Directions for completing this assignment:
In this assignment, you will analyze the Student Computer Lab case study (towards the end of this document). To effectively meet the requirements of this assignment, analyze the qualitative data derived from the primary research found in the case study scenario.
To successfully complete this assignment, write a 3 page critical essay in APA style format covering the following topics:
1. Determine overall student satisfaction with the computer lab.
2. Do you think it was wise to have a group with both graduate and undergraduate students included?
3. Analyze the focus group transcript very thoroughly. Make a list of problems and ideas generated for the student computer lab.
4. What do you see as the benefits and limitations of the focus group findings? Do you think the task force plan for utilizing the focus groups is appropriate?
5. What changes would you make to improve the problems or to capitalize on the opportunities identified in the primary research? Collect and describe student recommendations for improvements.
Additional Requirements:
-APA citation
-Double-spaced
-Font size: 12
-Font: Time New Roman
-Title and Reference page
Case Scenario
Student Computer Lab
A major university served over 2,000 undergraduate and graduate students majoring in business administration. The large number of students enrolled in the Business School coupled with increasing use of computer technol- ogy by faculty and students created overwhelming demands on the Business School’s computer center. In order to respond, the Business School decided to upgrade its computer facilities.
Rod Stevenson, director of the Student Computer Center (SCC), opened a new computer lab in the fall of 2007. The new lab offered specialized software required by student courses and the latest technology in hardware and software.
Computer Lab Project
After operating for six months, Stevenson recognized some potential problems with the new computer lab. Although the number of computers had doubled, student suggestions and complaints indicated that the demand for computers at times exceeded the available resources. To address this problem, Stevenson established a task force to investigate the level of student satisfaction with the computer lab. The task force was made up of four graduate students and was established in January 2008. The task force aimed to help the computer lab identify student needs and provide suggestions on how those needs could be most effectively met.
The first activity of the task force was to examine available information on the lab and its functions and resources. Services offered by the computer lab included network and printer access. The lab usually had three to four lab monitors to collect money for printouts and answer any of the student’s questions. Lab hours were 8:00 a.m. to 9:30 p.m. on weekdays and 8:00 a.m. to 5:00on Saturdays and Sundays.
After reviewing available information on the lab, .
Assignment Title Conducting Primary ResearchDeveloping the ab.docxssuser562afc1
Assignment Title: Conducting Primary Research
Developing the ability to conduct primary research can be an invaluable asset to add to your business tool belt. In this assignment, you will engage in developing the following professional competencies related to marketing research:
Analyze qualitative data in decision making.
Marketing researchers conduct primary research to gain human perspective on the problem or opportunity being studied, or to identify problems or opportunities for study.
Directions for completing this assignment:
In this assignment, you will analyze the Student Computer Lab (Click Here) case study. To effectively meet the requirements of this assignment, analyze the qualitative data derived from the primary research found in the case study scenario.
To successfully complete this assignment, write a 2-3 page critical essay covering the following topics:
1. Determine overall student satisfaction with the computer lab.
2. Do you think it was wise to have a group with both graduate and undergraduate students included?
3. Analyze the focus group transcript very thoroughly. Make a list of problems and ideas generated for the student computer lab.
4. What do you see as the benefits and limitations of the focus group findings? Do you think the task force plan for utilizing the focus groups is appropriate?
5. What changes would you make to improve the problems or to capitalize on the opportunities identified in the primary research? Collect and describe student recommendations for improvements.
Directions for Submitting this Assignment:
Review the grading rubric below before beginning this activity. For additional help with your writing and APA citation, please visit the Kaplan University Writing Center. Compose your Assignment as a Microsoft® Word® document and save it as (Example: TAlex-MT355 Assignment-Unit5.docx). Submit your file by selecting the Unit 5: Assignment Dropbox by the end of Unit 5.
Case Scenario
Student Computer Lab
A major university served over 2,000 undergraduate and graduate students majoring in business administration. The large number of students enrolled in the Business School coupled with increasing use of computer technol- ogy by faculty and students created overwhelming demands on the Business School’s computer center. In order to respond, the Business School decided to upgrade its computer facilities.
Rod Stevenson, director of the Student Computer Center (SCC), opened a new computer lab in the fall of 2007. The new lab offered specialized software required by student courses and the latest technology in hardware and software.
Computer Lab Project
After operating for six months, Stevenson recognized some potential problems with the new computer lab. Although the number of computers had doubled, student suggestions and complaints indicated that the demand for computers at times exceeded the available resources. To address this problem, Stevenson established a task force to investigate the ...
Rossiter and Biggs (2008) - Development of Online Quizzes to Support Problem-...cilass.slideshare
Presentation given by Dr Diane Rossiter and Dr Catherine Biggs of the Department of Department of Chemical and Process Engineering at the University of Sheffield at the 2008 International Blended Learning Conference (University of Hertfordshire), entitled: "Development of online quizzes to support problem-based learning in chemical engineering"
Use of online quizzes to support inquiry-based learning in chemical engineeringcilass.slideshare
Online quizzes have been developed to help prepare first year undergraduate Chemical Engineering students for participating in group based assignments carried out in an inquiry-based learning (IBL) format. These online quizzes based within WebCT Vista allow the students to test their understanding of the fundamental chemical process principles required for the assignments before they participate in the IBL activity. Currently, the classes size is about 70 students therefore it is important to develop the students’ ability to carry out independent and self- directed learning to acquire these core skills. Using these online quizzes, the students are able to self-assess their strengths and weaknesses in the core chemical engineering principles and practice so that they come to the IBL group work more prepared.
The effectiveness of the online quizzes has been evaluated, using a triangulation approach incorporating a student questionnaire, student focus group and project leaders’ interview. Preliminary analysis of the results suggests that the students have found the online quizzes beneficial for developing their core skills in chemical process principles. The presentation will provide: a showcase for the online quizzes created; feedback from the first cohort of students to use the resources; and lessons learned and future developments.
NComapss Live - July 17, 2019
http://nlc.nebraska.gov/NCompassLive/
Join us to learn about the new Project Outcome for Academic Libraries surveys and resources. Project Outcome is a free toolkit that helps libraries measure four key learning outcomes – knowledge, confidence, application, and awareness – across seven library program and service areas.
Presenter: Sara S. Goek, Program Manager, Association of College & Research Libraries
5 Data Collection TechniquesAfter reading this chapter you shoul.docxblondellchancy
5 Data Collection Techniques
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
1. 5.1 Identify and appropriately utilize qualitative data collection techniques.
