators, animals that have little or no natural enemies. • When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures, worms and crabs) • And broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy continues. • Food chains make a full circle, and nutrients of food is passed from plant to animal, animal to decomposer and back to plants. • There can be many links in food chains but not too many. • If there are too many links, then the animal at the end would not get enough energy. Carrots rabbit Fox Lion
Food chain • The further along the food chain there are, the less food and hence less energy remains available. • Most food chains have no more than four or five links. • In a food chain each organism obtains energy from the one at the level below. • A change in the size of one population in a food chain will affect other populations. Grass Grasshopper Frog Python Eagle
Types of food chains Food Chains Grazing food chains Predatory food chains Parasitic food chains Detritus/ saprophytic food chains
Grazing food chains • Start with green plants and end with carnivores. • (a) Predatory food chain – begins with plants and proceeds from small to large animals. • E.g.- crops - field mice – owls • (b) Parasitic food chain – Begins with plants and proceeds from large to small animals. • E.g.- producers - herbivores– parasites plants cow Tapeworm crops Mice Owl
Detritus/ saprophytic food chains • They start with dead organic matter. • Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain. • Eg: leaf litter in a forest – fungi – bacteria • Bacteria and fungi, however, are eaten by organisms and they in turn are eaten by other organisms. • Since the source of energy is not the sun but detritus, this linear feeding relationship is called a detritus food chain. Dead Leaves Woodlouse Blackbird
Food Web • In nature, food chain relationships are not isolated; rather they are complex, because one organism may form the food source of many organisms. • Thus, instead of a simple linear food chain, there is a web like structure formed by these interlinked food chains. • Such interconnected matrix of food chains is called 'food web'. • Food webs are indispensable in ecosystems as they allow an organism to obtain its food from more than one type of organism of the lower trophic level. Food Web
Food Web • Food chains are generally found to be interlinked and inter-woven as a network and are known as food web. • Food Web a system of interlocking and interdependent food chains in a given area. • A food web is several food chains connected together. • A food web is many food chains linked together to show a more accurate model of all possible feeding relationships of organisms in an ecosystem.
Food Web (forest)
Food Web (grassland)
Food Web(Aquatic)
Trophic Levels • These are the various steps in a food chain or food web. • Level1: producers (autotrophs) • Level2: primary consumers (herbivores) • Level3: secondary consumers (carnivores/omnivores) • Level4: tertiary consumers (top carnivores) Level1: producers Level2: primary consumers Level3: secondary consumers Level4: tertiary consumers
Ecological pyramids • Ecological pyramids are graphs which illustrate the trophic levels in a community. • Most ecological pyramids are large at the base and narrow at the top. L1: producers L 2: primary consumers L 3: secondary consumers L 4: tertiary consumers L 5: top consumers More energy Less Energy Ecological pyramids Diagram that shows the relative amount of energy or organisms contained within each trophic level.
Ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramids • An ecological pyramid is an illustration of the reduction in energy as move through each feeding level in an ecosystem. • Each feeding level of the ecosystem is called trophic level. • Producers form the base of the pyramid. • Consumers form the upper layers. • Pyramids are of three types- Ecological Pyramid Pyramid of Number Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy
Types of Ecological pyramids Types of Pyramid Pyramid of number Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy Upright Partially upright Inverted Upright Inverted Always upright Grassland & Pond Forest Tree ecosystem Grassland & Forest Pond & Marine All types of ecosystem
Pyramid of numbers • A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation of the numbers of individuals in each population in a food chain. • The pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms in each trophic level. • Pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how the population of a certain species affects another. • Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much larger than any of the higher trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon ascending the pyramid. • There are exceptions, however. For example, in a tree community, a single tree could support many different populations of larger numbers.
Pyramid of numbers Inverted Spindle-shapped Upright Upright Tree ecosystem Grassland Pond
Pyramid of biomass • The total amount of matter present in organisms of an ecosystem at each trophic level is biomass. • In other words, the total amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem at any time is called 'Biomass'. • Biomass means the mass of living material at a stage in a food chain. • The biomass at each stage goes down as go from one stage to the next, just like the amount of energy. • Pyramid of biomass is the graphic representation of biomass present per unit area & time of different trophic levels, with producers at the base and top carnivores at the top. • Pyramid of biomass records the total dry organic matter of organisms at each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem.
