More Related Content
Viewers also liked
Similar to Dissertation Defense
Similar to Dissertation Defense (20)
Dissertation Defense
- 1. Liberated Pixels: Alternative Narratives for Lighting Future Cities July 16, 2010, 10 am PhD Dissertation Defense Susanne Seitinger Smart Cities Group, MIT Media Lab susannes@mit.edu 1
- 2. 2
- 3. …lights tend to abolish all sense of real space… (Eisenstein 1942, 1975, p. 98) 3
- 4. …‘real picture-making’… (Stieglitz 1880s in Neumann 2002, p. 69) Erwin Blumenfeld1946, reprinted 2008, City Lights, C-type print, 40x30 cm 4
- 5. 5 In other words, emissive and reflected light shapes the character of urban environments. What technical, aesthetic and social potentials will programmable and dynamic lighting and display elements unlock in urban environments?
- 6. LEDs + Embedded Processing 6
- 7. > 90 Lumens/Watt, Philips Colorkinetics L-Prize Entry 7 How many lumens per watt?
- 8. How much meaning per pixel? 8 lightbulb I/O bulb liberated pixels LEDs solar cells custom form factors distributed ubiquitous urban Adapted from I/O Bulb and Luminous Room (Underkoffler & Ishii 1999)
- 9. Louis XIV Medallion commemorating the introduction of fixed street lighting in Paris (Schivelbusch 1988, 1995, p. 86) 9
- 10. Defining a sociomaterial analytical perspective: joint and enmeshed importance of material affordances and social practices 10
- 11. Visions for mobile street lighting, Lyon workshop (Philips 2007, p. 37) 11
- 12. The effects are created through the particular possibilities provided by an artful integration of persons, objects, spaces, fantasies, remembered experiences, and technologies to evoke and explore an emblematically human encounter but not to replicate it. (Suchman 2007, pp. 280-281) 12
- 13. 0) Problem Statement A Brief Sociomaterial History of Light in the City Three Design Explorations Augmented Street Light Liberated Pixels Light Bodies Conclusions and Vision for the Future 13 Presentation Outline
- 14. 1 very > a brief history of light in the city 14
- 15. Private Lighting of Public Space Public Lighting of Public Space (large-scale infrastructure, networks) (small-scale, flexible, individualized) (Diagram by Anne Beamish, co-instructor, MAS.961 World of Night) 15
- 16. Various types of lanterns (O’Dea 1958, Fig. 21) Night watchman, 1820 (New York Public Library ID#1168473) 16
- 17. Quotation from a Medieval city law in Paris: Anyone who is found at an unusual hour in an unusual place without a light must submit to the strictest investigation. (Schivelbusch 1988, 1995, p. 82) During the 16th century some city authorities required citizens to hang a lantern under the level of the first floor window sills. 17
- 18. Parisian reverbere (=reflector lantern), mid-18th century (Schivelbusch 1988, 1995, p. 92) 18
- 19. Lantern smashing in Vienna 1848 (Schivelbusch 1988, 1995, p. 111) 19
- 20. Holborn viaduct subways, London (Otter 2008, p. 217) 20
- 21. 21 Daniel Chester French, Floodlighting experiments by General Electric, mid-1920s (Neumann 2002, p. 57)
- 22. “The Powers of Evil are Fleeing before the Light of Civilization,” (Electrical Review and Western Electrician 56, May 21, 1910, p. 1053, in Jakle 2001) 22
- 24. To avoid shadows which might offer concealment
- 25. To deter an intruder by creating an environment of potential exposure23
- 26. Joseph Deleuil, arc lighting experiment using Foucault type lamp. Place de la Concorde, Paris, 1844 (Neumann 2002, p. 9) 24
- 27. The aim of public lighting in the 1880s was to make the streets so bright that one could read a newspaper and see the flies on the walls of houses. (Schivelbusch 1988, 1995, p. 118) American lighting tower, San Jose, CA, 1883 (Schivelbusch 1988, 1995, p.125) 25
- 28. The year after Broadway was electrified in 1880, more lights were commissioned for the avenue. Among them were startling 160-foot-tall fixtures known as “sun towers.” (Tell 2007, p. 27) 26
- 29. Great White Way, Atlanta, Georgia, ca. 1916, General Electric (Nye 1990, p. 56, Fig. 2.7) 27
- 30. (Jakle 2001, p. 214) Times Square, Morgan Stanley Building (Venturi & Scott-Brown 2004) 28
- 31. Imitation sunset, San Francisco Fair, 1915, General Electric. (Nye 1990, p. 65) 29
- 32. Building infrastructures of “imageability” Lighting zones by category of street in a hypothetical city, 1930 (Lynch 1960; Jakle 2001, p. 104) 30
- 34. from the artificial sun to the pixilated landscape
- 35. “imageability” and cyclical nature of the nighttime city (Lynch 1960, 1972) 31
- 36. 2 framing the design explorations
- 37. 33 Light tower Ross Lovegrove, Solar Street lights Graffiti Research Labs, Throwies
- 38. 34 Blinkenlights, Haus des Lehrers, Berlin, Germany Light-bulb signage
- 39. 35 Art+Com, BMW Museum, Munich, Germany control UsmanHaque, Burble Meejin Yoon, White Noise White Light, Athens, Greece Rafael Lozano-Hemmer, Body Movies
- 40. 36 Leo Villareal, Supercluster, Gering & Lopez Gallery, New York
- 41. 37 Rafael Lozano-Hemmer, Voz Alta Graffiti Research Labs, Laser Tag Maria Sester, Project Access
- 42. 38 Urban Pixels Light Bodies Augmented Street Light
- 43. 2a augmented reality street light
- 44. LED street lights shown at Lightfair2009 40
- 45. Solar Flower Petal Lamps Sustainable City Lights, Philips 41
- 46. video footage of the lamp 42
- 50. two RC servos in custom lamp fixture to enable motion
- 53. color: color space on the ground revealed by the street light
- 54. motion: evocative, surprising, “limelight”
- 55. sensing: performed reasonably well, additional iterations necessary for improved “tracking” (Sester 2006, Project ACCESS)44
- 58. connection to personal, hand-held devices
- 59. longer term deployment in real-worldWayne Higgins, Shadow Playgrounds, MAS.961 World of Night, December 2009
