ecocity elements sangeeta

Ecocity Elements in the Traditional Settlement of
Kirtipur in Kathmandu Valley
Sangeeta Singh*
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tribhuvan University, Lalitpur, Nepal
ABSTRACT
The increasing trend of urbanization has resulted in a growing imbalance in ecological sys-
tems that is affecting the lives of people globally. Planners often neglect the fact that human
beings are part of the natural ecosystem and their ecological needs are ignored. Urban plan-
ning needs to focus on incorporating human–nature relationships as a key element. This
paper explores ecocity elements in traditional towns of Kathmandu Valley with reference
to Kirtipur, and seeks to argue that these consist of sustainable elements and practices that
facilitate ecocity planning and development.
An ecocity is quite a recent phenomenon. However, ecocity elements existed earlier and it
seems relevant to include them in recent concepts. Similarities and differences of modern
concepts and the lessons learnt from the traditional towns are worth exploring. Ecocity
elements are analyzed in this paper by applying methods of document analysis, observations
and interviews. Criteria for the analysis are ecologically oriented, sociocultural value oriented
perspectives. The analysis will indicate if and how these elements/practices can be (a) main-
tained or (b) retroﬁtted or have to be (c) abandoned because they are not feasible anymore
due to ecological, economic or sociocultural changes.
Most of the traditional towns in the Kathmandu Valley were planned with the goal to main-
tain the natural ecosystem, and this has been reﬂected in the settlement pattern and land
use, in the provision of basic infrastructure etc. The results of this paper indicate that there
is a set of traditional sustainable elements and practices that are worth maintaining since
they are part of the sociocultural and ecological tradition and that might contribute to ecocity
transformation. Planning a city so as to disturb the natural ecosystem to the least possible
extent is important for sustainability, and this research contributes to the theme of building
sustainable and healthy cities. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP
Environment
Received 21 March 2015; revised 10 May 2015; accepted 16 August 2015
Keywords: ecocity elements; traditional settlements
*Correspondence to: Sangeeta Singh, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tribhuvan University, Lalitpur, Nepal.
E-mail: sangeeta@ioe.edu.np
Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment
Sustainable Development
Sust. Dev. , 1–12 2016
Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/sd.1635

Introduction
I
T IS ONLY RECENTLY THAT SUSTAINABLE PLANNING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS HAS GAINED MOMENTUM AND VARIOUS CON-
cepts have been propagated for achieving sustainable urban development with least ecological impact, such
as sustainable city, ecocity, low carbon city and so on. In the present context, where climate change and its im-
pacts are being realized on a global scale, the importance of the paradigm shift from conventional ways to sys-
temic planning has gained much significance, and will continue to do so in the years to come. Much of the focus of
the ecocity initiatives of today is directed towards sustainable energy use, water sensitive urban design, food security,
environmental improvement, improved quality of life and ecological awareness.
The ecocity and other ecological approaches in human settlement planning have been explained in various ways
in different literature at different times (Moffatt, 2012; Wong, 2012). Although ecological considerations were ad-
dressed in some urban planning initiatives in the past, much of the focus has been towards the physical infrastruc-
ture and socio-economic development. While the socio-economic and environmental concerns are being addressed
in the human settlement planning initiatives propagated so far, the consideration of humans and ecological beings
has been largely undermined and has to be given due emphasis. Planning of cities in the past has been guided by
various factors in different periods in the history of planning of urban settlements. Linear city, garden city, organic
city, neighborhood unit, social city and design with nature (McHarg, 1969) are some of the planning concepts that
have been implemented in the past, which mainly focused on the interdependence of a number of key aspects such
as the urban pattern, building form, pedestrian network, vehicular access, open spaces and greenery, all of which
create an urban environment that fulfills the needs and aspirations of the people living in the cities. These key as-
pects still make their appearance in the current ecocity model in a new and interconnected manner.
The ecocity is quite a recent phenomenon, and the concept has been propagated by Richard Register, founding
president of Urban Ecology (1975) and founder and current president of Ecocity Builders (1992). The concept be-
came popular with the publication of his book Ecocity Berkeley: Building Cities for a Healthy Future in 1987, explaining
how cities can be built considering nature as an integral part of the process of planning a settlement. Since then
several others have propagated the concept of the ecocity, one of them being David Engwicht from Australia, who
published Towards an Eco-City, in which he talks about how city planners and engineers have virtually eliminated
effective human interaction by building more roads and shopping malls, gutting communities and increasing dense
traffic. Mark Roseland in his paper argues that, although the term ‘ecocity’ was propounded by Register, the idea
itself was not new to urban planning and is based on a number of earlier spatial planning models, starting from
the garden city of Ebenezer Howard (1902) and the later theories of Patrick Geddes, Lewis Mumford, Ian McHarg,
Christopher Alexander and others through the course of the 20th century (Roseland, 1997).