Pyramid of biomass • A pyramid of biomass is a chart, drawn to scale, that shows the biomass at each stage in a food chain. • The bars become narrower as reach the top. • Typical units for a biomass pyramid could be grams per meter square or calories per meter square. • This demonstrates the amount of matter lost between trophic levels. • There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and inverted. • An upright pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is larger than the combined weight of consumers. example -forest ecosystem. • An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers. example - aquatic ecosystem.
Pyramid of biomass(terrestrial) • In a terrestrial ecosystem, the maximum biomass occurs in producers, and there is progressive decrease in biomass from lower to higher trophic levels. • Thus, the pyramid of biomass in a terrestrial ecosystem is upright.
Pyramid of biomass(aquatic) • In an aquatic habitat the pyramid of biomass is inverted or spindle shaped where the biomass of trophic level depends upon the reproductive potential and longevity of the member.
Pyramid of energy • The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy consumed by each trophic level. • An energy pyramid is always upright as the total amount of energy available for utilization in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower levels. • This happens because during energy transfer from lower to higher levels, some energy is always lost.
Ecological succession • Ecosystem is not static, its dynamic and changing constantly. • Its structure and function change over time. • These changes are in order and are capable of being predicted. • One type of community gets totally replaced with another type of community over a period of time and this causes several changes.This is ecological succession. • It is the slow and gradual process, by which ecosystems change and develop over time. • Ecological succession is the changing sequence of communities that live in an ecosystem during a given time period. Ecological succession
Ecological succession Time
Ecological succession • In simple words, it is the gradual replacement of one community by another through natural processes over time. • It refers to the natural gradual changes in the types of species that live in an area. • Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems tend to change and develop over a period of time. • For example, a bare patch of ground will not stay bare. It will rapidly be colonized by a variety of plants. • It is the transition that takes place when one biotic community gives way to another biotic community. Time
Why succession takes place? • Succession takes place because through the processes of living, growing and reproducing, organisms interact with and affect the environment within an area, gradually changing it. • Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other species under a very specific set of environmental conditions. • If these conditions change, then the existing species will be outcompeted by a different set of species which are better adapted to the new conditions.
PIONEER ORGANISMS • A pioneer organism is an organism that populates a region after a natural disaster or any other event that may have caused most life in that area to disappear. • It is the first organism formed on the lifeless ground. • Over time, dead material from pioneer species forms humus, and the soil which results is colonized by other species. • Common pioneer organisms include lichens and algae. • A pioneer species are the species dominating a community in the first stage of succession. Features of Pioneer Species High growth rate Small size Wide dispersal Fast population growth
PIONEER ORGANISMS Short lived Organism Medium lived Organism long lived Organism
CLIMAX COMMUNITY • An ecological community in which populations of plants or animals remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their environment. • A climax community is the final stage of succession, remaining relatively unchanged until destroyed by an event such as fire or human interference. • A stable, mature and final community that undergoes little or no succession, when left undisturbed.  Features of Climax Community Slower growth rate Larger size Lower rates of dispersal Lower rates of colonization Longer lives
Climax Community
Stages of Ecological Succession • Process begins with establishment of few pioneer species which get replaced by species of increasing complexity. • Establishment of pioneer species at a bare site causes changes in soil structure and nutrient content, followed by changes in physical environment. • Existing species get replaced by new species due to changed physical factors. • These changes are often accompanied by introduction of animal species into the area. • This cyclic process ends after reaching a stabilized community called climax community. • At this stage ecosystem is in a state of balance, until disturbed by external factors. • Disturbances destroy existing climax community and then process of succession starts anew.
Clement’s Theory of Succession • Also known as Classical ecological theory -Published by Frederic Clements in 1916. • According to Clements, succession is a process involving several phases:  Nudation: development of a bare site, uninhabited by any organisms, as a result of disturbances.  Invasion/Migration: arrival of seeds, spores and other reproductive propagules for establishment of species.  Ecesis/ colonization: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation. Dependent on soil structure. This is the stage where pioneer species survive.  Aggregation: Increase in the population of established species.
