The document discusses several questions an alien may ask about the purpose of music if it visited Earth. It explores both short-term and long-term effects of music on abilities like spatial skills, mathematics, and verbal skills. While some studies found modest connections between music training and skills in these areas, the evidence is mixed and inconclusive about long-term causal effects of music on non-musical abilities.

1. MUSIC & OTHER ABILITIES
By Paul M. Cohen | Thompson Chapter 10

2. WHY DO WE MAKE MUSIC?
Questions from another planet
If an alien came to
Yale, he/she/it would
ask, “What is the
purpose of music?”

3. WHY DO WE MAKE MUSIC?
Questions from another planet
If an alien came to
Yale, he/she/it would
ask, “What is the
purpose of music?”

4. WHY DO WE MAKE MUSIC?
Questions from another planet
1. Does not communicate specific
ideas
2. It does not attract prey, deter
predators, or heal wounds
3. Bears little resemblance to other
sounds in our lives (with the notable
exception of “Concret PH”)

5. IS MUSIC UNIQUE?
Questions from another planet

6. WHY DO WE MAKE MUSIC?
Questions from another planet
It makes us
smarter

7. WHY DO WE MAKE MUSIC?
Questions from another planet
It makes us
smarter?
Or not?

8. HISTORICAL PRECEDENT

9. HISTORICAL PRECEDENT
Pythagoras

10. HISTORICAL PRECEDENT
?
Pythagoras Paul Bloom

11. HISTORICAL PRECEDENT
Pythagoras

12. HISTORICAL PRECEDENT
Harmonic ratios
• 2:1 = octave
• 3:2 = perfect fifth
Pythagoras

13. HISTORICAL PRECEDENT
Middle ages
• Music taught as a science
• Oxford quadrivium: music, arithmetic,
geometry, and astronomy
• Music studied as physical sound

14. HISTORICAL PRECEDENT
“If I were not a
physicist, I would
probably be a
musician. I often
think in music.”

15. CLAIMS ABOUT MUSIC
Improves…
• Grades
• Self-esteem
• Mathematical ability
• Reading (verbal) skills
• Emotional intelligence
• Overall intelligence (IQ)

16. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Question: Does music
influence nonmusical
aspects of “us”?

17. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Little agreement from
researchers

18. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Most prominent research:
marketing
ability to influence mood
states & actions

19. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
1. Classical music  more wine sales (Areni & Kim,
1993)

20. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
1. Classical music  more wine sales (Areni &
Kim, 1993)
2. Classical music  prevents teens from
congregating outside of stores

21. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
1. Classical music  more wine sales (Areni & Kim,
1993)
2. Classical music  prevents teens from
congregating outside of stores
3. Add music  more persuasive (Schwarz, Bless, & Bohner,
1991; Thompson & Russo, 2004)

22. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
1. Classical music  more wine sales (Areni & Kim,
1993)
2. Classical music  prevents teens from
congregating outside of stores
3. Add music  more persuasive (Schwarz, Bless, & Bohner,
1991; Thompson & Russo, 2004)
4. Slow tempo music  walk slowly (Milliman, 1982)

23. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
(Basic findings that we expect)

24. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
(Basic findings that we expect)
Anything more exciting?

25. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect

26. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect?
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) in Nature
Finding: College students who listened to 10
minutes of a Mozart sonata had
increased spatial abilities for 15-20
minutes than those who sat in silence or listened
to relaxing music

27. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect?
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) in Nature
Problems:
1. Not consistently replicated (Steele, Bass, & Crook, 1999; Steele, Dalla
Bella, et al., 1999)

28. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect?
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) in Nature
Problems:
1. Not consistently replicated (Steele, Bass, & Crook, 1999; Steele, Dalla
Bella, et al., 1999)
2. When replicated, benefits accounted for just by
arousal and mood influences (Husain,Thompson, &
Schellenberg, 2002; Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001)

29. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect?
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) in Nature
Take Away: Listening to music doesn’t prime us  it
just manipulates our mood and arousal (Nantais &
Schellenberg, 1999)

30. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect?
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) in Nature
Take Away: Listening to music doesn’t prime us  it
just manipulates our mood and arousal (Nantais &
Schellenberg, 1999)
Problem: Yerkes-Dodson law says we shouldn’t have
too much arousal before difficult tasks

31. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect?
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) in Nature
Take Away: Listening to music doesn’t prime us  it
just manipulates our mood and arousal

33. SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Mozart Effect?
Concret PH
Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) in Nature
Take Away: Listening to music doesn’t prime us  it
just manipulates our mood and arousal