2. 5.2 Identify and appropriately utilize quantitative data collection techniques.
This chapter introduces qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques that can be used to systematically investigate an area offocus. These techniques include using direct observation, interviews, questionnaires, attitude scales, new and existing records, artifacts,teacher-made tests, standardized tests, and school-generated report cards.
Reflection on Action Research
James Rockford
James Rockford is an elementary teacher in a rural school district in Oregon. James is responsible primarily for teaching music andcomputer keyboarding skills to young children and initially became involved with action research as part of a statewide actionresearch initiative. As a result of his first attempt at doing action research and his effort to make it a standard part of his teaching,James has also worked as a mentor for other teachers in his region. James’s story highlights the importance of collecting data froma variety of sources to fully understand the effects of an intervention on student outcomes.
It seemed to be a perfect match. I had charge of a new computer lab and a mandate to develop a program of instruction to match thecurriculum guide, and I needed a “problem” for a collaborative action research class.
The only software that came with the computers was a popular program to teach keyboarding and ClarisWorks. It didn’t make any sense tospend several thousand dollars to teach keyboarding, so the problem became, “How does keyboarding instruction enhance students’ abilityto use word processing, database, spreadsheet, and draw functions?”
Looking at the literature proved to be a formidable problem because there wasn’t a good academic library in the area. The local communitycollege had one online computer to access ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) through the World Wide Web if I gave searchterms to the librarian. A little help came, but I preferred to do the search myself. Our school was not yet online, so I resorted to using myson’s computer. A quick survey of the literature showed plenty of research on keyboarding but not much focused on young children.Opinions ranged from “Start them as early as possible” to “Avoid bad habits” to “Don’t bother because they can hunt and peck as fast asthey can type.”
The problem proved to be a little overwhelming in that I had just started an instructional program to teach all the keyboarding skills, and itbecame obvious that results would be harder to get for database, spreadsheet, and draw functions. As a result, I decided to look initiallyonly at the effect of teaching keyboarding on word processing for students in grades 4 through 6.
This was supposed to be a collaborative venture, so my first task was to enlist the help of the teachers in grades 4 ...
Assignment Title Conducting Primary ResearchDeveloping the ab.docxssuser562afc1
Assignment Title: Conducting Primary Research
Developing the ability to conduct primary research can be an invaluable asset to add to your business tool belt. In this assignment, you will engage in developing the following professional competencies related to marketing research:
Analyze qualitative data in decision making.
Marketing researchers conduct primary research to gain human perspective on the problem or opportunity being studied, or to identify problems or opportunities for study.
Directions for completing this assignment:
In this assignment, you will analyze the Student Computer Lab (Click Here) case study. To effectively meet the requirements of this assignment, analyze the qualitative data derived from the primary research found in the case study scenario.
To successfully complete this assignment, write a 2-3 page critical essay covering the following topics:
1. Determine overall student satisfaction with the computer lab.
2. Do you think it was wise to have a group with both graduate and undergraduate students included?
3. Analyze the focus group transcript very thoroughly. Make a list of problems and ideas generated for the student computer lab.
4. What do you see as the benefits and limitations of the focus group findings? Do you think the task force plan for utilizing the focus groups is appropriate?
5. What changes would you make to improve the problems or to capitalize on the opportunities identified in the primary research? Collect and describe student recommendations for improvements.
Directions for Submitting this Assignment:
Review the grading rubric below before beginning this activity. For additional help with your writing and APA citation, please visit the Kaplan University Writing Center. Compose your Assignment as a Microsoft® Word® document and save it as (Example: TAlex-MT355 Assignment-Unit5.docx). Submit your file by selecting the Unit 5: Assignment Dropbox by the end of Unit 5.
Case Scenario
Student Computer Lab
A major university served over 2,000 undergraduate and graduate students majoring in business administration. The large number of students enrolled in the Business School coupled with increasing use of computer technol- ogy by faculty and students created overwhelming demands on the Business School’s computer center. In order to respond, the Business School decided to upgrade its computer facilities.
Rod Stevenson, director of the Student Computer Center (SCC), opened a new computer lab in the fall of 2007. The new lab offered specialized software required by student courses and the latest technology in hardware and software.
Computer Lab Project
After operating for six months, Stevenson recognized some potential problems with the new computer lab. Although the number of computers had doubled, student suggestions and complaints indicated that the demand for computers at times exceeded the available resources. To address this problem, Stevenson established a task force to investigate the ...
Rossiter and Biggs (2008) - Development of Online Quizzes to Support Problem-...cilass.slideshare
Presentation given by Dr Diane Rossiter and Dr Catherine Biggs of the Department of Department of Chemical and Process Engineering at the University of Sheffield at the 2008 International Blended Learning Conference (University of Hertfordshire), entitled: "Development of online quizzes to support problem-based learning in chemical engineering"
Use of online quizzes to support inquiry-based learning in chemical engineeringcilass.slideshare
Online quizzes have been developed to help prepare first year undergraduate Chemical Engineering students for participating in group based assignments carried out in an inquiry-based learning (IBL) format. These online quizzes based within WebCT Vista allow the students to test their understanding of the fundamental chemical process principles required for the assignments before they participate in the IBL activity. Currently, the classes size is about 70 students therefore it is important to develop the students’ ability to carry out independent and self- directed learning to acquire these core skills. Using these online quizzes, the students are able to self-assess their strengths and weaknesses in the core chemical engineering principles and practice so that they come to the IBL group work more prepared.
The effectiveness of the online quizzes has been evaluated, using a triangulation approach incorporating a student questionnaire, student focus group and project leaders’ interview. Preliminary analysis of the results suggests that the students have found the online quizzes beneficial for developing their core skills in chemical process principles. The presentation will provide: a showcase for the online quizzes created; feedback from the first cohort of students to use the resources; and lessons learned and future developments.
NComapss Live - July 17, 2019
http://nlc.nebraska.gov/NCompassLive/
Join us to learn about the new Project Outcome for Academic Libraries surveys and resources. Project Outcome is a free toolkit that helps libraries measure four key learning outcomes – knowledge, confidence, application, and awareness – across seven library program and service areas.