Clement’s Theory of Succession  Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various species began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This also happens for animal species.  Reaction: Environmental conditions get modified by the action of species occupying the habitat and this triggers displacement and replacement of one species by another.  Stabilization: Process by which climax community gets established. Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community, which is mature, self-sustaining and stable. It is the final stage of succession. Climax community continues until another disturbance steps in.
Types of Ecological Succession • Ecological succession is of two types- Primary Succession Secondary Succession Ecological succession
Primary Succession • Primary succession is the series of community changes which occur on an entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before. • Primary succession occurs in essentially life-less areas where no ecosystem existed before. • It begins on a barren surface. • For example: on new islands created by volcanic eruptions, bare rocks, rocks exposed by glacier retreats, etc. • In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae and fungus as well as other abiotic factors like wind and water start to "normalize" the habitat. • The primary succession is important in pioneering the area to create conditions favorable for the growth of other forms of plants and animals. • Pedogenesis or the formation of soil is the most important process.
Primary Succession Hundreds of years
Secondary Succession • Secondary succession is the series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. • For example: after felling trees in a woodland, land clearance or a fire. • Secondary succession begins in an area that already has soil.  Process of secondary succession is much faster……why???? • Secondary succession is usually faster than primary succession as: Soil is already present, so there is no need for pioneer species; • Seeds, roots and underground vegetative organs of plants may still survive in the soil.
Secondary Succession
Secondary Succession • An example of Secondary Succession by stages: • A stable deciduous forest community • A disturbance, such as a wild fire, destroys the forest • The fire burns the forest to the ground • The fire leaves behind empty, but not destroyed, soil • Grasses and other herbaceous plants grow back first • Small bushes and trees begin to colonize the area • Fast growing evergreen trees develop to their fullest, while shade- tolerant trees develop in the understory • The short-lived and shade intolerant evergreen trees die as the larger deciduous trees overtop them. • The ecosystem is now back to a similar state to where it began.
ecosystems THANK YOU

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ECOSYSTEM PPT VG.On how to protect ecosystem

  • 1.
    Energy & environmental engineering(es301/401) MODULE-II ECOSYSTEMs
  • 2.
    ECOSYSTEMs CONTENT: • Concept ofan ecosystem & its types • Structure and function of an ecosystem(Producers, consumers and decomposers) • Energy flow in the ecosystem (Food chains, food webs & tophic levels) • Ecological succession; • Ecological pyramids; • Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the following ecosystem (a.)Forest ecosystem (b) Grassland ecosystem (c) Desert ecosystem (d) Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)
  • 3.
    Concept of anecosystem • Ecosystem is a system in which biotic and abiotic components interacting to each other. • Biotic (living components)- includes- plants, animals, micro- organisms & human beings. • Abiotic (non-living components) includes- environmental conditions such as climate, water, soil, air, temperature, humidity and so on. • Plants and animals depend on each other to survive. This connection of living things to each other is called biodiversity. • In other word, interaction between biodiversity and non-living components is known as Ecosystem. Living components non-living components Ecosystem
  • 4.
    Concept of anecosystem • Ecosystem is defined as a community of plants, animals and smaller organisms that live, feed, reproduce and interact with each other in the same area or environment. • An ecosystem is a community of living and nonliving things considered as a unit. • Ecosystem is a complex set of relationships among the living resources, habitats and residents of an area. It includes plants, trees, animals, fishes, birds, micro-organisms, air, water, soil and people. • An ecosystem, short for 'ecological system', is a community of living and non-living things that work together. • An ecosystem is a self regulating group of biotic communities interacting with one another and with their non-living environment by exchanging energy and matter. • Ecosystems are dynamic ii nature.
  • 5.
    types of anecosystem Ecosystem Natural Artificial Terrestrial Aquatic Forest Grassland Desert River Stream Marine water Fresh water Still water Flowing water Pond Lake Ex- Farmland, aquarium, space etc. Sea, ocean
  • 6.