- 60. 2b urban pixels 46
- 61. 47
- 63. On-board Power, Rechargeable 49
- 66. Responsive 52
- 67. 53
- 70. custom protocol for pattern type and unit number
- 72. centralized control from master unit
- 75. GSM modem enabling SMS communication
- 76. laptop as hub between GSM and master unit
- 78. 57 (Urban Pixel photographs by Matthew Karau, Richard Wilson)
- 79. 58
- 80. 59
- 81. 60
- 82. 61
- 83. transitioning from dusk to nighttime 62
- 84. direct interaction with a flashlight 63
- 85. Seitinger, S., Perry, D. S., and Mitchell, W. J. (2009). Urban pixels: painting the city with light. In Proceedings of the 27th international Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Boston, MA, USA, April 04 - 09, 2009). CHI ‘09. ACM, New York, NY, 839-848. 64
- 87. more extensive user tests
- 88. multiple contexts from mundane, functional (wayfinding) to artistic, open-ended(Image by Franco Vairani)
- 89. 2c Lantern festival, Seoul, Korea (Photograph by David Lee) light bodies
- 90. 67
- 91. 68
- 92. handle, attachment recyclable plastic diffuser wireless communications RGBA LEDs rechargeable Li-Ion batteries mobile phone operating system 69
- 94. between performance and everyday life
- 95. between stage lighting and responsive, sensor-based system
- 96. shifting roles of observer and observed
- 97. impact of light on people’s perception of the environment70
- 99. lithium-polymer battery charging circuit
- 100. capability to include XBee® wireless modules
- 102. 3.7V 2,600 mAh lithium-ion rechargeable 1850 cellwww.funnel.cc 71
- 104. CREE 120° wide-angle, super-bright
- 106. high-pass (above 3kHz) filter
- 107. low-pass (below 100Hz) filter
- 109. bevelled edges (smooth and good tactile affordances)
- 110. two layers of diffusion (mylar and stuffing material)72
- 111. 73
- 113. red, amber, and white LEDs
- 116. interaction via vibration sensor
- 117. adaptive thresholds for high-pass, low-pass filters
- 118. customized ambient candle mode (in absence of users)74
- 119. Color Space 75 (Diagram by Daniel Taub)
- 120. 76
- 121. klang.körper 77
- 123. community building project with amateur dancers
- 124. two dance companies: one youth group, one of all ages (4-60)
- 125. Brahms 1. Symphony 1st and 4th movements
- 126. Tchaikovsky Romeo and Juliet Overture
- 127. “audio candle” mode used throughout
- 128. colours adapted to the dancers’ costumes(Photographs by TU Wien) 78
- 129. 79
- 130. (Photograph by TU Wien) 80
- 131. Play me, I’m Yours! 81
- 133. 30 “street pianos” placed around London
- 134. selected one square in London
- 135. contrast with the orchestral, choreographed performance
- 136. very open-ended
- 137. situated in urban space
- 138. used slightly revised version of software v1(Photograph by Abigail Sellen) 82
- 139. Electrovision 83
- 141. 3 large display screens around a seating area
- 142. ideal lighting conditions for light bodies
- 143. lights distributed on tables throughout the bar
- 144. tested v2 of the software
- 145. performance setting, but still informal
- 146. curious to see how it would extend the live VJ and DJ event84
- 148. 86
- 149. 87
- 150. 88
- 152. objects to hold and carry easily
- 153. things to connect lights to clothing, bags, bicycles89
- 155. work more with the transitions from observer to observed
- 156. move beyond registering the auditory environment:capture the communicative possibilities use the lights as lenses onto the environment 90
- 158. pairs of devices that trigger each other
- 160. 93 What technical, aesthetic and social potentials will programmable and dynamic lighting and display elements unlock in urban environments? social contexts built and natural environment social aesthetic communicative dynamic ubiquity mobile self-organizing “auto-active” (Sauter 2010) hand-held addressable distributed evocative infrastructure networked responsive technical autonomous programmability processing power
- 161. 94 Augmented Street Light
- 162. 95 Urban Pixels
- 163. 96 Light Bodies
- 165. work at the scale of the city
- 167. program for “auto-activity” (Sauter 2010)
- 169. enable the appropriation of lighting and display systems
- 171. increased awareness for the materiality of sensor networks
- 175. link personal devices and collective infrastructures
- 176. create place through display and illumination 100
- 177. Acknowledgements Aaron Solle Aaron Zinman Adam Boulanger Alex Taylor Alexis SanalAmitZoranAmnaCarreiro Andres Sevtsuk Angela Chang Anne Beamish AzraAksamijaBill Mitchell Bill Porter Bruce Deffenbaugh CatiVaucelle Cynthia Wilkes Dan Taub Danny Perry David Lee Deb Widener Dennis Frenchman Diana Young DietmarOffenhuber Douglas Yule Dream Team PhD Class Eden Court Theater, Inverness, Scotland Edith Ackermann Ellen Yi Chen Eric Rosenbaum Felice Gardner Franco Vairani Francisca Rojas Frank Moss Greg Tucker Highlands and Islands Enterprise Jay Silver Jean-BaptisteLabrune Jeannie Finks Jim Anderson Jim Salem Joe Paradiso John Arroyo John DeMonchaux John DiFrancesco John Ferguson Jonathan Williams JoostBonsen Joshua Robles Karen Brennan Karin & Heinz SeitingerKatjaSchechtner Kelly Dobson Kent Larson Kevin Davis Kevin Dowling Keywon Chung Larry Vale Laura Dingwall Laura Noren Linda Peterson Lira Nikolovska Lisa Lieberson Lucy SuchmanMark FeldmeierMark Rea Matthew Karau Michael JoroffMIT Council for the Arts MitchelResnickNadya Peek OrkanTelhanPattie MaesPaula Aguilera Peter Schmitt Peter TorpeyRab Gordon Richard Sennett Richard Wilson SajidSadi Sandy Isenstadt Sari Rothrock Smart Cities Group Sponsor Consortia Stephanie Anderson Stephanie Gayle Tad Hirsch Taya Leary Tom Lutz Victoria Lee Wayne Higgins Wanda Orlikowski Will Glesnes 101
- 178. To Bill – thank you! 102
- 179. Questions? (Gilchrist 1992) 103
- 180. 104