The declaration from the Ecocity World Summit in San Francisco defines the necessary elements of an ecocity,
along with the key actions that are needed; according to this ecological security, ecological sanitation, ecological in-
dustrial metabolism, ecoscape integrity and ecological awareness are the key elements of an ecocity. All these ele-
ments are very significant for a city to flourish as an ecocity. Ecocity summits have been held in various other
cities, the latest being the World Summit on Sustainable Cities, which was held in September 2013 in Nantes.
The International Ecocity Framework and Standards (IEFS) launched by Ecocity Builders and an international com-
mittee of expert advisors seeks to provide an innovative vision for an ecologically restorative human civilization, as
well as a practical methodology for assessing and guiding the achievement of such vision through the lens of the
ecocity which consists of 15 ecocity dimensions(Ecocity Builders, 2011). There has been a rise in the number of
eco-cities from 79 in 2009 to 174 in 2011 (Joss et al., 2011).
Sustainable cities however have existed in the past, especially in the culture driven societies of the East. Manasara
Shilpa Shastra, which is an ancient planning principle considered in India, focuses on incorporating nature as well
as other features in the planning of a town. Various types of town form were planned, such as Dandaka, Swastika,
Padmaka, Nandyavarta, Prastara, Chaturmukha and Karmukha, which emphasized the perceived images of the cosmos
and layout of roads and other landmarks such as temples and palaces so as to obtain the maximum benefits of nature.
Vastu planning, which is based on natural law, is the world’s most ancient and powerful system of city planning.
The ecocity elements that are discussed in the current available literature however already existed in the traditional
settlements of Kathmandu Valley such as Sankhu, Khokana, Bungmati, Chapagaon, Tokha and Kirtipur, and deserve
S. Singh
Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Sust. Dev. , 1–12 2016
DOI: 10.1002/sd

to be acknowledged so that this trend of development can be encouraged. This paper focuses on exploring the ecocity
elements in the traditional towns of Kathmandu Valley with particular reference to Kirtipur, located 5km to the south
west of Kathmandu. The objective of this paper is to analyze the ecocity elements as understood from modern con-
cepts and from the traditional planning practices, taking the traditional settlement of Kirtipur as an example. The ob-
jective of the research is descriptive, exploratory and explanatory in nature, and hence the constructivist research
paradigm and a qualitative approach have been considered. The document analysis, observations and interviews have
been conducted focusing mainly on the core areas of Kirtipur. The similarities and differences in the concepts of
ecocities as understood from the modern concepts and from the lessons learnt from the traditional towns are analyzed
mainly from ecologically oriented and sociocultural and ethical value oriented perspectives, as these could provide
guidelines for development of new ecocities for small towns, in culture driven societies of the developing world.
In the context of Kathmandu Valley, it has been seen that most of the traditional towns were planned in such a
manner that the natural ecosystem is maintained to a great extent, and this has been reflected not only in the settle-
ment pattern and land use but also in the provision of basic infrastructure such as water supply and sanitation sys-
tems and so on. The socio-economic and cultural practices were maintained so as to ensure the sustainability of
these systems. Hence we can say that the ecocity elements as we understand them from the current concepts were
already there in the traditional towns of the Kathmandu Valley, and in some of the towns such as Kirtipur, Sankhu,
Sanga, Lubhu and Chapagaun the ecocity elements are still maintained, leading to sustainable urban development.
There is a deliberate linkage between the city and nature in the traditional towns of the Kathmandu Valley in terms
of open spaces and agriculture, built environment and management of water and waste, and the
sociocultural/religious traditions have played a key role in resource sharing, particularly of land, water and forest,
which is one of the major ecocity elements. If the current trend of urbanization continues it will be very difficult
to preserve and conserve the ecocity elements in these traditional towns, but it is still possible to regulate growth
and develop these towns as ecocities with realization and adequate planning intervention.