    Ecology • Ecology TermCoined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. • Ecology word Derived from Greek words: • Ecology is the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings. • Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with each other and with their natural environment. • Ecology is the study of ecosystems. OIKOS (Home) LOGOS (Study)
  • 7.
    Functions of ecosystem •Habitat functions: ecosystems provide habitat to wild plants and animals and thus conserve biological and genetic diversity. • It supports different food chains and food webs. • Production function: production of wide range of goods ranging from food to raw materials. Habitat functions Production function Regulatory functions Informational function
  • 8.
    Functions of ecosystem •Regulatory functions: ecosystem regulates essential ecological processes and life support systems and renders stability. • Responsible for cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components(biogeochemical cycles). • It provides many services that have direct and indirect benefits to humans (i.e., clean air, water and soil). • Every ecosystem regulates and maintains itself and resists any stresses or disturbances upto a certain limit. • This is known as cyberneti system. • Informational function: ecosystems provide an essential 'reference function' and contribute to the maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic experience.
  • 9.
    Structure of Ecosystem Ecosystem Living/Biotic Components Non-Living/ Abiotic Components Producers Consumers Decomposers Physical components Chemical Components Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Detritivores
  • 10.
    Biotic Components • Differentliving organisms constitute the biotic components of an ecosystem. • This refers to large life-forms such as trees or mammals, small life- forms such as insects and algae, and microscopic life-forms such as bacteria. • Biotic, means related to life, are living factors. Plants, animals, fungi and bacteria are all biotic or living factors. Biotic components
  • 11.
    Producers • Producers areorganisms which are able to manufacture organic compounds from inorganic substances from their environment. • Food is produced both for themselves and for other organisms. • They depend directly on the abiotic component for their survival and production of nutrients. • Producers are also known as autotrophs (derived from Greek words: “autos” meaning self and “trophe” meaning nourishment) Autos = self Trophe= nourishment Producers meaning
  • 12.
    Producers • Producers extractnutrients from soil or ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis, in the presence of carbon dioxide and sunlight. 6CO2 +6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 • Producers are also, known as autotrophs. • An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems where there is no sunlight. Here, the primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis. • Chemosynthesis is a process by which certain organisms produce energy, without the utilization of sunlight. • In Chemosynthesis the energy comes from the oxidization of chemicals. • So, producers are either photo-autotrophs or chemo-autotrophs.
  • 13.
    Consumers • Consumers areorganisms that obtain nutrients by consuming other organisms. • These organisms are formally referred to as heterotrophs (derived from Greek words “heteros” meaning another/ different and “trophe” meaning nourishment. • A heterotroph is an organism that cannot synthesize their own food and must obtain it ready made. • They can be herbivores, carnivores, omnivores or detritivores. Consumers heteros= another/ different Trophe= nourishment meaning
  • 14.
    Consumers -(Herbivores) • HerbivoresAnimals who derive their required energy directly from consuming the plants and plants only. Also known as primary consumers. • Herbivores have special digestive systems that let them digest all kinds of plants, including grasses. • Eg. Rabbit, horse, sheep, zebra, panda, dear, elephant, cow insects, etc. Herbivores
  • 15.
    Consumers (carnivores) • CarnivoresAnimals that feed on other animals. • Carnivores generally eat herbivores (primary consumers), but occasionally eat other carnivores (secondary & tertiary consumers). • Eg: lion, tiger, cats, birds of prey, sharks, frogs, etc. Carnivores Predators Scavengers
  • 16.
    Predators and Scavengers •Predators- A predator is an organism that hunts and kills other organisms for food.Eg: lions, tigers, sharks, wolves, snakes, etc. • Scavengers-Scavengers eat the food that has been killed and left behind by predators.Eg: vultures, racoons, hyena,etc. • Scavengers play an important role in the ecosystem by consuming the carcass of of animals that have been left to decompose. Decomposers and detritivores complete this process, by consuming the remains left by scavengers.
  • 17.
    Omnivores • Omnivores Animalsthat feed on both plants and animals. • Omnivores often are opportunistic, general feeders with neither carnivore nor herbivore specializations for acquiring or processing food, • They are capable of consuming both animal protein and vegetation. • Many omnivores depend on a suitable mix of animal and plant food for long-term good health and reproduction. • Eg, bear, dogs, foxes, crow, certain insects, and even humans
  • 18.