- 181. 105 auto-active ubiquitous location specific programmable
- 182. Design Explorations
- 183. 107
- 184. Design Explorations
- 185. conceptual point #1 relating display and illumination …a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence. M. McLuhan, Understanding the Media, 1964: p.8 quoted in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_medium_is_the_message 109
- 186. Rafael Lozano-Hemmer, "Body Movies" (2002). Linz, Austria. Photo by Antimodular Research. http://www.lozano-hemmer.com/
- 187. Pierre Huyghe, Les Grands Ensembles (1994-2001), video installation, 7:51mins 111
- 188. Usman Haque The Burble London (and Singapore) http://www.haque.co.uk/burblelondon.php Ambient Displays and Sensing SkyEarand Burble, UsmanHqque
- 189. Ambient Displays Herzog & de MeuronArchitects, Allianzarena, Munich, Germany, 2005
- 190. Graffiti Research Lab, Laser Tag on a building façade
- 191. “Auto-Active” Spaces BMW Design Museum Joachim Sauter, Art + Com
- 192. Ross Lovegrove, Solar Tree 116
- 194. people could control the direction and brightness of spotlights across the cityscape by speaking into a megaphone
- 195. Rafael Lozano-Hemmer
- 196. Mexico City, MexicoLozano-Hemmer, R. Voz Alta, Mexico City, Mexico, 2008, www.lozano-hemmer.com/english/projects/vozalta.htm
- 198. spotlight functions as personal “lime-light”
- 199. pool of light follows tracks people
- 200. light moves with people
- 201. Maria SesterSester, M. Access Project, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2002, http://www.accessproject.net/archive.html
- 202. Blinkenlights installation on the Haus des Lehrers in Berlin, Germany 119
- 203. Graffiti Research Lab, Tram with Throwies 120
- 204. Meejin Yoon, White Noise White Light, Athens, Greece, 2004 121
- 205. Leo Villareal, Supercluster, 2003, Image courtesy of Gering & Lopez Gallery, New York 122
Editor's Notes
- May-be moving to a street level view?Strategically deploying light shapes our impressions of a landscape, especially at nighttime, and allows us to do at least two things: First, we can reinterpret urban space using light. Unlike during the daytime when many physical relationships remain fixed, light makes it possible to edit the nighttime landscape. early on photographers realized that they could re-interpret well known urban spaces at night using light strategically For example, Stieglitz writes in the late 1890s: “Such imperfections (like halations) introduced (…) life into nighttime images and recreated what the photographer saw as he exposed the image. This was ‘real picture-making,’ as opposed to a mere topographical view.” (Neumann, D. Architecture of the Night: The Illuminated Building. Presetel, Munich, New York, 2002, p.69)Second, we can use animation, i.e. moving light to impact our sense of spatial relationships.The film maker Eisenstein describes this effect in the following way: “All sense of perspective and of realistic depth is washed away by a nocturnal sea of electric advertising. Far and near, small (in the foreground) and large (in the background), soaring aloft and dying away (…) these lights tend to abolish all sense of real space, finally melting into a single plane of colored light points and neon lines moving over a surface of black velvet sky.” (Eisenstein, S. M. The Film Sense. Jay Leyda, transl. and ed. Harvest Book, Harcourt, Brace & World, New York, 1942, 1975., p. 98)The following examples demonstrate how these abstract, “painterly” strategies can be translated into specific technological interventions.
- All sense of perspective and of realistic depth is washed away by a nocturnal sea of electric advertising. Far and near, small (in the foreground) and large (in the background), soaring aloft and dying away (…) these lights tend to abolish all sense of real space, finally melting into a single plane of colored light points and neon lines moving over a surface of black velvet sky. (Eisenstein 1942, 1975: p. 98)
- Erwin Blumenfeld (1897-1969), City Lights (1946, 2008),C-type print, 40x30 cm.Stieglitz writes in the late 1890s:Such imperfections (like halations) introduced (…) life into nighttime images and recreated what the photographer saw as he exposed the image. This was ‘real picture-making,’ as opposed to a mere topographical view.(Neumann, 2002, p. 69)Exciting problem space for painterly approaches to urban display and information systems that fulfill the design criteria listed earlier:flexible placementautonomous powerunboundedvariable resolutionresponsiveThe temporary installation on the theater façade in Scotland begins to demonstrate some of these criteria in action:-- The temporary light installation was spontaneously placed on a theater façade without support infrastructure. The network of pixels enhanced the building leaving no traces behind after its deployment. -- The interactions between changing natural conditions and the lighting units enriched the preprogrammed display patterns significantly. Together, the natural and programmed patterns demonstrated the merits of a painterly approach to deploying points of light in an urban scene that could be explored further. -- The system supports user-deployment as well as larger-scale deployments for many different kinds of temporary applications. -- Visitors to the theater enjoyed interacting with the system and the visual effect it had on the theater. Many more aesthetic and interactional possibilities remain to be explored. More experimentation is required to explore the full potential of these “liberated” infrastructures that blur the boundary between urban displays, ambient information systems and traditional infrastructures such as urban street-lighting, but I hope I’ve convinced you of the exciting potential that this direction proposes.