Ecocity Elements in Kirtipur: Background
Kirtipur is an ancient and historical settlement, located 5km south west of Kathmandu (Fig. 1), and is said to be have
been established as a satellite town of Patan in the period of King Shiva Dev III (1099–1126AD). The total area of
Kirtipur is 14.76km2
, with a total population of 65 032 as recorded in the national census of 2011. Among the total
of 19 wards (administrative boundaries), only five wards, 2, 3, 5, 9 and 18, are urban in character and the rest are still
rural, their population still depending on agriculture for livelihood. With its rich cultural background Kirtipur is very
well known for its religious heritage; in particular, the Bagh Bairav Temple and Chilancho Stupa are the two very
prominent landmarks of the town, located at the heart of Kirtipur, which are associated with Hinduism and Buddhism
respectively. The strong community and homogeneous ethnic composition make Kirtipur unique and very interest-
ing. With ancient monuments, rich cultural practices and the traditional lifestyle along with compact residential areas
surrounded by agricultural land and lush green forest, Kirtipur could be developed to become a model ecocity.
The establishment of Tribhuvan University in 1959 was a major influencing factor in the growth of settlements
in Kirtipur, especially towards the south, thereby reducing the agricultural area. The construction of the ring road in
1978 made Kirtipur more accessible to people wanting to move out from the congested Kathmandu city. Land ac-
quired for brick kilns, mostly towards the west, and access roads also added to the loss of agricultural land. The con-
struction of gravelled road from Kirtipur to Salyansthan in the South in 1986 and the improvement of facilities such
as transportation, water supply and electricity added to the change in land use towards the south east. The land use
of Kirtipur has been changing rapidly in the south eastern part from agricultural to residential, and the trend is con-
tinuing to grow. This trend will further be aggravated if the government’s plan for an outer ring road, which partly
goes through the southern part of Kirtipur, is implemented. Due to sprawl outside of the Kirtipur ring road, the in-
ner city area is disintegrating and is losing its identity. The urban sprawl towards Nayabazar, Nagaun and Panga is
making the traditional core vulnerable towards gentrification. People are either selling their houses or renting and
moving to the urban periphery. The core city is changing from the traditional cultural center to a distinctly middle
class residential neighborhood.
Ecocity Elements in the Traditional Settlement
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Some areas of Kirtipur still display the traditional character; however, due to the changing lifestyle and use of mod-
ern construction technologies, the traditional identity of the traditional core is on the verge of deterioration. The an-
cient layout of open spaces and built-up areas on the hilltop has however survived, with little change in recent years.
The overall ecological landscape of Kirtipur has even today not been severely affected by urbanization as in the
case of other cities such as Kathmandu and Patan. Most of the land use is still agricultural, although the employ-
ment pattern of Kirtipur is slowly shifting from agriculture to service and others. The agricultural land and the forest
areas have been encroached upon, but not to a great extent. Much of this can be attributed to the fact that economic
development has been very slow in Kirtipur and people are dependent on Kathmandu for employment opportuni-
ties. With the establishment of other institutions in recent years such as the planetarium, Ayurveda Campus and
Horticulture Research Centre, Kirtipur is slowly transforming and is very likely to be developed as an educational
town in the coming years and also as a good example of an ecocity. In the context of Kirtipur, the ecocity elements
have been analyzed with particular emphasis on land use and settlement pattern and water management, and these
have been viewed from an ecologically oriented perspective and a socioculturally oriented perspective.
Analysis and Results
Ecocity Elements in Kirtipur from the Ecological Perspective
One of the most signiﬁcant ecocity elements is the land use and settlement pattern, since this has a direct interrela-
tionship with the ecological balance in any area. Proper land use and settlement pattern can help in maintaining
a balance between nature and development, and this has been very well realized in the planning initiatives under-
taken in the past in Kirtipur and in other traditional settlements in Kathmandu, which has helped in building the
Figure 1. Location of Kirtipur ( google maps)
S. Singh
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city in harmony with nature. The early settlements of Kathmandu Valley seem to be strategically located considering
the ecological aspects.
The ancient settlements during the Licchavi period generally were located on areas that were not suitable for ag-
riculture and forest. The settlements on crests of hillocks uniformly appear to carry the suffix ‘pringga’ whereas hill
crests without settlements are indicated by suffixes ‘cho’ and ‘gung’, the names for a cultivated hillock and
afforested hillock respectively. Settlements were also located on slopes of hillocks carrying the suffix ‘dula’, whereas
the ‘tala’ was the areas associated with the agricultural region (Tiwari, 2001). Planning of human settlements has
always been carried out giving due attention to the preservation of natural resources such as forests, agricultural
land and water. Most of the settlements including Kirtipur have thus been built on the tar land located on the higher
plateau with boundaries leaving the surrounding fertile land for agriculture and forests in the outskirts that were
protected (Figure 2).