    Detritivores • They feedon dead plant and animal matter, but perform an additional function which is to return essential nutrients back to the ecosystem in the process. • Detritivores actually eat organic matter of dead plant & animal material such as carcasses, fallen leaves, dead plants, animal droppings. etc. • They are essential for recycling of nutrients, without them dead plant material would not be returned to the soil for new growth. • By breaking down dead matter into smaller pieces, detritivores speed up the process of decomposition. Eg: worms,millipedes, sea stars, crabs, dung flies.
  • 19.
    Decomposers/ Saprobes • Theseare micro-organisms which break-down organic matter into inorganic compounds and derive their nutrition in the process. • Decomposers break down complex compound into simpler compounds without eating them. • For example, fungi can grow on organic matter, such as a dead tree trunk or a piece of bread, and breaks it down and absorbing the nutrients without eating the wood or the bread. • These are organisms that aid in decomposition of already dead or dying organisms. • Decomposers secrete enzymes to digest organic matter and then absorb resulting molecules. • Eg: bacteria, fungi, etc.
  • 21.
    Abiotic Components • Thenonliving materials in an ecosystem, such as minerals, gases, liquids and chemicals are referred to as abiotic or non-biotic factors. • Abiotic, meaning not alive, are nonliving factors that affect living organisms. • Environmental factors such habitat (pond, lake, ocean, desert, mountain) are the abiotic factors. • Weather condition such as temperature, cloud, rain, snow, hurricanes, etc. are the abiotic factors. • An abiotic factor is a nonliving thing, such as soil, water air etc. that influences or affects an ecosystem and the organisms in it. • Abiotic factors determine, which species of organisms will survive in a given environment. abiotic components
  • 22.
    Abiotic Components Abiotic Components PhysicalComponents Sunlight, water, air, temperature, rainfall, soil texture, wind speed and direction,, etc. Chemical Components Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, iron, copper, zinc, etc.
  • 23.
    ENERGY FLOWS INAN ECOSYSTEM • Flow of energy in an ecosystem is governed by following cycles: Water Cycle Carbon Cycle Oxygen Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Energy Flow (unidirectional) E N E R G Y F L O W
  • 24.
    Water cycle • Thewater cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle. • It is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. • It is a complex system that includes many different processes. • Liquid water evaporates into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates back to earth in the form of rain and snow. • There are four main stages in the water cycle. They are - 1. Evaporation 2. Condensation 3. Precipitation and collection 4. Transpiration Evaporation Condensation Precipitation Transpiration Water cycle
  • 25.
  • 26.
    Carbon cycle • Thecarbon, which occurs in organic compounds, is included in both the abiotic and biotic parts of the ecosystem. • Carbon is a building block of both plant and animal tissues. • In atmosphere, carbon occurs as carbon dioxide. • Through photosynthesis, plants form carbohydrates that contain carbon and emit oxygen which is used by animals for respiration. • Plants are consumed by animals for derivation of energy. • Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during respiration. • Carbon is returned to soil in form of wastes from animals and plants and in the form of dead matter when decomposed. Carbon cycle
  • 27.
  • 28.
    Oxygen Cycle • Oxygencycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the atmosphere (air), biosphere (plants and animals) and the lithosphere (the Earth's crust). • The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free oxygen is made available in each of these regions, as well as how it is used. • The entire cycle can be summarized as, the oxygen cycle begins with the process of photosynthesis. • Oxygen is used up in : 1. Respiration -All organisms use oxygen for respiration. 2. Decomposing-When plants and animals die, they decompose. 3. Rusting-Called oxidation, this process causes metals to rust. 4. Combustion-Process by which fire is generated also requires oxygen, along with heat and fuel.
  • 29.
  • 30.
    Nitrogen Cycle • About78% of Earth’s atmosphere is Nitrogen, in free form. • Living things require nitrogen in compound form (not in free form), to build proteins and other important chemicals. • Not all the nitrogen that gets fixed is used by plants and animals. • Some of it is returned to the atmosphere through a process called denitrification. • Bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium perform denitrification of nitrates in anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen). • They use the nitrate in the place of oxygen during respiration. • Effectively, they breathe nitrate and exhale nitrogen gas back into the atmosphere.