- Schubert 2006, www.howstuffworks.com/led.htm, http://ronnie05.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/inteldemystifying1.jpg LED = diode semiconducting material, doped with specific impurities to create a junction between two electrodes current only flows in one direction – from the p-side (anode +) to the n-side (cathode -) there is a gap between the two sides when you switch it on – the electroncs and holes (charge-carriers) start moving when they meet their energy level drops and photons are emittedPhysicsLike a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back in to the material at the material/air surface interface. Therefore Light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development.They are illuminated solely by the movement of electrons in a semiconductor material, and they last just as long as a standard transistor. What is a Diode?Did You Know?A diode is the simplest sort of semiconductor device. Broadly speaking, a semiconductor is a material with a varying ability to conduct electrical current. Most semiconductors are made of a poor conductor that has had impurities (atoms of another material) added to it. The process of adding impurities is called doping. In the case of LEDs, the conductor material is typically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs). In pure aluminum-gallium-arsenide, all of the atoms bond perfectly to their neighbors, leaving no free electrons (negatively-charged particles) to conduct electric current. In doped material, additional atoms change the balance, either adding free electrons or creating holes where electrons can go. Either of these additions make the material more conductive. A semiconductor with extra electrons is called N-type material, since it has extra negatively-charged particles. In N-type material, free electrons move from a negatively-charged area to a positively charged area. A semiconductor with extra holes is called P-type material, since it effectively has extra positively-charged particles. Electrons can jump from hole to hole, moving from a negatively-charged area to a positively-charged area. As a result, the holes themselves appear to move from a positively-charged area to a negatively-charged area. A diode comprises a section of N-type material bonded to a section of P-type material, with electrodes on each end. This arrangement conducts electricity in only one direction. When no voltage is applied to the diode, electrons from the N-type material fill holes from the P-type material along the junction between the layers, forming a depletion zone. In a depletion zone, the semiconductor material is returned to its original insulating state -- all of the holes are filled, so there are no free electrons or empty spaces for electrons, and charge can't flow. At the junction, free electrons from the N-type material fill holes from the P-type material. This creates an insulating layer in the middle of the diode called the depletion zone.To get rid of the depletion zone, you have to get electrons moving from the N-type area to the P-type area and holes moving in the reverse direction. To do this, you connect the N-type side of the diode to the negative end of a circuit and the P-type side to the positive end. The free electrons in the N-type material are repelled by the negative electrode and drawn to the positive electrode. The holes in the P-type material move the other way. When the voltage difference between the electrodes is high enough, the electrons in the depletion zone are boosted out of their holes and begin moving freely again. The depletion zone disappears, and charge moves across the diode. When the negative end of the circuit is hooked up to the N-type layer and the positive end is hooked up to P-type layer, electrons and holes start moving and the depletion zone disappears.If you try to run current the other way, with the P-type side connected to the negative end of the circuit and the N-type side connected to the positive end, current will not flow. The negative electrons in the N-type material are attracted to the positive electrode. The positive holes in the P-type material are attracted to the negative electrode. No current flows across the junction because the holes and the electrons are each moving in the wrong direction. The depletion zone increases. (See How Semiconductors Work for more information on the entire process.) When the positive end of the circuit is hooked up to the N-type layer and the negative end is hooked up to the P-type layer, free electrons collect on one end of the diode and holes collect on the other. The depletion zone gets bigger.The interaction between electrons and holes in this setup has an interesting side effect -- it generates light! In the next section, we'll find out exactly why this is. How Can a Diode Produce Light?Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many small particle-like packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These particles, called photons, are the most basic units of light. Photons are released as a result of moving electrons. In an atom, electrons move in orbitals around the nucleus. Electrons in different orbitals have different amounts of energy. Generally speaking, electrons with greater energy move in orbitals farther away from the nucleus. For an electron to jump from a lower orbital to a higher orbital, something has to boost its energy level. Conversely, an electron releases energy when it drops from a higher orbital to a lower one. This energy is released in the form of a photon. A greater energy drop releases a higher-energy photon, which is characterized by a higher frequency. (Check out How Light Works for a full explanation.) As we saw in the last section, free electrons moving across a diode can fall into empty holes from the P-type layer. This involves a drop from the conduction band to a lower orbital, so the electrons release energy in the form of photons. This happens in any diode, but you can only see the photons when the diode is composed of certain material. The atoms in a standard silicon diode, for example, are arranged in such a way that the electron drops a relatively short distance. As a result, the photon's frequency is so low that it is invisible to the human eye -- it is in the infrared portion of the light spectrum. This isn't necessarily a bad thing, of course: Infrared LEDs are ideal for remote controls, among other things. Visible light-emitting diodes (VLEDs), such as the ones that light up numbers in a digital clock, are made of materials characterized by a wider gap between the conduction band and the lower orbitals. The size of the gap determines the frequency of the photon -- in other words, it determines the color of the light. In the next section we'll look at the advantages of LEDs.LED AdvantagesWhile all diodes release light, most don't do it very effectively. In an ordinary diode, the semiconductor material itself ends up absorbing a lot of the light energy. LEDs are specially constructed to release a large number of photons outward. Additionally, they are housed in a plastic bulb that concentrates the light in a particular direction. As you can see in the diagram, most of the light from the diode bounces off the sides of the bulb, traveling on through the rounded end. LEDs have several advantages over conventional incandescent lamps. For one thing, they don't have a filament that will burn out, so they last much longer. Additionally, their small plastic bulb makes them a lot more durable. They also fit more easily into modern electronic circuits. But the main advantage is efficiency. In conventional incandescent bulbs, the light-production process involves generating a lot of heat (the filament must be warmed). This is completely wasted energy, unless you're using the lamp as a heater, because a huge portion of the available electricity isn't going toward producing visible light. LEDs generate very little heat, relatively speaking. A much higher percentage of the electrical power is going directly to generating light, which cuts down on the electricity demands considerably. Up until recently, LEDs were too expensive to use for most lighting applications because they're built around advanced semiconductor material. The price of semiconductor devices has plummeted over the past decade, however, making LEDs a more cost-effective lighting option for a wide range of situations. While they may be more expensive than incandescent lights up front, their lower cost in the long run can make them a better buy. In the future, they will play an even bigger role in the world of technology. For more information on LEDs and other semiconductor devices, check out the links in the next section.