The residential development was generally compact and limited to a confined boundary within the wall, and the
growth of the settlement was controlled by identifying the limits, which were generally done by placing religious el-
ements such as astamatrikas (gods) and narayans along the periphery. The natural resources were protected by lo-
cating specific religious elements such as temples and piths in the forests, riversides etc. This was deliberately done
to delimit the growth of residential areas and safeguard the agricultural and forest areas. The dense core area is thus
surrounded by a large stretch of agricultural land. Further away the periphery of the city was preserved for the nat-
ural resources such as forest. Hence the traditional planning of settlements has had high esteem for natural re-
sources and agriculture, and the sociocultural and religious practices were often steered towards sustaining these
resources without having to rely on any decrees as such.
The built-up residential area was well planned, with a network of streets and open spaces that not only provided
spaces for various sociocultural and other activities but also catered to the micro-climate of the area. Sufficient light
and ventilation in the buildings were ensured by proper design of the sloped roofs. The materials that were used for
the buildings were mostly water accepting, such as bricks and tiles, and are eco-friendly. It was a common practice to
have a kitchen garden known as a keba in the backyard of the houses to fulfill the daily requirements of the people.
The residential developments in Kirtipur have maintained the traditional pattern, especially having a compact settle-
ment in the core area and towards Nagaun, Panga and Chovar, and still retaining the urban agricultural practices.
Kirtipur has retained much of the forest land that existed in the southern part towards Machegaun, Champadevi
Hill and Chovar, although these are under pressure from urbanization, and if proper measures are not taken to con-
serve this important natural resource it might be encroached upon. More than one-fourth of the Jal Binayak area has
been covered with forest, where different species of plants and birds are found. Although forest in the core area has
survived the increasing pressures of urban expansion, this area is slowly being encroached upon for various activi-
ties. Tribhuvan University occupies most of the institutional area of Kirtipur Municipality, and comprises abundant
green spaces and forest, which need to be conserved (Figure 3).
It has been observed that the residents of the core area, Panga, Nagaun and Chovar still own a considerable part
of the agricultural land in the peripheral area on which people depend for their livelihood; however, these are under
tremendous pressure for various other uses. The brick kilns have contributed to the loss of agricultural productivity
which, has been also one of the major air polluting source in Kitipur. Paddy, maize and wheat are mostly grown in
the cultivable area of Kirtipur, whereas small cottage industries, brick kilns, food processing mills and the aban-
doned Himal Cement factory account for the major industrial land use of Kirtipur.
The traditional settlement of Kathmandu Valley including Kirtipur has maintained a definite hierarchy in the
planning of open spaces within the settlements, which exhibit similarities in the way in which these spaces are lo-
cated. Palace squares and temple squares are large public spaces that have palaces and temples as focal points
and mostly form the landmarks of the towns, and these were centrally located, determining the urban form of
the towns. Thus the immediate area surrounding the palace squares was allocated for priests and noblemen. The
Figure 2. Prudent use of land for protection of agriculture and natural resources
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areas further away from the core were inhabited by the business community, craftsmen, farmers and workers, de-
pending on the hierarchy of caste, with the residential courtyard forming important space for various activities. The
importance of open spaces not only in the context of various activities but also as spaces that are very important for
our urban ecology was clearly understood by the traditional society of Kathmandu Valley. This was evident from the
fact that the streets were paved with open joints so as to allow recharging of ground water. Since the residential areas
were planned in a compact manner, most of the daily chores were performed in the public spaces, including dish
washing, bathing, washing clothes, oil massaging and sun bathing newborn infants (Figure 4).
Community interaction, which is a vital part of the social structure, was also carried out in these public spaces,
where people of all ages came together for various activities, be it for festivals, for sociocultural events or just for
leisure and relaxation activities. The nature of activities carried out in these public spaces depends upon the hierar-
chy of the open spaces, where the higher in the hierarchy the more public is the activity carried out therein, the more
private activities being carried out in the open spaces of lower order and surrounded by only the residential units.
Layaku, chowk, chuka, baha, bahi, dalan, falcha, pati and sattal are some open spaces and their elements that are
commonly found in the traditional settlements.
The streets were also part of the open spaces, and street festivals were most substantial in the determining the
pattern of streets. During festivals the chariots of gods are made to travel around the major routes of the city.