Presenter: Sara S. Goek, Program Manager, Association of College & Research Libraries
5 Data Collection TechniquesAfter reading this chapter you shoul.docxblondellchancy
5 Data Collection Techniques
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
1. 5.1 Identify and appropriately utilize qualitative data collection techniques.
2. 5.2 Identify and appropriately utilize quantitative data collection techniques.
This chapter introduces qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques that can be used to systematically investigate an area offocus. These techniques include using direct observation, interviews, questionnaires, attitude scales, new and existing records, artifacts,teacher-made tests, standardized tests, and school-generated report cards.
Reflection on Action Research
James Rockford
James Rockford is an elementary teacher in a rural school district in Oregon. James is responsible primarily for teaching music andcomputer keyboarding skills to young children and initially became involved with action research as part of a statewide actionresearch initiative. As a result of his first attempt at doing action research and his effort to make it a standard part of his teaching,James has also worked as a mentor for other teachers in his region. James’s story highlights the importance of collecting data froma variety of sources to fully understand the effects of an intervention on student outcomes.
It seemed to be a perfect match. I had charge of a new computer lab and a mandate to develop a program of instruction to match thecurriculum guide, and I needed a “problem” for a collaborative action research class.
The only software that came with the computers was a popular program to teach keyboarding and ClarisWorks. It didn’t make any sense tospend several thousand dollars to teach keyboarding, so the problem became, “How does keyboarding instruction enhance students’ abilityto use word processing, database, spreadsheet, and draw functions?”
Looking at the literature proved to be a formidable problem because there wasn’t a good academic library in the area. The local communitycollege had one online computer to access ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) through the World Wide Web if I gave searchterms to the librarian. A little help came, but I preferred to do the search myself. Our school was not yet online, so I resorted to using myson’s computer. A quick survey of the literature showed plenty of research on keyboarding but not much focused on young children.Opinions ranged from “Start them as early as possible” to “Avoid bad habits” to “Don’t bother because they can hunt and peck as fast asthey can type.”
The problem proved to be a little overwhelming in that I had just started an instructional program to teach all the keyboarding skills, and itbecame obvious that results would be harder to get for database, spreadsheet, and draw functions. As a result, I decided to look initiallyonly at the effect of teaching keyboarding on word processing for students in grades 4 through 6.
This was supposed to be a collaborative venture, so my first task was to enlist the help of the teachers in grades 4 ...
NCV 3 Business Practice Hands-On Support Slide Show - Module 6Future Managers
This slide show complements the learner guide NCV 3 Business Practice Hands-On Training by Nickey Cilliers, published by Future Managers Pty Ltd. For more information visit our website www.futuremanagers.net
We test the site www.whirlpool.net.au and did a detail analysis on that website and tried to find the issues. This is our analysis and finding about the website and some recommendation to improve the design of the website.
Using Cloud-based statistics applications to enhance statistics educationsmackinnon
Slides to accompany my 2019 presentation at the CPA. Discusses my approach to teaching statistics using online applications and active learning workshops.
Discussion questions – Twain, The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion questions – Twain, “The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg”
Mark Twain wrote this story in 1898, toward the end of his career, and long after publishing his masterpieces
Tom Sawyer
and
Huckleberry Finn
. However, “Hadleyburg” reflects one concern that interested Twain throughout his entire career: the sarcastic skewering of middle-class morality and mannerisms. We will examine Twain’s critique of the false righteousness and hidden hypocrisies of common, civilized life as an example of Realism.
1. Hadleyburg prides itself on the honesty of its citizens. However, this focus on honesty has allowed other, less moral attitudes to take root and grow among the people. Find 2 passages that reveal at least two different sinful attitudes shared by the citizens of Hadleyburg.
2. The stranger’s plot is perfectly designed to attack the one source of pride of the townspeople. Focus on the scene describing the night the owner of the sack of gold is to be revealed. Explain what Twain to saying about human nature through the behavior of Wilson the lawyer. Find 1 passage that supports your interpretation. (Hint: Does Wilson tell the truth?)
2a. Also, Dr. Harkness ends up buying the sack of (fake) gold. Why does he do this, and what is Twain trying to say about politics and morality through that subplot? Find 1 passage that supports your interpretation. (Hint: Harkness creates a fake story about the gold. Also, why is he desperate to win the election?)
3. The Richardses were spared the humiliation the other nineteen families experienced. They even receive a reward for $38,500! However, their lives end miserably. Their miserable end is related to the one moral weakness that Richards consistently exhibits throughout the story. What is this weakness (it’s not greed) and explain how it causes a terrible ending to the Richardses’ lives. Find 1 passage that reveals this weakness.
.
Discussion Questions The difficulty in predicting the future is .docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Questions
: “The difficulty in predicting the future is that the outcomes are unreliable, due to the occurrence of wild-card events that distort the relatively well-understand trends for the near to mid-future.” Offer an example of such a “wild-card” event and some ways in which the security professional might address it in an effective manner. Regarding the need for the security industry as a whole to maintain the professionalism and competencies needed to address emerging threats and hazards, what do you feel are its primary areas of weakness and what proposals could you offer to address them?
The Future of the Security
When considering what awaits the security profession in the years to come and those that will operate within it, developments and forecasts related to security science will in large part be impacted by what has occurred in the past and in present day. What
might
occur, what is most
plausible
and
feasible
given current and expected occurrences, and what has proven to be effective (or not) will all need to be considered in determining those issues that will remain relevant or change. So predicting the future (not in the form of Nostradamus or similar prophets) as it relates to security is a technique that considers probable or desirable outcomes in the face of known or anticipated risks. So given this backdrop, where is security heading?
Physical Security
As long as there are structures that people operate within and house various assets, there will continue to be a need to offer needed protection related to them. All of the topics discussed in this course related to walls, fencing, sensors, alarm systems, guards, locks, and other such issues will be needed in some form or fashion. Whether through manual or technological means, these will remain a constant for the security administrator in providing appropriate defensive measures for the material, tangible assets they oversee. Concerning technology, the same trend will continue in serving as a needed aid in providing security moving forward. Mobile devices of various types, functions, capabilities, and their ability to access data, the ever-increasing use of robotics and the functions they can carry out, sensors that will be able to gain more intelligence regarding detection, and high frequency security cameras that will have the capability to verify the chemical compound of an object at a distance are just some of the many technical innovations on the horizon. Yet, just as technology has taken on a greater role in providing these efforts, so too does technology represent ever-increasing concerns to the security manager.