  • 31.
  • 32.
    ENERGY flow • Theultimate source of energy (for most of the ecosystems) is the sun. • The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat. • Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain as one organism eats another. • Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms. • Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not. • Flow of energy in an ecosystem is uni-directional. • Flow of energy in an ecosystem is governed by laws of thermodynamics, which are: • Energy cannot be created or destroyed (but it can be transformed into stored energy & heat) • Energy is lost as energy is transformed.
  • 33.
  • 34.
    Integration of Cyclesin Nature • All these cycles are responsible for maintenance of life on earth. • If mankind disturbs these cycles beyond the limits that nature can sustain, they will eventually break down and lead to a degraded earth on which man will not be able to survive.
  • 35.
    Food chain • Everyliving organism/ thing requires energy to survive, whether it be plants, animals or humans. • Energy is required by living beings to grow. • Plants get their energy from photosynthesis. • Animals get energy from the food they consume. • A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an ecosystem) to obtain nutrition. • A food chain shows how each living thing gets food, and how nutrients and energy are passed from creature to creature. • A simple food chain can be seen below:
  • 36.
  • 37.
    Food chain • Afood chain starts with the primary energy source and end with top predators, animals that have little or no natural enemies. • When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures, worms and crabs) • And broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy continues. • Food chains make a full circle, and nutrients of food is passed from plant to animal, animal to decomposer and back to plants. • There can be many links in food chains but not too many. • If there are too many links, then the animal at the end would not get enough energy. Carrots rabbit Fox Lion
  • 38.
    Food chain • Thefurther along the food chain there are, the less food and hence less energy remains available. • Most food chains have no more than four or five links. • In a food chain each organism obtains energy from the one at the level below. • A change in the size of one population in a food chain will affect other populations. Grass Grasshopper Frog Python Eagle
  • 39.
    Types of foodchains Food Chains Grazing food chains Predatory food chains Parasitic food chains Detritus/ saprophytic food chains
  • 40.
    Grazing food chains •Start with green plants and end with carnivores. • (a) Predatory food chain – begins with plants and proceeds from small to large animals. • E.g.- crops - field mice – owls • (b) Parasitic food chain – Begins with plants and proceeds from large to small animals. • E.g.- producers - herbivores– parasites plants cow Tapeworm crops Mice Owl
  • 41.
    Detritus/ saprophytic foodchains • They start with dead organic matter. • Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain. • Eg: leaf litter in a forest – fungi – bacteria • Bacteria and fungi, however, are eaten by organisms and they in turn are eaten by other organisms. • Since the source of energy is not the sun but detritus, this linear feeding relationship is called a detritus food chain. Dead Leaves Woodlouse Blackbird
  • 42.
    Food Web • Innature, food chain relationships are not isolated; rather they are complex, because one organism may form the food source of many organisms. • Thus, instead of a simple linear food chain, there is a web like structure formed by these interlinked food chains. • Such interconnected matrix of food chains is called 'food web'. • Food webs are indispensable in ecosystems as they allow an organism to obtain its food from more than one type of organism of the lower trophic level. Food Web
  • 43.
    Food Web • Foodchains are generally found to be interlinked and inter-woven as a network and are known as food web. • Food Web a system of interlocking and interdependent food chains in a given area. • A food web is several food chains connected together. • A food web is many food chains linked together to show a more accurate model of all possible feeding relationships of organisms in an ecosystem.
  • 44.
  • 45.
  • 46.
  • 47.
    Trophic Levels • Theseare the various steps in a food chain or food web. • Level1: producers (autotrophs) • Level2: primary consumers (herbivores) • Level3: secondary consumers (carnivores/omnivores) • Level4: tertiary consumers (top carnivores) Level1: producers Level2: primary consumers Level3: secondary consumers Level4: tertiary consumers
  • 48.