Figure 3. Land Use of Kirtipur (Source: periodic plan of kirtipur modiﬁed)
Figure 4. open space at Depukhusi pond area
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The road system was mainly meant for the passage of chariots and also for performing the cultural rituals of
jatras and so on, and it is generally at the crossroads that public open spaces are located. The routes in the set-
tlement not only were aligned with a definite purpose of fulfilling the sociocultural rituals but also were focused
on maintaining the linkages with the neighboring hinterlands, on which it was dependent for natural resources.
Streets were pedestrian friendly, having narrow widths leading to all the basic services; however, the roads were
wide enough for chariots to pass by wherever this was required, and these were marked by specific festival routes.
The nodal point where at least two roads meet is normally characterized by an open space having a religious ele-
ment, either a Buddhist chaitya or Hindu temple, as a landmark of the area. The courtyard is followed by streets,
and the interconnected nodes formed by streets are the public squares. The traditional character of the road net-
works has been preserved to a great extent, mainly due to the contoured terrain of Kirtipur, making it difficult
for the vehicles to travel easily (Figure 5).
Water infrastructure such as ponds, wells and hitis has always been an integral part of open spaces. The planning
of open spaces and street networks not only were significant for maintaining the socio-economic, religious and cul-
tural lifestyle of the people, but also were important contributors in maintaining the ecological balance in the urban
centers. The streets and the open spaces were basically paved using open joints with bricks or stone with proper
drainage. The joints allowed the seepage of rainwater into the ground, which is very necessary for recharging the
ground water. The wells, ponds and hitis located mostly in these open spaces and streets were also significant con-
tributors to the ground-water recharging.
Water has been managed very well in Kirtipur since early times, taking care to maintain the water balance by
recharging the aquifer and by cultural practices that focused on maintaining a clean water supply and ensuring that
it was reliable. The importance of rainwater and the natural water bodies such as the rivers and lakes have been very
well understood by the traditional societies of Kathmandu Valley, and this has been established very well in the wa-
ter system that has been contemplated in managing the water for various purposes. Ponds, wells, lakes and rivers as
well as the concept of recharging shallow aquifers formed an integral part of the water supply system, and in
Kirtipur too this has been well established.
The traditional water supply system has given significant emphasis to the sustainability of the system, and mea-
sures have been taken to ensure that the natural water cycle is maintained (Figure 6). Hence recharging of ground
water was taken as a prerequisite for any kind of water infrastructure that was built, making use of rainwater to the
maximum possible limit. Water from aquifers that were rainwater fed was utilized by using stone spouts, hitis, wells
etc. However, these aquifers were recharged wherever possible, and this was done by means of constructing ponds
for collecting rainwater, and also by allowing the area surrounding the water infrastructure to have open jointed pav-
ing so that water can seep inside. Thus it is seen that in all of the water infrastructure built in those times there is an
open space where the daily activities such as washing and bathing take place, and water is allowed to seep into the
ground so as to recharge the ground water. The rajkulo supplied water for irrigation as well as for recharging the
Figure 5. Residential courtyard
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ponds. Ponds in Kirtipur still hold a significant place in the sociocultural life, and there are cultural traditions and
rituals linked with the ponds, which have fulfilled daily needs of the residents and also served as water storage res-
ervoirs that can be used for firefighting. There are still ten ponds in Kirtipur, mostly located in the core area of
Kirtipur. Most of the ponds are in a polluted condition at present and some ponds, especially towards the south,
such as the labha pukhu, khasi pukhu, bhin pukhu and mabhin pukhu, have gone dry and are at risk of being
encroached upon for other purposes. Taudaha is also one of the water bodies that have great ecological significance,
and is an important source of water for ground-water recharge apart from the area being ecologically diverse in
terms of aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity.
The kuwa or well, which is basically a spring well found naturally, is one of the major sources of water at Kirtipur.
The quantity of water is seasonal; i.e., water decreases in the dry season. There are nine spring wells at present in
Kirtipur. Stone spouts or hitis are also major water sources of the traditional Kirtipur. They are constructed in a large
pit in the ground so that the sub-surface flow of water can be spouted out for convenient collection. Their sources
can be local aquifers or transferred to the spot through natural sub-surface flow or in manmade channels. These
engineered hitis may also have filtration systems placed before the stone spout. One gaa hiti can have one or more
spouts based on the water discharge and number of users. Several stone spouts may be installed either by bifurcat-
ing the main source into several outlet spouts or using different aquifer sources so that the risk of drying up is min-
imized. The base platform is normally paved with stone with a side drain. The outlet drain is normally taken out of
the settlement and used for irrigation. In some cases the waste water is again allowed into sub-surface flow to charge
the next downstream, a unique example of water management.