Cyber Security
As society becomes connected on an ever-increasing basis, attention must be directed towards what implications this environment has related to not only security, but related privacy concerns as well. In
Future Scenarios and Challenges for Security and Privacy
(2016, Williams, Axon, Nurse, & Creese), the researchers took a ver.
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This slide show complements the learner guide NCV 3 Business Practice Hands-On Training by Nickey Cilliers, published by Future Managers Pty Ltd. For more information visit our website www.futuremanagers.net
We test the site www.whirlpool.net.au and did a detail analysis on that website and tried to find the issues. This is our analysis and finding about the website and some recommendation to improve the design of the website.
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Discussion questions – Twain, The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion questions – Twain, “The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg”
Mark Twain wrote this story in 1898, toward the end of his career, and long after publishing his masterpieces
Tom Sawyer
and
Huckleberry Finn
. However, “Hadleyburg” reflects one concern that interested Twain throughout his entire career: the sarcastic skewering of middle-class morality and mannerisms. We will examine Twain’s critique of the false righteousness and hidden hypocrisies of common, civilized life as an example of Realism.
1. Hadleyburg prides itself on the honesty of its citizens. However, this focus on honesty has allowed other, less moral attitudes to take root and grow among the people. Find 2 passages that reveal at least two different sinful attitudes shared by the citizens of Hadleyburg.
2. The stranger’s plot is perfectly designed to attack the one source of pride of the townspeople. Focus on the scene describing the night the owner of the sack of gold is to be revealed. Explain what Twain to saying about human nature through the behavior of Wilson the lawyer. Find 1 passage that supports your interpretation. (Hint: Does Wilson tell the truth?)
2a. Also, Dr. Harkness ends up buying the sack of (fake) gold. Why does he do this, and what is Twain trying to say about politics and morality through that subplot? Find 1 passage that supports your interpretation. (Hint: Harkness creates a fake story about the gold. Also, why is he desperate to win the election?)
3. The Richardses were spared the humiliation the other nineteen families experienced. They even receive a reward for $38,500! However, their lives end miserably. Their miserable end is related to the one moral weakness that Richards consistently exhibits throughout the story. What is this weakness (it’s not greed) and explain how it causes a terrible ending to the Richardses’ lives. Find 1 passage that reveals this weakness.
.
Discussion Questions The difficulty in predicting the future is .docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Questions
: “The difficulty in predicting the future is that the outcomes are unreliable, due to the occurrence of wild-card events that distort the relatively well-understand trends for the near to mid-future.” Offer an example of such a “wild-card” event and some ways in which the security professional might address it in an effective manner. Regarding the need for the security industry as a whole to maintain the professionalism and competencies needed to address emerging threats and hazards, what do you feel are its primary areas of weakness and what proposals could you offer to address them?
The Future of the Security
When considering what awaits the security profession in the years to come and those that will operate within it, developments and forecasts related to security science will in large part be impacted by what has occurred in the past and in present day. What
might
occur, what is most
plausible
and
feasible
given current and expected occurrences, and what has proven to be effective (or not) will all need to be considered in determining those issues that will remain relevant or change. So predicting the future (not in the form of Nostradamus or similar prophets) as it relates to security is a technique that considers probable or desirable outcomes in the face of known or anticipated risks. So given this backdrop, where is security heading?
Physical Security
As long as there are structures that people operate within and house various assets, there will continue to be a need to offer needed protection related to them. All of the topics discussed in this course related to walls, fencing, sensors, alarm systems, guards, locks, and other such issues will be needed in some form or fashion. Whether through manual or technological means, these will remain a constant for the security administrator in providing appropriate defensive measures for the material, tangible assets they oversee. Concerning technology, the same trend will continue in serving as a needed aid in providing security moving forward. Mobile devices of various types, functions, capabilities, and their ability to access data, the ever-increasing use of robotics and the functions they can carry out, sensors that will be able to gain more intelligence regarding detection, and high frequency security cameras that will have the capability to verify the chemical compound of an object at a distance are just some of the many technical innovations on the horizon. Yet, just as technology has taken on a greater role in providing these efforts, so too does technology represent ever-increasing concerns to the security manager.
Cyber Security
As society becomes connected on an ever-increasing basis, attention must be directed towards what implications this environment has related to not only security, but related privacy concerns as well. In
Future Scenarios and Challenges for Security and Privacy
(2016, Williams, Axon, Nurse, & Creese), the researchers took a ver.
Discussion questions – Dunbar Paul Lawrence Dunbar was a pio.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion questions – Dunbar
Paul Lawrence Dunbar was a pioneering African-American literary artist. He was among the first black writers who achieved fame among predominantly white audiences with the accurate use of black vernacular and realistic depictions of the attitudes of African Americans while using the literary styles and conventions familiar to white writers. Only within the past twenty years have literary critics begun to appreciate the subtle and perceptive criticism of racial relations he provides beneath the smooth artistry of his works.
1. Dunbar’s “Mr. Cornelius” is extremely naturalistic, with Cornelius struggling against, and eventually losing to, large forces. What are the forces that are arrayed against him (2)? Find a passage that describes each force.
(Hint: Economics, discrimination, as well as emotional weakness are some examples of large forces.)
2. Dunbar was well aware of the story of the slave’s flight north to freedom, a traditional African-American narrative made famous by such works as Frederick Douglass’s
Narrative
and Harriet Beecher Stowe’s
Uncle Tom’s Cabin
. How is Dunbar’s story an ironic, inverted version of the flight-to-freedom story? What is Dunbar trying to say about the status of African Americans in a society newly changed by slavery’s end?
(Hint: Cornelius is from the south. Washington D.C. is north. Does going north mean freedom for him? He must return south at the end—what does going south mean for him?)
.
Discussion Questions Identify the top three threats to the home.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Questions:
Identify the top three threats to the homeland and describe why you chose those as the primary threats. Considering specific terrorist tactics that have been or could be used in the homeland, which do you consider to be the most intimidating and which do you see as the most likely to be used?
.
Discussion questions – Hurston
Zora Neal Hurston attended Howard University, then Barnard College, and studied anthropology while becoming a popular figure of the Harlem Renaissance. Her studies earned her a post-graduate fellowship to study Southern black folktales. These folktales become the basis for her fiction. During her life, Hurston’s writing, while popular with general audiences, was not well-received by critics, particular black literary reviewers who wanted her to focus more on racial inequality. After being wrongly accused of a crime, Hurston finished her career in poverty and obscurity. She has recently become an extremely important writer for her depictions of black women, particularly in the now-acclaimed
Their Eyes Were Watching God
(1937).