34. LONG-TERM EFFECTS

35. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Problem: most research uses
correlations, which makes it
impossible to draw causal
inferences

36. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Mathematics

37. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Meta-analysis showed causally… (Vaughn 2000)
1. Students who play music  higher
mathematical achievement

38. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Meta-analysis showed causally… (Vaughn 2000)
1. Students who play music  higher
mathematical achievement
2. Background music during math problems 
small enhancement

39. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Meta-analysis showed causally… (Vaughn 2000)
1. Students who play music  higher
mathematical achievement
2. Background music during math problems 
small enhancement
3. Individuals exposed to music curriculum 
higher mathematical achievement*

40. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Meta-analysis showed causally… (Vaughn 2000)
1. Students who play music  higher
*three of the six achievement no effect of
mathematical studies showed
2. Background music during math problems 
music on mathematical achievement
small enhancement
3. Individuals exposed to music curriculum 
higher mathematical achievement*

41. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Take Away: modest connection between
music and mathematics

42. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Take Away: modest connection between
music and mathematics
Why? Shared cognitive operations common to
both fields

43. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Mathematics
Take Away: modest connection between
music and mathematics
Why? Shared cognitive operations common to
both fields (attention to numbers,
repeating patterns, and ratios)

44. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Spatial-Temporal Ability

45. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Spatial-Temporal Ability

46. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Reasoning?

47. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Reasoning: Music & spatial-temporal abil. invol…
1. Complex patterns perceived and remembered
as “structural units”

48. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Reasoning: Music & spatial-temporal abil. invol…
1. Complex patterns perceived and remembered
as “structural units” (think: Cooper & Meyer)

49. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Reasoning: Music & spatial-temporal abil. invol…
1. Complex patterns perceived and remembered
as “structural units” (think: Cooper & Meyer)
2. Ability to detect, appreciate, and respond to
patterns similar to math, chess, physics, etc.

50. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Reasoning: Music & spatial-temporal abil. invol…
1. Complex patterns perceived and remembered
as “structural units” (think: Cooper & Meyer)
2. Ability to detect, appreciate, and respond to
patterns similar to math, chess, physics, etc.
3. Ability to hold mental images and use models
in applications

51. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Reasoning: Music & spatial-temporal abil. invol…
1. Complex patterns perceived and remembered
as “structural units” (think: Cooper & Meyer)
2. Ability to detect, appreciate, and respond to
patterns similar to math, chess, physics, etc.
3. Ability to hold mental images and use models
in applications (think: melody & variations
on melody)

52. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Reasoning: Music & spatial-temporal abil. invol…
1. Complex patterns perceived and remembered
as “structural units” (think: Cooper & Meyer)
Neurological support (Leng, Shaw, &
2. Ability to detect, appreciate, and respond to
Wright, 1990)
patterns similar to math, chess, physics, etc.
3. Ability to hold mental images and use models
in applications (think: melody & variations
on melody)

53. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Result: Meta-analysis of 15 studies w/ 701 children
(3-12 yrs old)  musical instruction had higher
scores in spatial-temporal tasks (Hetland, 2000)

54. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Result: Meta-analysis of 15 studies w/ 701 children
(3-12 yrs old)  musical instruction had higher
scores in spatial-temporal tasks (Hetland, 2000)
Problems: Modest effect & not consistent (Gromko &
Poorman, 1998; Costa-Giomi, 1999)

55. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Spatial-Temporal Ability
Result: Meta-analysis of 15 studies w/ 701 children
(3-12 yrs old)  musical instruction had higher
scores in spatial-temporal tasks (Hetland, 2000)
Problems: Modest effect & not consistent (Gromko &
Poorman, 1998; Costa-Giomi, 1999)
Take Away: No real conclusion

56. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Verbal Skills

57. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Reasoning?

58. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Reasoning: Music & verbal skills involve…
1. Memory for visual information

59. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Reasoning: Music & verbal skills involve…
1. Memory for visual information
2. Conversion of visual symbols into motor
commands (visio-motor processing)

60. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Reasoning: Music & verbal skills involve…
1. Memory for visual information
2. Conversion of visual symbols into motor
commands (visio-motor processing)
3. Conversion of visual symbols into cognitive
representations

61. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Reasoning: Music & verbal skills involve…
1. Memory for visual information
2. Conversion of visual symbols into motor
commands (visio-motor processing)
3. Conversion of visual symbols into cognitive
representations
4. Auditory system

62. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Results
1. Music skills correlated with reading skills in 4
& 5 year olds (Lamb & Gregory, 1993)

63. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Results
1. Music skills correlated with reading skills in 4
& 5 year olds (Lamb & Gregory, 1993)
2. Verbal memory enhanced in 5-16 year olds with
music training (Ho, Cheung, & Chan, 2003)

64. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Results
1. Music skills correlated with reading skills in 4
& 5 year olds (Lamb & Gregory, 1993)
2. Verbal memory enhanced in 5-16 year olds with
music training (Ho, Cheung, & Chan, 2003)
3. Song lyrics memorized better in musically-
trained people (Kilgour, Jakobson, & Cuddy, 2000)

65. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Musically-trained people
Results
1. Music remember song lyrics skills
skills correlated with reading in 4
& 5 year olds (Lamb & Gregory, 1993) sense
better…this makes
2. Verbal memory enhanced in 5-16 year olds with
music training (Ho, Cheung, & Chan, 2003)
3. Song lyrics memorized better in musically-
trained people (Kilgour, Jakobson, & Cuddy, 2000)

66. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Problems

67. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Problems
1. Musicians have greater phonological awareness
(Anvari, Trainor, Woodside, & Levy, 2002)

68. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Problems
1. Musicians have greater phonological awareness
(Anvari, Trainor, Woodside, & Levy, 2002)
2. Musicians have a better ability to determine the
temporal order of acoustic input (Jakob son, Cuddy, &
Kilgour, 2003)

69. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Problems
1. Musicians have greater phonological awareness
(Anvari, Trainor, Woodside, & Levy, 2002)
2. Musicians have a better ability to determine the
temporal order of acoustic input (Jakob son, Cuddy, &
Kilgour, 2003)
3. Not causal studies

70. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Verbal Skills
Problems
1. Musicians have greater phonological awareness
(Anvari, Trainor, Woodside, & Levy, 2002)
2. Musicians have a better ability to determine the
temporal order of acoustic input (Jakob son, Cuddy, &
Kilgour, 2003)
3. Not causal studies
Take Away: Could be related, but not demonstrated

71. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Emotional Sensitivity &
Speech Prosody

72. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Reasoning?

73. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Reasoning
1. Speech prosody = melody (intonation) &
rhythm (stress and timing)

74. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Reasoning
1. Speech prosody = melody (intonation) &
rhythm (stress and timing)
2. Emotional meaning shares similar structure as
music (timbre, amplitude, pitch, stress, etc.)

75. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Reasoning
1. Speech prosody = melody (intonation) &
rhythm (stress and timing)
2. Emotional meaning shares similar structure as
music (timbre, amplitude, pitch, stress, etc.)
3. Music conveys emotional meaning

76. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Results
1. Music and speech prosody share similar neural paths in
right hemisphere (Zatorre, Evans & Meyer, 1994; Joseph, 1988; Shapiro &
Danly, 1985)

77. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Results
1. Music and speech prosody share similar neural paths in
right hemisphere (Zatorre, Evans & Meyer, 1994; Joseph, 1988; Shapiro &
Danly, 1985)
2. Musical students better than law students at detecting
depressed individuals (Nilsonne & Sundberg, 1985)

78. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Results
1. Music and speech prosody share similar neural paths in
right hemisphere (Zatorre, Evans & Meyer, 1994; Joseph, 1988; Shapiro &
Danly, 1985)
2. Musical students better than law students at detecting
depressed individuals (Nilsonne & Sundberg, 1985)
3. Music students  increased EI [causal] (Thompson., 2004)

79. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Results
1. Music and speech prosody share similar neural paths in
right hemisphere (Zatorre, Evans & Meyer, 1994; Joseph, 1988; Shapiro &
Danly, 1985)
2. Musical students better than law students at detecting
depressed individuals (Nilsonne & Sundberg, 1985)
3. Music students  increased EI [causal] (Thompson., 2004)
4. Piano lessons enhance sensitivity to emotion in vocal
prosody (Thompson, 2004)

80. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
Emotional Sensitivity & Speech Prosody
Take Away: Music students may have superior
abilities in emotional sensitivity and EI, but
no evidence that they actually use it.

81. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
General Intelligence
General Intelligence

82. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
General Intelligence
Reasoning? Maybe music students are
just “smarter”

83. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
General Intelligence
Lots of studies, both correlational
and causal

84. LONG-TERM EFFECTS
General Intelligence
Take Away: Kinda-sorta, maybe,
maybe not
(Morrison, 1994; Schellenberg, 2004; Costa-Giomi, 1999; Wolfe, 1997)

85. FINAL VERDICT?
A Mixed Bag
Musical training allows
musicians to develop
other subskills that help
them in other areas of life.
(Plus, it can’t hurt.)