Figure 6. Traditional water supply system in Kathmandu Valley
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One more form of stone spout is prevalent in Kirtipur, popularly known as jaroon or jharu. This is a stone water
tank, mostly constructed from a single stone, with one or more tap holes. These holes provide water to the passer-by.
There are a total of five jharu hiti in Kirtipur, of which not a single one is currently in use. Dug wells are very com-
mon in Kirtipur Valley as a source of water for domestic purposes. Built with a brick masonry wall, normally circular
in shape, these wells collect water from a shallow aquifer, normally 4–6m deep. Based on the water quality and
depth of water in the well, some wells are very popular, while others are used for secondary purposes such as wash-
ing and cleaning.
The waste management practiced in the traditional settlements of Kathmandu Valley and also in Kirtipur was in-
deed a sustainable approach. Being an agriculture based economy, the composition of waste generated in Kirtipur
consists more of organic matter than other constituents. The percentage of recyclable wastes such as paper, plastics
etc are still very low, which means that composting as waste treatment is still very feasible: more so since the com-
post being produced can be used for agriculture, which is still extensively practiced in Kirtipur. The principles of
composting were very well applied in those days, utilizing what was popularly known as sa:gaa and nau:gaa, termi-
nologies meaning pits for compost and ash respectively. These composting methods, where pits were used for
dumping the waste and allowing it to decompose so that it could be used as fertilizer, were practiced either on a
communal level or on an individual scale. Drains of waste water and storm water leading from the settlement area
to the low land area of the agricultural fields are the best example for sustainable reuse of water.
The ecological landscape was thus maintained by having compact residential settlements which allowed for the
preservation of agricultural land and forests. Urban agriculture was also very widely practiced. The management
of water and waste were sustainable. These are the elements that are of much significance in an ecocity, and these
characteristics need to be conserved in the case of Kirtipur.
Ecocity Elements from a Sociocultural Oriented Perspective
Understanding the cultural identity and the sociocultural practices that connect human beings with nature is partic-
ularly significant in the culture driven societies of the developing countries. A closer look at the way in which the
cities were managed in the ancient and medieval periods in the Kathmandu Valley reveals very interesting facts
about how the sociocultural practices and religious beliefs were inbuilt in the traditions that guided the growth of
the settlements and how the community participation formed an integral part of the management and maintenance
of the urban utilities and services.
Cultural identity has been one of the robust aspects of planning in the traditional settlements of Kathmandu Val-
ley. The sociocultural norms and values have driven the societies since ancient times and have played a key role in
the management not only of the day to day activities but also in managing the cities. Cultural and religious belief
systems have guided the planning of land use and the management of physical and social infrastructure in an influ-
ential manner, as can be seen from examples of traditional settlements of the valley. Cleanliness was considered
next to godliness, hence there were various sociocultural practices that ensured that the surrounding environment
was kept clean. Rivers and water bodies were considered to be holy, and it is still in practice even in modern days to
bring river waters from religious sites and sprinkle it for purification of individuals and homes. Riversides are used
for rituals such as shraddha and tarpan, and cremation ghats are also placed alongside the rivers where the last rites
are performed. The water of the rivers is offered to the dead as one of the last rituals, making it mandatory for the
river water to be pure. Polluting the rivers was considered to be a sinful act. The location of temples in the forest
areas and near the rivers and water bodies bears testimony to the fact that these were considered to be very impor-
tant and needed to be protected. The Jalbinayak temple thus seems to have been located in order to protect the
Jalbinayak forest as well as the river flowing at Chobhar, and this is the case for the other forest areas as well, includ-
ing Champadevi.
The Taudaha Lake is one of the important water bodies existing in Kirtipur, occupying an area of about 4ha with a
depth of about 5–10m and situated at an altitude of 1350m above sea level. Cormorant, ruddy shelduck, serpent-eagle
and common teal are some of the species of migratory birds that are found to frequent the pond, and it is known to
harbor 40 varieties of birds. The lake and its watershed have contributed to maintaining the biodiversity in the area.
Several migratory birds are attracted to this pond in various seasons. There are several folklores and stories associated
with this lake from the ancient times that highlight the significance of this pond in maintaining biodiversity.