2. Hurston’s “How It Feels to Be Colored Me” is a modernist-style literary montage—a series of (loosely organized) images, impressions, memories, observations on experiencing life as a black woman. The montage is quite humorous since she often states that she doesn’t know what “colored” is. The montage can be broken down into a diverse set of themes. Find 1 passage for each theme:
a. earliest memories of life before she knew what “race” was
b. the idea of “race” is imposed on her by others
c. moments where she recognizes her racial identity emerging suddenly
d. she lives a life that is bigger than what “race” tells her she must be
Please use the Answer Sandwich method to answer each question. The passages you add to your answer should be around 2-4 sentences long. Please include a page reference.
Keep in mind that I may select any of these questions to be the upcoming quiz question. Also, I use these discussion questions to create the exams and the major paper assignment. So do your best on each question.
https://bucket-hozzify.storage.googleapis.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/08211149/Robert-S.-Levine_-Michael-A.-Elliott_-Sandra-M.-Gustafson_-Amy-Hungerford_-Mary-Loeffelholz-The-Norton-Anthology-of-American-Literature-Volumes-C-D-E-W.-W.-Norton-Company-2016.pdf
.
Discussion Questions Compare and contrast through a critical an.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Questions
: Compare and contrast through a critical analysis of the following laws and strategies with an emphasis on how they enhance port maritime operations: Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002, The SAFE Port Act, and The Small Vessel Security Strategy.
Response must be 400 words or more in APA style format.
.
Discussion questions (self evaluation)
Examine nursing roles that meet the emerging health needs of individuals, families, communities and populations.
Explore historical, legal, social, cultural, political, and economic forces that influence the client, nursing practice, and the health care system.
Evaluate strategies that can be used by public and community health nurses to improve the health status and eliminate health disparities of vulnerable populations.
Predict trends in lifestyles that will affect the health of communities and the future challenges for nursing.
Plan, analyze, implement and evaluate public health surveillance and outbreak investigation
Develop strategies to deliver nursing care in the preparedness, response, and recovery phases of disaster management.
Initial should have 400 words. Reference in APA format 7th edition.
.
Discussion QuestionReflecting on what you have learned abou.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question:
Reflecting on what you have learned about the social determinants of health, SDOH, how can nurses work collaboratively with physicians and other health care professionals to improve primary care, reduce overutilization and improve underutilization of healthcare services? Include in your response how fostering an environment of diversity and cultural awareness among healthcare providers builds a stronger healthcare team and improves care delivery to healthcare consumers.
Initial 400 words. Reference APA format 7th edition.
.
Discussion questionMotivation is the all-ensuing mechanism t.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion question
Motivation is the all-ensuing mechanism that determines how much and how well a student will learn. Treating it as strictly an internal mechanism, explain how learners; needs, goals, beliefs, interests, and emotions can influence their motivation to learn.
RESPOND TO THESE STUDENTS POSTS
Tashi post
Motivation is something that looks different in everyone. When we look at what motivates one person and assume we can teach based on that, we will not be successful in reaching all students. Looking at motivation strictly from an intrinsic lens, meaning a student’s needs, goals, beliefs, interests and emotions, teachers need many resources. I think that one of the biggest tools that teachers need is relationships. Understanding where a student’s motivation is coming from, or not coming from, can lead to engagement. For example, if a student’s basic needs are not being met, they will not be motivated to learn their math facts because they have greater needs. This is where the relationship and understanding of where students are at is so important for a teacher. They have the ability to create goals with these students. However, on the flip side, a student that knows they want to go to college may be motivated based on their goals for themselves and will engage because they want to do well and achieve a goal in the future.
Motivation can create opportunity as well as hinder progress. It is so important in education. A student’s belief in themselves can create these opportunities or hinder their progress as well. Understanding how a teacher can use motivation through an intrinsic lens can help all students in their class.
Jasmine post
Motivation is defined as the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior. Motivated students put out more effort, persist longer, learn more, and score higher on tests (Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016). Intrinsic motivation is the natural human tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise our capabilities. When we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need incentives or punishments, because the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman & Anderman, 2014; Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reiss, 2004). When I think of intrinsic motivation I don't associate it with younger children as much as I would with older children. I can relate to intrinsic motivation myself because just learning something new motivates me to learn more. Also, seeing those A's and B's keeps me wanting to learn more. I feel the more I learn the more I'll be able to teach someone in the future. That is motivation enough for me to keep going. The students I currently work with get excited when they are able to identify numbers and letters and this motivates them to keep learning. You can see the excitement on their faces when they answer something correctly.
.
Discussion QuestionHow much, if any, action on ergonomics in th.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question:
How much, if any, action on ergonomics in the work-place should rely on the voluntary actions of employers (as favored by George W. Bush) and how much should be mandatory on the part of managements. Explain.
Read the following:
Chapter 9 – Institutional Issues under Collective Bargaining
Chapter 10 – Administrative Issues under Collective Bargaining
Chapter Summaries
Chapter 9 – Institutional Issues under Collective Bargaining
The rights and duties of the employers, employees, and unions are the institutional issues of collective bargaining. On occasion, they can be more troublesome than the economic questions involved with wages and benefits. Some of the longest and most bitter strikes have resulted from conflict over the institutional questions of labor relations.
One of the most controversial issues is union membership as a condition of employment. Labor organizations seeking greater security have negotiated a number of compulsory union membership devices, the most common being the union shop. The closed shop, maintenance-of-membership arrangement, agency shop, and the preferential shop are other security measures that appear less frequently. The growth of the union shop is best explained by the Taft-Hartley prohibition of the closed shop in firms engaged in interstate commerce. The goal of each of these measures is to establish and maintain the institutional security of the union. Such devices are present in about 82 percent of today’s collective bargaining contracts.
There are elements of morality, labor relations stability, and power in this area. Union security may provide stability in industrial relations, but is it moral to compel a worker to join a union? Are these ideological and philosophical issues a mere disguise for the real goal, increased power and influence? Some twenty-two states now have legislation that bans any form of compulsory union membership. These “right-to-work” laws are formidable obstacles in the path of union institutional security. Although Congress has preemptive power in the field of interstate commerce, this state legislation is likely to be allowed to stand.