- Most municipalities only focus on crude levels of bright lighting…….Industry objectives, cities also…..Required metrics for the 60-Watt incandescent LED replacement, as laid out by DOE, include:Efficacy of more than 90 lumens per watt, which exceeds the efficiency of all incandescent and most compact fluorescent sources today, which range from 10 to 60 lumens per wattEnergy consumption of less than 10 watts as compared to a 60 Watt incandescent. Output of more than 900 lumens, equivalent to a 60 Watt incandescent light bulb Lifetime of more than 25,000 hours, which is 25X greater than a typical incandescent bulbColor Rendering Index (CRI) greater than 90, which is a high measure of lighting quality Color Temperature between 2700 – 3000 Kelvin, which is "warm" white light comparable to that of incandescent sources
- Underkoffler, J., Ishii, H. (1997-1999). I/O Bulb and Luminous Room. http://tangible.media.mit.edu/projects/luminousroom/, Underkoffler, J. (1999). The I/O bulb and the luminous room. MIT Media Laboratory PhD Dissertation.Required metrics for the 60-Watt incandescent LED replacement, as laid out by DOE, include:Efficacy of more than 90 lumens per watt, which exceeds the efficiency of all incandescent and most compact fluorescent sources today, which range from 10 to 60 lumens per wattEnergy consumption of less than 10 watts as compared to a 60 Watt incandescent. Output of more than 900 lumens, equivalent to a 60 Watt incandescent light bulb Lifetime of more than 25,000 hours, which is 25X greater than a typical incandescent bulbColor Rendering Index (CRI) greater than 90, which is a high measure of lighting quality Color Temperature between 2700 – 3000 Kelvin, which is "warm" white light comparable to that of incandescent sourcesLiberated PixelsAutonomous, self-organizing…programmable : LPs can be integrated with sensing devices that connect the behavior of displays and lights to the activities of people and ambient, environmental information.addressable: LPs can be programmed from a distance via wired and wireless communications networks.mobile: LPs can be placed on any surface and in any location in the city thus enabling a display surface of variable resolution in three dimensions.
- SociomaterialismThe emphasis is on proposing alternative usage scenarios in urban environments that will expand the application space and ways of thinking about these emergent technologies that do not replicate existing patterns of light and display in the city. joint and enmeshed importance of material affordances and social practices.enacted experiences among people, objects and spaces: “The effects are created through the particular possibilities provided by an artful integration of persons, objects, spaces, fantasies, remembered experiences, and technologies to evoke and explore an emblematically human encounter but not to replicate it” (Suchman, 2007, pp. 280-281).
- SociomaterialismThe emphasis is on proposing alternative usage scenarios in urban environments that will expand the application space and ways of thinking about these emergent technologies that do not replicate existing patterns of light and display in the city. joint and enmeshed importance of material affordances and social practices.enacted experiences among people, objects and spaces: “The effects are created through the particular possibilities provided by an artful integration of persons, objects, spaces, fantasies, remembered experiences, and technologies to evoke and explore an emblematically human encounter but not to replicate it” (Suchman, 2007, pp. 280-281).
- SociomaterialismThe emphasis is on proposing alternative usage scenarios in urban environments that will expand the application space and ways of thinking about these emergent technologies that do not replicate existing patterns of light and display in the city. joint and enmeshed importance of material affordances and social practices.enacted experiences among people, objects and spaces: “The effects are created through the particular possibilities provided by an artful integration of persons, objects, spaces, fantasies, remembered experiences, and technologies to evoke and explore an emblematically human encounter but not to replicate it” (Suchman, 2007, pp. 280-281).
- SociomaterialismThe emphasis is on proposing alternative usage scenarios in urban environments that will expand the application space and ways of thinking about these emergent technologies that do not replicate existing patterns of light and display in the city. joint and enmeshed importance of material affordances and social practices.enacted experiences among people, objects and spaces: “The effects are created through the particular possibilities provided by an artful integration of persons, objects, spaces, fantasies, remembered experiences, and technologies to evoke and explore an emblematically human encounter but not to replicate it” (Suchman, 2007, pp. 280-281).
- Short recap of urban lighting – one possible history based on the historian Wolfgang Schivelbusch..... Light used to be a communicative, mobile infrastructure – we associate these adjectives with contemporary devices – but in a sense the lantern fulfilled the same functions communication signalling you presence in a space (though you had to be in the same space)
- The reflector lantern, still an oil lamp, but much brighter made it possible to increase the amount of light greatly
- - As lighting became increasingly associated with the state and surveillance or control.......fixed lanterns increasingly became a target during 19th century riots
- From the artificial sun to the pixilated landscape
- The quality that we call beauty, however, must always grow from the realities of life, and our ancestors, forced to live in dark rooms, presently came to discover beauty in shadows, ultimately to guide shadows towards beauty’s ends. And so it has come to be that the beauty of a Japanese room depends on a variation of shadows, heavy shadows against light shadows-it has nothing else.(Tanizaki, 1977, p. 18)
- The Outdoor Lighting Guide differentiates between “lighting to deter” and “lighting to reveal” fulfilling three basic principles:To provide illumination to assist the detection of intrudersTo avoid shadows which might offer concealmentTo deter an intruder by creating an environment of potential exposure. (List from The Outdoor Lighting Guide, 2005, pp. 258-265)In public spaces, regular street lighting must accomplish some of these goals. Perception of safety plays a central role in making people feel comfortable:An important feature of security lighting is to make things appear to be bright. This does not necessarily mean that large quantities of light have to be provided. It is often possible to simply direct light towards the wall of a building so that the intruder will be seen either as a lit figure or as a silhouette against the bright building depending on which side of the lighting fittings he is standing.(emphasis mine, The Outdoor Lighting Guide 2005: p.261)
- From the artificial sun to the pixilated landscape“The light, which flooded a large area, was so strong that ladies opened up their umbrellas – not as a tribute to the inventors, but in order to protect themselves from the rays of this mysterious new sun” (1883, La LumiereElectricque)1870 arc lighting gradually moved out of the lab into public usesHumphry Davy, figured out that “light produced by a discharge of electric current between carbon electrodes”“The light, which flooded a large area, was so strong that ladies opened up their umbrellas – not as a tribute to the inventors, but in order to protect themselves from the rays of this mysterious new sun’ (1883, newspaper report)In the beginning, arc lights needed batteries, and they could not be turned on an off to different degreesThat’s what led to Edison light bulb…Difficult transition to electric lighting, mimicked many aspects of the gaslight to come up with the lights bulb…
- The year after Broadway was electrified in 1880, more lights were commissioned for the avenue. Among them were startling 160-foot-tall fixtures known as “sun towers.” The bright arc lights on the towers—seen here near the junction of Fifth Avenue and Broadway— were immediately popular with New Yorkers. (Tell 2007 p. 27)
- Imageability of the nighttime city…A panel sign with rear-lit studded lettering. Storefronts until the 1920s. From George How, “Modern Business-Getting Methods,” Electrical Age 37 (July 1906): 6.