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It is believed that the valley was made habitable by Manjushree by draining the water through the Chobar Gorge,
from where the water of the Bagmati flows outside the valley. The Taudaha Lake was created in order to provide a
home for serpents, which are worshipped. Snakes form an integral part of the lentic ecosystem, and play an impor-
tant role in managing the pond by keeping frog, duck and insect populations in check. Snakes make up a significant
proportion of the middle-order predators that keep our natural ecosystems working. Their presence or removal from
an area directly impacts the health of an ecosystem. This highlights the fact that from ancient times people were
aware of the importance of biodiversity and its role in creating a balance in nature.
The water conduits and the surrounding areas were considered to be sacred, and this was portrayed by having
the Hindu and Buddhist deities which were worshipped occasionally during festivals and even daily while
performing the daily chores. Taking a bath in the Dhunge Dharas was considered to be holy. Various festivals
were celebrated so that these public utilities were maintained, such as the Sithi Nakha and Nag Panchami, which
were prudently inbuilt in the sociocultural rituals. Sithi Nakha, celebrated in the month of May, even today is
mainly targeted at repairing and maintaining the public utilities such as ponds, well, drainage ditches and so
on through community participation. Nag Panchami, celebrated by worshipping the snakes, is another festival
that is related to water purification. The snakes have been found to open clogged drains; this was well recognized
by the traditional societies, and hence anything disturbing their wellbeing was considered to bring bad luck to the
people, thus indirectly helping in preserving these species that were promoting the smooth operation of the water
infrastructure.
In the public courtyards where the Dhunge Dharas and hitis were located, tanks for storage of water can be
found, such as Pani Bhakari and jharu, which were meant for providing water to travelers. Some of the water infra-
structure was constructed on behalf of the state and some by individuals and communities, and this was usually
done by the well-to-do to gain religious merit. Apart from the festivals and rituals, the formation of a trust called
the guthi has been an effective tool in managing these sociocultural artifacts, including the management and oper-
ation of religious elements and monuments in the town. Guthis were normally formed for the maintenance and
caretaking of these water infrastructures, and for the sustenance of guthis some fertile lands were allocated so that
the income from these lands could be used for various maintenance activities and for the sustenance of the guthi.
Even today, stone inscriptions with explicit rules and regulations can be found around these water bodies, mention-
ing what can or cannot be done. Thus it is evident that the indigenous water management practices that were in
place were guided by the sociocultural and religious standards that were obediently followed and hence were very
effective.
In the festival called Janai Purnima, which is observed in the month of Kartik, it is interesting to note that the
Newar community celebrates this as a day to feed frogs. Known as Gun Punhi, this day is also taken as a day for
having a special meal accompanied with kwati, a soup prepared with different lentils, signifying the coming of
the winter season. On this day rice and kwati are offered to the frogs in their paddy fields; believing that the
frogs help in bringing rain. This is especially relevant since amphibians are recognized as key bio-indicators
of environmental health due to their sensitivity to water pollution. The rice fields may be particularly important,
since they are often filled with water and the majority of amphibians frequently aggregate near water sources.
Rice fields therefore provide a potential habitat for many low-land amphibians. The frogs are considered to be
important amphibians as crop pest controllers for the farmers, and this seems to have been very well under-
stood by the farming societies, which gave due reverence to the frogs. It is a well-known fact that due to their
high degree of sensitivity frogs are responsive to even slight changes in the environment, and their survival
or decline can give important clues regarding environmental changes. It is also seen that Janai Purnima celebra-
tions are also associated with cleansing activities, whereby a holy dip in the rivers and changing of janai (a holy
thread) are performed even today. This essentially necessitates clean river water. Again, a religious fair takes
place at Gosainkunda, a lake in Rasuwa District, which is an important water reservoir. Celebrations also take
place at Kumbheshwor (Banglamukhi temple) in Patan, which is also believed to be related to Gosainkunda.
An idol of Lord Shiva is placed in the middle of the pond of Kumbheshwor, where people are allowed to swim
on that particular day.
These are some examples of how cultural rituals played a meaningful role in conserving the water heritage and
the ecosystems. Cultural identity has been one of the robust aspects of planning in the traditional settlements of
Kathmandu Valley.