More than 95 percent of current contracts contain a checkoff procedure by which the employer collects union dues, and often other fees, by deduction from the worker’s paycheck. The advantage to the union is a savings of time and money. The checkoff also can benefit the employer, which explains why it is not a crucial issue of negotiation. Taft-Hartley requires the written authorization of the employee for such an arrangement, which is irrevocable for one year, or the duration of the contract, whichever is shorter. Usually the individual has an annual opportunity to rescind his authorization. If he or she does not, the checkoff remains in force for another year.
The obligations of the union are typically set down in one or more provisions of the contract. The most important is a pledge by the union not to strik.
Discussion QuestionConsider a popular supplement you andor y.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question:
Consider a popular supplement you and/or your family and friends take.
Can you think of a supplement that is commonly taken that could easily be replaced by eating more of a certain food or type of foods?
Is there a population group that would find it more difficult to get the recommended amount of vitamins and minerals through diet changes?
.
Discussion QuestionDiscuss opportunities for innovation and en.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question
Discuss opportunities for innovation and entrepreneurship in emerging global markets, particularly those with a growing middle class, or those where harsh economic conditions dictate the need for innovation if basic human needs are to be met.
What steps must be taken to encourage innovation in these markets?
Will the same incentives and techniques be effective in all emerging markets?
What can be done in instances where government does not encourage or is even hostile to entrepreneurship?
Design and present a list of talking points you might use when you meet with industry and government leaders in one of these markets as you attempt to build a creative mind-set among local civic leaders, businesses, and citizens.
The final paragraph (three or four sentences) of your initial post should summarize the one or two key points that you are making in your initial response.
Your posting should be about 1 page (400 to 500 words) in length.
.
Discussion Question(s)Im interested in the role of women-- in t.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question(s)
I'm interested in the role of women-- in the colonial family, in colonial society, etc. Based on what you've read in the book (and in lecture), how much power do you think women had in colonial Latin America? what kind of control were they able to exert? (keep in mind two things: the patriarchal system, and the fact that patriarchy does not equal one-sided dominance.)
Lecture 9
Your author for this course, Burkholder (et. al.)*, states from the outset of the chapter we are reading this week that the Family is the foundation of colonial society (p. 216). That is a bold statement, especially since so much of colonial Latin America is built on violence, religion, labor, and the construction of Spanish political structures once Spaniards started settling in the Americas. However, he states it more clearly than I can when he says, "while race, wealth, occupation, and gender all helped to identify an individual's position in the social structure,
these elements were usually evaluated in the framework of a broadly defined family
" (p. 216).
Think about some of the issues that we talked about last week concerning race (which I know is still fresh in your mind!). Among the issues that the lecture, the reading, and all the rest of us in this class discussed was how race was a bit more slippery than we usually think about it in the United States (this of course does not make it any less harmful, just different). Nonetheless, if we think about all the moves that some people were able to make racially-- up or down the ladder/hierarchy, depending on the situation-- a lot of those moves were not only based on the ideology of the family, but they were also decided on those terms as well. In other words, the ideology of the family helped organize colonial Latin American societies-- not just husband, wife, kids, grandparents, etc. Families were more than blood relations, but rather a collective of biological and fictive relationships that offer a means for people navigate colonial society both economically and politically.
Family meant a lot of different things, but most of all, it is important to remember that being a member of a family was certainly about marriage and blood relations, but it was also kind of like being a member of a "crew" (is that a word that people use these days? Yes? No? I'm a little old, so maybe there is a new word). Anyway, marriages, parentage, god-parentage, and even simply being close enough to a family to be considered part of it almost always had political implications. Like I said, it was how people made their moves.
Let's take marriage as an example. Because the population of colonial Latin America was diverse from the beginning (marriages or coupling between native folks and Spaniards in the early years of conquest and settlement started the ball rolling on a rather mixed population), people in different
castas,
(or "racial castes"-- people who were of mixed descent/race) would use marria.
Discussion Question(s)Why do you think that Native Allies and Af.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question(s)
Why do you think that Native Allies and African Conquistadors were not mentioned in European accounts of the conquest? Do you think it was intentional or unintentional? Why?
Portrayals of Malintzin have been unfair to her, historically. My question is this: why do you think the stories have been so unfair to her, while Cortes and other conquistadors are either rewarded or ignored for actually carrying out the conquest?
How do your readings connect to either of these questions?
Lecture 3- Steamrolling?
"Malintzin was the indigenous woman who translated for Hernando Cortés in his dealings with the Aztec emperor Moctezuma in the days of 1519 to 1521. "Malintzin," at least, was what the Indians called her. The Spanish called her doña Marina, and she has become known to posterity as La Malinche. As Malinche, she has long been regarded as a traitor to her people, a dangerously sexy, scheming woman who gave Cortés whatever he wanted out of her own self-interest.
The life of the real woman, however, was much more complicated. She was sold into slavery as a child, and eventually given away to the Spanish as a concubine and cook. If she managed to make something more out of her life--and she did--it is difficult to say at what point she did wrong."
Actually, that is a good question: what did she do wrong? Not much, it turns out-- having been sold by her family, and again by the subsequent owners, exactly what kind of loyalty was she supposed to have? Who was it that she was supposed to not "sell out?" No one, it turns out. Historians today know that she was doing her best to stay alive, and make a life for herself, and given her situation and life experiences, it is hard to expect anything more.
For me, at least, this raises a simple question: why are people in such a hurry to blame Malintzin for the conquest, when, in fact, they should be blaming the Spanish? Why did the blame shift to her, instead of where it should have been-- on Cortes and his men? Just curious.
The Indigenous Allies:
Check out this Prezi presentation! Short and sweet! Think about it alongside your readings! (Links to an external site.)
ñ
Spanish, Slavery, and Encomiendas (Early Colonial Period)
In U.S. History, people debate quite a lot about the plight of Native Americans. Some people believe that Native Americans were given a chance to be a part of the developing American culture, others say they were not. Still others, citing the diminishing numbers of Native Americans and the active role that the U.S. government and its white citizens took in killing and displacing Native Americans, call it genocide. In Latin America, it is a little more complicated.
The removal, displacement, and murder of Native Americans is undeniable in U.S. history, but such actions did not take place in Mexico, or other parts of Latin America, at least not on the same scale. The reason for this is that the goals of the British and the Spanish were different wh.