    Ecological pyramids • Ecologicalpyramids are graphs which illustrate the trophic levels in a community. • Most ecological pyramids are large at the base and narrow at the top. L1: producers L 2: primary consumers L 3: secondary consumers L 4: tertiary consumers L 5: top consumers More energy Less Energy Ecological pyramids Diagram that shows the relative amount of energy or organisms contained within each trophic level.
  • 49.
  • 50.
    Ecological pyramids • Anecological pyramid is an illustration of the reduction in energy as move through each feeding level in an ecosystem. • Each feeding level of the ecosystem is called trophic level. • Producers form the base of the pyramid. • Consumers form the upper layers. • Pyramids are of three types- Ecological Pyramid Pyramid of Number Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy
  • 51.
    Types of Ecologicalpyramids Types of Pyramid Pyramid of number Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy Upright Partially upright Inverted Upright Inverted Always upright Grassland & Pond Forest Tree ecosystem Grassland & Forest Pond & Marine All types of ecosystem
  • 52.
    Pyramid of numbers •A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation of the numbers of individuals in each population in a food chain. • The pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms in each trophic level. • Pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how the population of a certain species affects another. • Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much larger than any of the higher trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon ascending the pyramid. • There are exceptions, however. For example, in a tree community, a single tree could support many different populations of larger numbers.
  • 53.
    Pyramid of numbers InvertedSpindle-shapped Upright Upright Tree ecosystem Grassland Pond
  • 54.
    Pyramid of biomass •The total amount of matter present in organisms of an ecosystem at each trophic level is biomass. • In other words, the total amount of living or organic matter in an ecosystem at any time is called 'Biomass'. • Biomass means the mass of living material at a stage in a food chain. • The biomass at each stage goes down as go from one stage to the next, just like the amount of energy. • Pyramid of biomass is the graphic representation of biomass present per unit area & time of different trophic levels, with producers at the base and top carnivores at the top. • Pyramid of biomass records the total dry organic matter of organisms at each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem.
  • 55.
    Pyramid of biomass •A pyramid of biomass is a chart, drawn to scale, that shows the biomass at each stage in a food chain. • The bars become narrower as reach the top. • Typical units for a biomass pyramid could be grams per meter square or calories per meter square. • This demonstrates the amount of matter lost between trophic levels. • There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright and inverted. • An upright pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is larger than the combined weight of consumers. example -forest ecosystem. • An inverted pyramid is one where the combined weight of producers is smaller than the combined weight of consumers. example - aquatic ecosystem.
  • 56.
    Pyramid of biomass(terrestrial) •In a terrestrial ecosystem, the maximum biomass occurs in producers, and there is progressive decrease in biomass from lower to higher trophic levels. • Thus, the pyramid of biomass in a terrestrial ecosystem is upright.
  • 57.
    Pyramid of biomass(aquatic) •In an aquatic habitat the pyramid of biomass is inverted or spindle shaped where the biomass of trophic level depends upon the reproductive potential and longevity of the member.
  • 58.
    Pyramid of energy •The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy consumed by each trophic level. • An energy pyramid is always upright as the total amount of energy available for utilization in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower levels. • This happens because during energy transfer from lower to higher levels, some energy is always lost.
  • 59.
    Ecological succession • Ecosystemis not static, its dynamic and changing constantly. • Its structure and function change over time. • These changes are in order and are capable of being predicted. • One type of community gets totally replaced with another type of community over a period of time and this causes several changes.This is ecological succession. • It is the slow and gradual process, by which ecosystems change and develop over time. • Ecological succession is the changing sequence of communities that live in an ecosystem during a given time period. Ecological succession
  • 60.
  • 61.
    Ecological succession • Insimple words, it is the gradual replacement of one community by another through natural processes over time. • It refers to the natural gradual changes in the types of species that live in an area. • Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems tend to change and develop over a period of time. • For example, a bare patch of ground will not stay bare. It will rapidly be colonized by a variety of plants. • It is the transition that takes place when one biotic community gives way to another biotic community. Time
  • 62.
    Why succession takesplace? • Succession takes place because through the processes of living, growing and reproducing, organisms interact with and affect the environment within an area, gradually changing it. • Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other species under a very specific set of environmental conditions. • If these conditions change, then the existing species will be outcompeted by a different set of species which are better adapted to the new conditions.