- Infrastructures of imageability….Lighting zones by category of street in a hypothetical city. (1930), Ward Harrison, O.F. Maas, Kirk M. Reid, NY: McGraw-Hill, 122. Diagram shows how city streets were characterized by their importance. Busiest and downtown were the brightest…How lighting engineers organized city streets hierarchically, busiest thoroughfares and downtown areas lit at highest intensities. (Jakle 2001, p. 104)
- Danger and possibilityFrom the artificial sun to the pixilated landscape“Imageability” (Lynch 1964) of the nighttime city
- Talk about the flexible substrates here too!
- Danger and possibilityFrom the artificial sun to the pixilated landscape“Imageability” (Lynch 1964) of the nighttime cityLarge, smalllocation-specific, ubiquitousMunicipal, self-organizingProgrammed, auto-active
- GiacomoBalla, Street Light,1909
- Frustration with new technology poorly used….too LED-driven, need to be more radical, what about the processing…..
- ColorThe street light reveals a color space as it moves around. Each location in a semi-circular area around and in front of its base is associated with a different color space. The goal was to encourage people to explore the color space by “dancing” with the light and revealing more of its patchwork. From observing people, it is not clear whether the idea of the color space was readily accessible to them. Most people assumed that the color changes are random.The high brightness LEDs provide a wonderful color-washing effect on the ground. The exploration with color could be extended with LED-based projector modules or screens placed in the beam of the high-brightness LEDs to act as a programmable theater gobo. This effect was also tested as an ambient information display to symbolize the charging cycles of an electric vehicle (from red to green). MotionStudents and visitors alike are intrigued by the evocative motion. The explorations are preliminary, but they begin to hint at the possibility for a more responsive infrastructure. As many researchers developing robotics have already established, motion is by definition associated with life and thus implies some kind of intelligence. The degree to which the light follows an observer will have a great influence on the role of motion. As Maria Sester’s Access project demonstrates surveillance and the “lime light” can be two sides of the same coin. SensingThe distance sensor performed reasonably in identifying the presence of a person in the beam of light. For some of the higher orientations of the pan-tilt head, the beam overshot people standing in the light. Or rather people assumed that they were standing in the path of the light when the actual pool of light was further away from the base of the street light. A more open, less cluttered environment would have made it easier for people to grasp. The sensing device on the street light could also have been a camera in order to track groups of people or specific individuals. This approach moves more in the direction of surveillance and away from the playful applications explored here. As more street lights become LED-based it may also be possible to use the LEDs themselves as sensors to detect the presence of something as a shadow. Many lamp posts are already used as mounting locations for CCTV surveillance systems. Technologists and designers should take seriously the implications of transforming an infrastructure of illumination into one of surveillance. The consequences of these shifts will require more consideration from the multidisciplinary stakeholders contributing to the field of lighting, public infrastructure and safety.
- Design guideline 1: Support flexible placement, no wires for communications or power
- Design guideline 2: autonomous power, i.e. battery and renewable source of energy in the long run
- Design guideline 3: overcome two problems in current displays: 1) either bounded by a frame, 2) limited to one architectural façade like the Herzog & de Meuron stadium
- Design guideline 4: variable resolution
- Design guideline 5: responsive
- Global System for Mobile CommunicationsBASIC COMPONENTS Each unit includes a CC1010 microcontroller and RF transceiver (433 MHz), LED module (ten bright, white LEDs), rechargeable 3.7V, 66000 mAh Li-Ion battery pack, IR sensor 2.5mm power plug for charging,UNIT HOUSINGTwo 4-inch diameter acrylic half-spheres protect the components from the elements. They are held in place by a circular rib structure water-jet cut in polycarbonate. One half-sphere has been sandblasted and lined with a layer of 1/8” stuffing material to diffuse the light emanating from the individual LEDs. The units can be opened easily by hand with a thumb screw. MOUNTINGEach unit can be connected via a 6/32” threaded screw to various connectors depending on the surface type including brackets, suction cups, and others. No additional wiring is needed for communication so that the units can be mounted individually to any surface.
- Interacting: In the current system, people can interact with Urban Pixels in three ways. (1) First, they can control the entire display from a base station connected to a laptop computer. The interface allows the user to reconfigure the number of rows and columns, change the display frequency, reset the units and change patterns. The available patterns were direct interaction mode, random flashing, vertical lines, horizontal lines, and rain.(2) Second, they can send an SMS single-digit code to a GSM modem that changes the pattern. The SMS system was handled by an adaptation of a commercial product developed by Richard Wilson of Distance Lab, Forres, Scotland. The same patterns were available as displayed in the interface above. (3) Finally, people can control individual units with a flashlight via the IR sensor when they are set to direct interaction mode (see Figures 10, 11). About the IR sensor:- The LEDs do not impact the IR sensor b/c it detects at 850 nm above the LEDs ouput. - As a result, the sensor can detect any light source containing a substantial amount of red light (the sun, incandescent light bulbs, etc.). The IR sensor was connected to one of the several 10-bit ADC channels on the CC1010 without any amplifying circuitry. Initial tests indicated that the IR sensors on each node could detect an incandescent flashlight at a range of 20 ft. The Urban Pixels needed to have the ability to dynamically adjust to different environments without being reprogrammed which necessitated self-calibrating nodes. At initialization each node obtains several samples from the IR sensor. These samples are stored and averaged in order to obtain a threshold, which can be different for each node. In addition to this, each node periodically re-calibrates and updates its threshold in order to dynamically adjust to the environment.
- Flexible placement: unbounded frame, variable resolution…(1) Flexible placement worked, 2 hrs to mount, we used metal brackets and zip ties. There were no traces on the building after dismantling the system.
- Flexible placement: unbounded frame, variable resolution…(2) The units were distributed throughout the grounds as you can see from this pixel in the tree…..Second, some units were distributed throughout the theater grounds where people could touch them and move them around. This flexibility links Urban Pixels to traditions of lantern festivals all around the world with the additional characteristic of programmability.
- Flexible placement: unbounded frame, variable resolution…(3) the low resolution nature of the display proved surprising for many people: “Why was there no text? Why couldn’t they write a message for their friends?” After recovering from their initial surprise, onlookers enjoyed the calm nature of the installation.