Discussion Question(This post must be at least 200 words.)What d.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question(This post must be at least 200 words.)
What do you think of the tone of "Orders Given to the Twelve"? What
was
the tone? Do you think it is appropriate for the kind of document it is, given when it was written, and why it was written? Why or why not? How does that contrast to the tone in the second document (The Holy Men Respond...)?
Lecture, Week 4
Lecture------
Here is an excerpt from a historian (Camille Townsend) who talks about some of the myths surrounding Cortes's arrival in Mexico (keep an eye out for what I put in bold):
"In 1552, Francisco López De Gómara, who had been
chaplain
and secretary to Hernando Cortes while he lived out his old age in Spain, published an account of the conquest of Mexico. López de Gómara himself had never been to the New World, but he could envision it nonetheless. "Many [Indians] came to gape at the strange men, now so famous, and at their attire, arms and horses, and they said,
'These men are gods!' "
The
chaplain
was one of the first to claim in print that the Mexicans had believed the conquistadors to be divine. Among the welter of statements made in the Old World about inhabitants of the New, this one found particular resonance. It was repeated with enthusiasm, and soon a specific version gained credence: the Mexicans had apparently believed in a god named Quetzalcoatl, who long ago had disappeared in the east, promising to return from that direction on a certain date. In an extraordinary coincidence, Cortes appeared off the coast in that very year and was mistaken for Quetzalcoatl by the devout Indians."
Of course, Townsend continues by saying that no educated person really believes this story. In fact, it was largely fabricated by a chaplain who had never been to the Americas, but rather was taking care of Cortes in Spain during his last years.
Much has been made about the role of the church during the early years of the conquest, and I think that much of what has been written in recent years has been fair, even if they have been criticizing the church for many years. The truth is, the Catholic church (or its representatives back in the colonial period in Latin America) were quite rough on the indigenous people throughout Latin America, calling it a "spiritual conquest."
You will also remember from last week's lecture, when we talked about the ways in which encomiendas were being used, and how Antonio de Montesinos basically called out all of the
encomenderos
and called them bad Christians for not preaching to them while they were essentially enslaving indigenous folks on the land that the Spanish crown granted them.
I bring up this point because it is often forgotten that the military conquest and the "spiritual conquest" of Latin America go hand in hand.
A few years ago, Pope Francis admitted as much (not quite), when he apologized for all of the things that the Catholic Church and its representatives did to the indigenous people in Latin America durin.
Discussion Question(s)What were the colonial misgivings about m.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question(s)
What were the colonial misgivings about "monarchy-wide
cortes
in February of 1810 (p. 350). What do you think of the relationship between the monarchy (or the Central Junta) and the colonials in Spanish America? Do you think that the
criollos
were waiting for independence the whole time? Why or why not?
Lecture 13
Over the last two weeks, we talked about the Caroline and Bourbon Reforms in Spanish America, and I am sure that after reading Chapters 9 and 10, you feel like movements for Independence in colonial Latin America were only days away from happening (maybe only a week, since I post these on Sunday). But no!
As upset as the
criollos
might have been by the dramatic economic and political changes that occurred (not the least of which the fact that the power that they had worked for generations to gain was being taken away by
peninsulares
), the
criollos
still remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. Independence was certainly something that was whispered about in dark corners, but only by the bold, and perhaps the stupid. If we start during this era of Independence in the Americas, we
have
to start with the American Revolution--
Hey-- I'm not happy about it either (this is
Latin American History
darn it!)!
But the American Revolution was the first war for independence in the Americas, so it certainly played an important role.
Kind of.
I mean, your book is kind of right-- the French Revolution definitely played a much bigger role, but keep in mind:
1) The American Revolution was fought from around 1775 to about 1783
2) The French Revolution was fought from 1789 through the 1790s.
Just because the American Revolution was first does not mean that it had a bigger influence than the French (it did NOT). However, keep in mind that the movements for independence throughout Latin America were just as much about ideas as they were about economics-- ok, they were
almost
as much about ideas as economics-- and thus, knowing that there was a neighbor to the north that was able to shrug off colonial power certainly had a psychological effect, if not quite a political one.
The truth is, the eventual movements of independence throughout Latin America was really a combination of things, but one of the largest factors was
time--
time was needed for these ideas to sink in, and time was needed for things to totally unravel in Europe.
And it really did start with the French Revolution, and Napoleon's rise to power:
No, not that Napoleon, THIS Napoleon:
Also happening in the late 18th century (the late 1700s) was the Haitian Revolution, which, if the world wasn't turned upside down already, it definitely was by then. Check out the generally informative Powerpoint I put together about the Haitian Revolution (via your email), and connect it to your text.
Freedom was happening everywhere, and it was happening in many different ways (and in Spain, it was happening largely in the context of Napoleon's at.
Discussion Question(s)The reading for this week was a grab bag o.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question(s)
The reading for this week was a grab bag of different perspectives on life under colonial rule, or "living in an empire." They talked about the city and the countryside, religious life and secular life, popular culture, education, and intellectual development, and so on. Which of these sections struck you as being most interesting? Which struck you as being most important for the study of colonial (and perhaps modern!) Latin America? Why?
Lecture 10
What does it mean to live in an empire?
No, that's probably not what you were thinking. Instead, were you thinking something like this?
Maybe. Star Wars, for people who might not know (I don't know what college students are into these days), looks like a simple tale of good against evil. The evil empire fighting against a scrappy band of rebels intent on overthrowing their evil masters. In a sense, this might be the way that you see colonial Latin America, too-- the evil Spanish against the good indigenous people of the Americas. I wouldn't blame you, either-- after weeks of learning about the conquest, encomiendas, the mita system (under the Spanish) and the doings of the Catholic church (especially during the conquest), it would be easy to think of the Spanish empire (or the Spanish) as evil. In fact, I don't think I am going to try and convince you otherwise.
However, it might be worth remembering that we are looking at this history right now, in 2015-- not in the period itself. Therefore, whereas today you might think of the Spanish as evil, as time passed during the colonial era in Latin America, for the poor, the castas, and yes the indigenous folks, the Spanish and the Spanish colonial system was simply a way of life. It was something that they lived with, adjusted to, and yes, even sometimes rebelled against (locally, of course, not on a large scale. That happens later).