S. Singh
DOI: 10.1002/sd

Discussion
Urbanization has been and will continue to be the major issue of the 21st century. How cities are planned and man-
aged will continue to have a heavy impact on the urban ecosystem. In the natural ecosystem the survival of the spe-
cies called human beings will depend significantly on how the natural ecosystem is maintained at its best, making
sustainable use of natural resources. An urban ecosystem which deviates drastically from the natural ecosystem is
bound to collapse sooner or later. As long as nature with its five basic elements, water, air, fire, earth and sky, is kept
in balance, human beings can thrive on earth, but imbalance in nature might lead to its destruction: as long as there
are trees and greenery there is good oxygen in the air, and if trees cannot survive then neither will the human be-
ings. Hence the importance of the natural ecosystem cannot be ignored while planning urban settlements, and
there has to be a paradigm shift in the way urban entities are perceived in the coming days. The natural ecosystems
and biomes of the earth have been changed very significantly due to the growth of urban settlements and increased
human intervention in exploiting the natural resources. The ecosystem services, especially the supply of fresh air
and water, which is vital for the sustenance of living beings on earth, is thus subjected to negative impacts due to
the loss of biodiversity and changing pattern of the ecosystems, and if this trend continues over a prolonged period
of time the survival of living things and especially human beings would be difficult.
The human settlement planning and the development initiatives thus need to focus on the ecological impacts and
design settlements, considering it as an urban ecosystem which creates harmony with and has the least negative im-
pact on the other ecosystems of the world.
The ecocity is an emerging concept which is gaining momentum in an effort to understand and deal with the
complexities of climatic changes in the modern day. Growing concerns regarding ‘peak oil’ and natural and
manmade disasters on a global scale have led city managers to rethink the planning approaches that have gone
far beyond the human scale and have neglected nature as an integral part of the human systems. There has been
growing concern and criticism of the conventional planning approaches focusing on vehicular movement rather
than people. While it is important to focus on developing standards for different levels of ecocities for future urban
development initiatives, it may be worthwhile to look back and see how our ancestors have managed settlements in
the past. This might lead us to interesting revelations on how human beings can live and allow their future gener-
ations to live in a sustainable manner.
Looking at the ecocity elements, especially the land use and built form and water management from the ecolog-
ical perspective, it can be concluded that these have been very well addressed in the context of Kirtipur. The prudent
land use, saving adequate land for agriculture and forests while having compact residential areas with lavish court-
yards and green spaces, has been an integral part of the traditional settlements in the Kathmandu Valley, including
Kirtipur. The community participation and bonding is seen to flourish within these open spaces, which not only
provided social spaces for the elderly population residing in the area but also reached out to women, children and
youth. The mixed use residential development advocated in the principles of achieving ecocities has already been in
practice since the early ages in Kathmandu Valley, and there have been good examples of cities that were full of life.
These public open spaces with water bodies inbuilt can be used as spillover spaces in the case of disasters such as
earthquakes, which is one of the potential risks in the valley, whereas the water bodies such as ponds can help in mit-
igating fire hazards in pedestrian core areas, where it is difficult for firefighting vehicles to reach. From the social and
cultural perspective, it is seen that sociocultural norms and values have driven societies since ancient times and have
played a key role in the management of not only the day to day activities but also in managing the cities. Cultural and
religious belief systems have guided the planning of land use and the management of physical and social infrastruc-
ture in an influential manner, as can be seen from examples of traditional settlements in the valley.
It is still possible for the traditional settlement pattern to be continued in the case of Kirtipur, with the develop-
ment of compact urban settlements in selected areas such as Nagaun, Chovar and Panga while protecting the sur-
rounding areas for agriculture by means of proper land use. The water infrastructure and the water management are
seen to be very sustainable in Kirtipur; thus the sustainable water practices in not only Kirtipur but also the other
settlements of the valley deserve due consideration and contemplation in future water initiatives. In view of all
the ecocity elements discussed above it can be stated that with adequate policy interventions Kirtipur can be devel-
oped as a good example of an ecocity.
DOI: 10.1002/sd

References
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Engwicht D 1992. Towards an Eco-City: Calming the Trafﬁc, Envirobook: Sydney, Australia.
Howard E 1902. Garden Cities of To-morrow, Swan Sonnenschein: London.
Joss S, Tomozeiu D, Cowley R 2011. Eco-Cities – a Global Survey: Eco-city Proﬁles, University of Westminster: London.
Mcharg Ian 1969. Design with Nature, Doubleday and Co: Garden City, N.Y.
Moffatt S, Suzuki H, Ryoko L 2012. Eco2Cities Guide: Ecological Cities as Economic Cities, World Bank: Washington, DC.
Post-conference Summary 2010. Eco2 2010, Yokohama International Conference on Eco2 Cities, Yokohama, 2010.
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Tai-Chee Wong BY (Ed) 2012. Eco-city Planning: Policies, Practice and Design: Springer.
Tiwari SR 2001. The Ancient Settlements of Kathmandu Valley, Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, Tribhuvan University: Kathmandu.
S. Singh
DOI: 10.1002/sd

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