- Flexible placement: unbounded frame, variable resolution…(4) Urban Pixels enlivened the façade of Eden Court throughout its week-long deployment without detracting from the building. The ability to layer ambient information onto an existing structure proved very powerful. People still recognized their theater shining through the light. The round form factor and mounting strategy further enhanced the hovering appearance of the system in front of the architecture.
- Painting with light Late sunsets and long dusk in Scotland in June interesting hybrid condition for experimenting with the mixing of artificial and natural light visible during the day and then being the only thing remaining at nightThe late sunsets and long dusk in Scotland in June provided particularly interesting conditions for experimenting with the mixing of digital and natural lighting. The Pixel units were bright enough to be visible during early evening and then really became visible late at night when the building faded into an invisible night-time background. These transitions were particularly interesting because they showed how the system was constantly in conversation with the physical environment.
- Painting with light Late sunsets and long dusk in Scotland in June interesting hybrid condition for experimenting with the mixing of digital and natural light visible during the day and then being the only thing remaining at nightThe late sunsets and long dusk in Scotland in June provided particularly interesting conditions for experimenting with the mixing of digital and natural lighting. The Pixel units were bright enough to be visible during early evening and then really became visible late at night when the building faded into an invisible night-time background. These transitions were particularly interesting because they showed how the system was constantly in conversation with the physical environment.
- Responsive – Interacting with Urban Pixels People enjoyed the direct interaction using the flashlights clear connection between cause and effect the SMS system also gave people great control but people weren’t always certain when their message had arrived…. people enjoyed the faster-paced transitions especially from a distance the façade was also very effectiveDirect interaction using flashlights to turn individual pixels on proved to be very enjoyable for people. The clear connection between cause and effect seemed to facilitate a more personal and social set of interactions around the lighting system and façade. Experiences with other installations such as the Tactile Luminous Floor have shown the potential for enhancing people’s experience of space through an ambient lighting system.The SMS system gave full control to users, which was very popular. However, they could never be entirely certain when their SMS had reached the system. Transitions from pattern to pattern happened quickly and there were many repeat requests that led to longer stretches of the same pattern rather than more rapid transitions among patterns. Many people also simply enjoyed the display from afar in its default mode cycling through all of the possible display patterns and frequencies. The fast-paced transitions of patterns seemed to elicit more enjoyment similar to the effect of firework displays.
- Future user studies will be necessary:Many people also simply enjoyed the display from afar in its default mode cycling through all of the possible display patterns and frequencies. The fast-paced transitions of patterns seemed to elicit more enjoyment similar to the effect of firework displays. These early interaction examples only hint at the many possible responses that Urban Pixels could elicit among people. There are many more social interactions that could result from placing Urban Pixels in different urban contexts. Additional systematic user studies should be made to expand the validity of Urban Pixels as an approach to innovative, low-resolution urban interactive displays.Exciting problem space for painterly approaches to urban display and information systems that fulfill the design criteria listed earlier:flexible placementautonomous powerunboundedvariable resolutionresponsiveThe temporary installation on the theater façade in Scotland begins to demonstrate some of these criteria in action:-- The temporary light installation was spontaneously placed on a theater façade without support infrastructure. The network of pixels enhanced the building leaving no traces behind after its deployment. -- The interactions between changing natural conditions and the lighting units enriched the preprogrammed display patterns significantly. Together, the natural and programmed patterns demonstrated the merits of a painterly approach to deploying points of light in an urban scene that could be explored further. -- The system supports user-deployment as well as larger-scale deployments for many different kinds of temporary applications. -- Visitors to the theater enjoyed interacting with the system and the visual effect it had on the theater. Many more aesthetic and interactional possibilities remain to be explored. More experimentation is required to explore the full potential of these “liberated” infrastructures that blur the boundary between urban displays, ambient information systems and traditional infrastructures such as urban street-lighting, but I hope I’ve convinced you of the exciting potential that this direction proposes.
- As I mentioned earlier, goal was to build a preliminary system to explore the proposition of urban, mobile, personal street lighting.......moving beyond discourses of safetyrange between performance and everyday liferange between stage lighting with complete control and unpredictability of sensor-based systemworking with the shifting roles of observer and observedinfluence of light on people’s perception of the environment
- We used the Funnel IO created by Shigeru Kobayashi in JapanVery easy to usearduino compatibleIncludes a battery chargerEnough IO pinsPower:We actually used two cells, more b/c we wanted to use them separately potentially.....Both rechargeable
- Created a custom expansion module20 LEDs – red, green, blue, amber, whiteCREE 120° wide-angle, super-bright Kobitoneelectret condenser microphonehigh-pass (above 3kHz) and low-pass (below 100Hz) filtersMSI piezo vibration tabCasingsoff-the-shelf acrylic casesbevelled edges (smooth and good tactile affordances)two layers of diffusion (mylar and stuffing material)
- What did we build
- software v1audio candleamplitude used to control the collective brightness of red, amber, and white LEDsused in first exploration to match red and brown costumesbevelled edges (smooth and good tactile affordances)two layers of diffusion (mylar and stuffing material)
- This diagram shows the color space that we mapped onto the frequencies……
- Wiener Musikfreunde Orchestra, 150th anniversarycommunity building project with amateur dancerstwo dance companies: one youth group, one of all ages (4-60)Brahms 1. Symphony 1st and 4th movementsTchaikovsky Romeo and Juliet Overture“audio candle” mode used throughoutcolours adapted to the dancers’ costumes
- Before the finale.....the dancers pick up the lights and hand them to audience members people started playing with them the lighting was much better in the dark audience area- It bridged the gap between observer and observed....
- public art project by Luke Jerram, www.lukejerram.com/projects/play_me_im_yours30 “street pianos” placed around Londonselected one square in Londoncontrast with the orchestral, choreographed performancevery open-endedsituated in urban spaceused slightly revised version of software v1
- Pixel manipulator....
- audiovisual VJ event at Roxy Bar and Screen in London3 large display screens around a seating areaideal lighting conditions for light bodieslights distributed on tables throughout the bartested v2 of the softwareperformance setting, but still informalcurious to see how it would extend the live VJ and DJ event
- Stacking, playful interactions with colour washing, putting them in hair, ...Observations suggested that people might have understood the mappings embedded in the softwarePeople investigated the behaviours of the lights: tapping, shaking, stackingTrying to control specific effects by doing different behaviours including singing at them, tapping them, scratching themStacking in particular ways, making patternsAmbient modes and uses: people carrying them around with them, colour washing the tables...
