This document provides a literature review on network structures and their application in terrorist organizations. It discusses three key areas: 1) How network structures improve organizational resilience by allowing flexibility and decentralization; 2) How knowledge is transferred through networks via communication channels; 3) How networks foster innovation by enabling generation of new strategies. The document reviews theories on how networks differ from hierarchies and analyzes attributes like resilience, knowledge transfer, and innovation in both legitimate and illegitimate network organizations. It aims to understand how Al Qaeda employs network structures and what impact this has on the terrorist group.

1. Contents
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................1
Literature Review.......................................................................................................................1
Structure and Resilience ........................................................................................................5
Internal Connections and Knowledge Transfer....................................................................10
Innovation ............................................................................................................................20
Summary ..............................................................................................................................25
Methodology............................................................................................................................32
Findings & Discussion...............................................................................................................45
Structure & Resilience..........................................................................................................45
Small-scale........................................................................................................................45
Large Scale........................................................................................................................47
Structural Resilience.........................................................................................................50
Summary...........................................................................................................................51
Knowledge Transfer & Communication...............................................................................53
Jihad’s Summer Camps.....................................................................................................53
Correspondence Course Ideology ....................................................................................55
Ways and Means: How to Communicate.........................................................................57
Summary...........................................................................................................................60
Innovation & Strategy ..........................................................................................................62
Development of new strategies .......................................................................................62
Insurgents or Statesmen?.................................................................................................64
Straight from the Headlines .............................................................................................66
Summary...........................................................................................................................68
Summary ..............................................................................................................................70
Conclusion................................................................................................................................73
Material Cited ..........................................................................................................................77

2. 1 | P a g e
Introduction
This dissertation explores how network structures are employed by terrorist groups,
specifically considering whether the operating environment and illegitimate nature of the
groups affects how network theory is put into practice. This is considered via a case study
analysis of the Al Qaeda terrorist organisation, particularly through their training manuals
and internal communications, to examine the theory and practice underlying their
organisational structure. This will allow consideration of the question: How are network
structures employed by Al Qaeda and what impact does this have on their organisation?
From this, the intention is to examine how the network structure is employed in terrorist
organisations, and whether this can provide insights to benefit legitimate organisations
using network structures.
Literature Review
Networks, as considered in this dissertation, are structures that consist of autonomous or
semi-autonomous nodes, collaborating for common purpose (Podolny & Page, 1998). The
structure of the network is a product of the connections between individual nodes. Network
structures can take a range of forms; Figure 1 demonstrates two key examples: the ‘All-
channel’ network is a dense network, with each node connected to many others; the
second, the ‘Hub-spoke’spill-over model, is a loose network with few connections between
individual nodes. If the needs of the network change, rather than adjusting the nodes
themselves, the connections and relationships between different nodes can be adjusted to

3. 2 | P a g e
better suit the strategic goal.
Because of the relative autonomy of individual nodes, networks tend towards a flat
structure, with collective responsibility replacing a source of hierarchical authority (Comas,
et al., 2014).
It has been observed that modern terrorist organisations have adopted network structures;.
The modern network structure tends towards decentralised, flat systems with semi-
autonomous nodes collaborating for common purpose (Zanini & Edwards, 2001). This differs
from the traditional model (pre-9/11) of terrorist organisations, a hierarchical and
bureaucratic structure, typified by organisations such as the Taliban (Comras, 2007). The
term for network structures, employed covertly for illegitimate purposes is ‘dark network’
(Raab & Milward, 2003); this term shall be used in this dissertation to discuss the pertinent
differences between dark networks and legitimate networks. It particularly emphasises that
dark networks operate effectively because they are covert.
This review shall consider three key ways in which network structures have impacted
terrorist organisations and the debate in current literature regarding these areas.
Figure 1: Network Structures – Adapted from (Kilberg, 2012)

4. 3 | P a g e
The first attribute that will be considered is resilience. Resilience can refer to an
organisation’s ability to withstand exogenous shocks, or to adapt to changing circumstances
successfully. This also consists of a terrorist organisation’s ability to withstand the deliberate
efforts of security services to disrupt and destroy elements of terrorist networks. This
analysis will consider both the structure and nature of networks and the impact that this has
on organisational resilience, both against exogenous forces and deliberate attacks.
The second attribute to be considered is knowledge transfer. The literature review will
specifically consider how network structures facilitate the acquisition, processing and
distribution of knowledge within an organisation. The literature considered includes
analyses of both legitimate and illegitimate networks and the impact that different
characteristics of networks can have on knowledge transfer within organisations.
Knowledge transfer contributes to the operational function of network organisations as the
transfer of knowledge includes both organisational knowledge and collaborative effort.
The final attribute to be considered is innovation. Innovation, as it shall be considered here,
is the generation of novel means to overcome existing threats or problems and capitalise on
available opportunities. Again, the studies to be considered include both legitimate and
illegitimate organisations and theories and examples of how network structures have
impacted innovation within organisations.
By considering these three attributes, a broad view is developed of the role of network
structures in an organisation’s operations. This broad view in turn will allow for the
consideration of the unique context of network structures as applied to terrorist
organisations.