  • 63.
    PIONEER ORGANISMS • Apioneer organism is an organism that populates a region after a natural disaster or any other event that may have caused most life in that area to disappear. • It is the first organism formed on the lifeless ground. • Over time, dead material from pioneer species forms humus, and the soil which results is colonized by other species. • Common pioneer organisms include lichens and algae. • A pioneer species are the species dominating a community in the first stage of succession. Features of Pioneer Species High growth rate Small size Wide dispersal Fast population growth
  • 64.
    PIONEER ORGANISMS Short lived Organism Mediumlived Organism long lived Organism
  • 65.
    CLIMAX COMMUNITY • Anecological community in which populations of plants or animals remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their environment. • A climax community is the final stage of succession, remaining relatively unchanged until destroyed by an event such as fire or human interference. • A stable, mature and final community that undergoes little or no succession, when left undisturbed.  Features of Climax Community Slower growth rate Larger size Lower rates of dispersal Lower rates of colonization Longer lives
  • 66.
  • 67.
    Stages of EcologicalSuccession • Process begins with establishment of few pioneer species which get replaced by species of increasing complexity. • Establishment of pioneer species at a bare site causes changes in soil structure and nutrient content, followed by changes in physical environment. • Existing species get replaced by new species due to changed physical factors. • These changes are often accompanied by introduction of animal species into the area. • This cyclic process ends after reaching a stabilized community called climax community. • At this stage ecosystem is in a state of balance, until disturbed by external factors. • Disturbances destroy existing climax community and then process of succession starts anew.
  • 68.
    Clement’s Theory ofSuccession • Also known as Classical ecological theory -Published by Frederic Clements in 1916. • According to Clements, succession is a process involving several phases:  Nudation: development of a bare site, uninhabited by any organisms, as a result of disturbances.  Invasion/Migration: arrival of seeds, spores and other reproductive propagules for establishment of species.  Ecesis/ colonization: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation. Dependent on soil structure. This is the stage where pioneer species survive.  Aggregation: Increase in the population of established species.
  • 69.
    Clement’s Theory ofSuccession  Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various species began to compete for space, light and nutrients. This also happens for animal species.  Reaction: Environmental conditions get modified by the action of species occupying the habitat and this triggers displacement and replacement of one species by another.  Stabilization: Process by which climax community gets established. Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community, which is mature, self-sustaining and stable. It is the final stage of succession. Climax community continues until another disturbance steps in.
  • 70.
    Types of EcologicalSuccession • Ecological succession is of two types- Primary Succession Secondary Succession Ecological succession
  • 71.
    Primary Succession • Primarysuccession is the series of community changes which occur on an entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before. • Primary succession occurs in essentially life-less areas where no ecosystem existed before. • It begins on a barren surface. • For example: on new islands created by volcanic eruptions, bare rocks, rocks exposed by glacier retreats, etc. • In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae and fungus as well as other abiotic factors like wind and water start to "normalize" the habitat. • The primary succession is important in pioneering the area to create conditions favorable for the growth of other forms of plants and animals. • Pedogenesis or the formation of soil is the most important process.
  • 72.
  • 73.
    Secondary Succession • Secondarysuccession is the series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. • For example: after felling trees in a woodland, land clearance or a fire. • Secondary succession begins in an area that already has soil.  Process of secondary succession is much faster……why???? • Secondary succession is usually faster than primary succession as: Soil is already present, so there is no need for pioneer species; • Seeds, roots and underground vegetative organs of plants may still survive in the soil.
  • 74.
  • 75.
    Secondary Succession • Anexample of Secondary Succession by stages: • A stable deciduous forest community • A disturbance, such as a wild fire, destroys the forest • The fire burns the forest to the ground • The fire leaves behind empty, but not destroyed, soil • Grasses and other herbaceous plants grow back first • Small bushes and trees begin to colonize the area • Fast growing evergreen trees develop to their fullest, while shade- tolerant trees develop in the understory • The short-lived and shade intolerant evergreen trees die as the larger deciduous trees overtop them. • The ecosystem is now back to a similar state to where it began.
  • 76.