- Ambient modes and uses: people carrying them around with them, colour washing the tables...
- Using them as props and trying to control specific effects by doing different behaviours including singing at them, tapping them, scratching them
- Stacking in particular ways, making patterns
- People were playful with the devices HOWEVER they did not use them to explore their environments....Therefore thinking about the affordances which could be embedded within the devices to make them suggest more of this exploratory behaviour....
- Maintain some of the open-endedness of the performances BUT still bring back the everday play more with this continuum from performance to everyday, the transition between observer and observed perhaps go beyond the “registering behavior” – need to (1) capture more of the communicative nature and (2) the lights as lenses onto the environment
- Maintain some of the open-endedness of the performances BUT still bring back the everday play more with this continuum from performance to everyday, the transition between observer and observed perhaps go beyond the “registering behavior” – need to (1) capture more of the communicative nature and (2) the lights as lenses onto the environment
- Going beyond the functional, importance of the experiential and aesthetic, poetics of these artifacts, richness of the interaction design thinking….aesthetic, play, designers POVPotentialsdid the experiments to understand all of these better.....Future directions....where are we heading.....next steps....scaling it back up.....dreaming again.....explorations.....imaginations...
- Municipal……ownership…..one not better than the other…Elements of the political and the historical…….
- Scott Gilchrist 1992, Las Vegas Strip: Topographical Views (1992)
- Danger and possibilityFrom the artificial sun to the pixilated landscape“Imageability” (Lynch 1964) of the nighttime cityLarge, smalllocation-specific, ubiquitousMunicipal, self-organizingProgrammed, auto-active
- Interacting with façades through projection: Body Movies by Lozano-Hemmer are interactive projections that composite shadows of people currently in the plaza with portraits taken on the streets of the city.
- Pierre Huyghe, Les Grands Ensembles (1994-2001), video installation, 7:51minsNoted artist Pierre Huyghe uses diverse media—including large-scale installation, public events, and video—to delve into the uncertainties of representation and to investigate how narrative models affect our sense of reality. In the process, he moves through a variety of creative fields, such as architecture, cinema, design, and music, with an eye to their unique qualities and conventions. Although often grounded in particular historical or cultural reference points, his works unfold as open-ended entities that invite multiple interpretations. Huyghe’s video installation Les Grands Ensembles (The Housing Projects) presents a fixed view of two residential towers in a bleak urban landscape, swathed in fog at night. Lacking any signs of human activity, the buildings appear to take on lives of their own as the video’s buzzing electronic soundtrack, composed by Pan Sonic and CédricPigot, builds in intensity. Windows in the two facades begin to light up rhythmically and with increasing frequency, as if communicating in some sort of code. The towers, which are actually models the artist created in a film studio, echo French government housing projects common in the 1970s, but they do not represent specific buildings. Instead, they can be seen as archetypes, standing in for the Modernist program in architecture and the social agendas to which it was tied. Meanwhile, the audio track is reminiscent of experimental directions in electronic music in the same era, reinforcing this historical allusion. The video is a reflection on the failures of utopian Modernism, signaled in part by the desolate mise-en-scène. This familiar narrative, however, ultimately gives way to the volley of lights, a mysterious cipher that resists attempts at interpretation.A landmark project for Huyghe, Les Grands Ensembles premiered at the 2001 Venice Biennale as part of the artist’s installation of the French Pavilion. There it was accompanied by other works, such as Atari Light (1999), a room-sized version of the early video game Pong, which visitors could play on illuminated ceiling panels that evoked a Modernist grid. Huyghe installed the works in multiple rooms, separated by doors with modulating levels of transparency, to create what he described as “a blinking organism”—a constellation of associations and disjunctions that shifted as lines of sight opened up and disappeared.Interweaving themes from the histories of architecture, design, and popular culture, Huyghe invites viewers to consider our relationship with the overdetermined, highly coded world of mass-media representations. Les Grands Ensembles, for its part, introduces the artist’s engagement with forms of spectacle and the cultural conditions that emerge from them. The flashing lights that play across the facades of these buildings, repeated in an endless video loop, seem to ask whether this is a stream of coded information waiting to be translated or a deluge of vacant representation, a spectacle pointing to nothing but itself.http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/184197
- Appropriating public facades through projection: Laser Tag by Graffiti Research Lab allows people to project graffiti onto a building. [17] (see Figure 3)
- Rafael Lozano-Hemmer’s Voz Alta allowed the public in Mexico City to control the direction and brightness of spotlights across the cityscape by speaking into a megaphone [9]. Commissioned as a memorial to the 1968 student massacre in Tlatelolco, the project used the lighting to draw attention to specific political monuments.Lozano-Hemmer Voz Alta, Mexico City, Mexico, 2008, http://www.lozano-hemmer.com/english/projects/vozalta.htmMeejin Yoon, White Noise White LightUsmanHaque, BurbleAchimWollsheid, polyson, intersiteCastelo & Mongiat, Gamelan Playtime“sonic interaction design”...
- Sester, M. Access Project, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2002, http://www.accessproject.net/archive.htmlMeejin Yoon, White Noise White LightUsmanHaque, BurbleAchimWollsheid, polyson, intersiteCastelo & Mongiat, Gamelan Playtime“sonic interaction design”...
- Using the building as interface: Blinkenlights transformed the façade of the Haus des Lehrers in Berlin into the world’s biggest interactive computer display. People could also create their own animations such as the heart shown here via a program called Blinkenpaint.
- Deploying individual pixels: Throwies by Graffiti Research Lab are deployable pixels consisting of a coin-cell battery, 10mm diffused LED and magnet.
- Creating landscapes with pixels: White Noise White Light, Meejin Yoon was shown at the Athens Olympics 2004. The piece demonstrates the transformative effect of light in a landscape and as a new landscape to be inhabited by visitors.
- Connecting individual pixels: Supercluster by Leo Villareal is an early example of a building-scale digitally programmable façade. The system consists of 640 LEDs distributed across a 45 by 120 foot display that covered the entire façade of PS 1 museum in New York.