Therefore, to stretch the Star Wars metaphor even further (yikes), I would say that even though most of you might think of Spanish colonialism like this--
-- it is more likely that it was much more like this:
In other words, we can all agree that in hindsight that colonial Latin America was oppressive, but for most people, instead of plotting rebellion in their basements or back rooms, most people just tried to find a way to survive in the middle of it all, and make the best life they could for themselves despite the horrible conditions. So we can think about how nice and pure life would have been without the invasion of the Spanish, but since that was a luxury that the poor, the castas, and the indigenous people living in colonial Latin America did not have, we might instead think about the ways in which colonial society forced adjustments upon how various groups of people lived, as the colonial empire itself expanded and became more and more complex.
Spain asserted its control through urban planning. Cities were laid out in grids, centered on the most important government buil.
Discussion Question(s)Could Latin American reactions to the Bour.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question(s)
Could Latin American reactions to the Bourbon (Caroline era) Reforms be attributed to intellectual change (Enlightenment), religious changes (expulsion of the Jesuits, for instance), economic change (taxes), or political change (taking criollos off their prestigious jobs and replacing them with Peninsulars)? Was it any one of these specifically? All of them? (and if you are going to say "all of them," do you think one might have had more influence than the others?) Why?
Lecture 12
This is where things start to get serious, because Spain isn't playing around anymore. Yes, we are still talking about the Bourbon Reforms- but more specifically, the Caroline Reforms (which happened during the reign of King Charles III, from 1759-1788). The reason that this is so important is because there was a lot of stuff happening during this period: rebellions, revolts, the expulsion of the Jesuits (a specific Catholic order of priests) from Spanish America and Spain, and perhaps most of all, more political reorganization.
But the question is the same as it was last week: why? Well, as we noted last week, there were a lot of conflicts in which Spain had found itself on the wrong side. Take, for example, The Seven Years' War: this particular war is known these days as the first true World War, but for a long time it was called the French and Indian War.
Oooh!!!!--- why was it called the "French and Indian War"? Because the people who named it that (British and British colonists in North America) believed that the world revolved around them. "we are fighting the French and the Indians-- let's call it the French and Indian War!" Of course, when you call it that you are ignoring the fact that it wasn't just the French, Indians, and British fighting one another. In fact, here is who was fighting:
1) France
2) Native Americans (on both sides in North America)
3) Britain
4) Saxony
5) Sweden
6) Russia
7) Prussia (basically Germany)
8) Hanover (basically more Germany)
9) Spain (later)
10) Portugal (later)
And this war (the fighting), with all these people involved, took place in:
1) Europe
2) Africa
3) North America
4) Philippines
5) India
6) Central America
The war was happening everywhere, it seems. And yet, people in the United States called it The French and Indian War. Dorks. I kind of want to tell the British and their colonists in North America this:
But that's why they called it the French and Indian War for so long.
In any case, Spain-- as noted above-- came late to the party, and joined the war on the French side in 1762.
As you might have predicted, this did not go well. France lost, but more importantly for our purposes, Spain lost by extension. And they lost big! First and foremost, they lost Cuba (albeit temporarily), they lost Florida-- gone forever in the Spanish empire (however, considering what it turned into in the 21st century,
maybe they dodged a bullet (this link is not for the faint of heart.
Discussion Question(s)Clearly there is potential for major probl.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question(s)
Clearly there is potential for major problems as the Bourbon Reforms are enacted over much of the 18th century. What were those problems? In what way do you think the Spanish crown could have lessened the pain of these reforms while still maintaining control over the Spanish colonies? Or was there no hope? (and if there was no hope, why do you say that?)
Lecture 11
Wen I was a young undergraduate (at a community college in southern California that will remain nameless-- I will give you all one guess in our discussion forum), I remember the week that my class was to discuss The Bourbon Reforms.
Sadly, it was not about what I was hoping.
Sigh.
Nonetheless, I remember being really interested in what was happening, because it was at this point in the class that I started to see the long chain of events that led to independence throughout most Latin American countries.
See, before I learned about the Bourbon Reforms, I was under the impression that the Independence movements (and wars) in Latin America happened from the bottom-up, which is to say that I thought they were led by Mestizos, Castas, and indigenous folks. For example, think of Mexico: Father Hidalgo, a priest and a champion of the peasant classes in New Spain (Mexico), he brings all these different people together-- people who have been stepped on for too long by colonial powers, and he issues "El Grito,", which was a unified cry of the underrepresented people for independence! Together, they would finally throw off the yoke of Spanish oppression and lead their own country to INDEPENDENCE! Yaaaaaayyyyy!
Sadly, it didn't happen like that.
Yes, Father Hidalgo did issue "El Grito de Dolores," but the conditions that led to the independence movement in New Spain (and the changing of its name to Mexico) didn't hit the peasants the hardest (the peasants were already being hit pretty hard), and the Independence movement was not led by peasants, the working classes, nor the indigenous people-- even if they did spark it. In fact, some say that Father Hidalgo and the people following him didn't want independence...they just wanted a better king.
But let's save that disappointment for later.
See, when I took that class and learned what the Bourbon Reforms were, I started to understand why independence happened throughout much of Latin America in the early 19th century (1800s).
The Bourbon Reforms (and the Caroline Reforms within them) were a set of political, economic, and administrative changes that came from Spain.
Now, speaking quite generally, one of the biggest changes was one that happened gradually, then suddenly: the termination of the sale of
audiencia
positions. See, up until this point, much of Spanish Latin America operated on that old saying that I have brought up a few times, "
obedezco pero no cumplo
", which roughly translated means, "I obey but I do not comply." (you may have a better translation-- give it a shot in the forum!)
.
Discussion Question Week #1· Discover which agencies, in.docxduketjoy27252
Discussion Question Week #1
· Discover which agencies, in your state, are responsible for public health of citizens.
· Research if there are centralized or decentralized management of state responsibilities?
· Determine minimum 3 key indicators of health.
· Review the agency sites and upload the links to the Moodleroom, week #1
· Be prepared to discuss in class, week #2
STATE IS FLORIDA!!
.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH GLOBAL SUCCESS LỚP 3 - CẢ NĂM (CÓ FILE NGHE VÀ ĐÁP Á...
Directions for completing this assignmentIn this assignment, .docx
1. Directions for completing this assignment:
In this assignment, you will analyze the Student Computer Lab
case study (towards the end of this document). To effectively
meet the requirements of this assignment, analyze the
qualitative data derived from the primary research found in the
case study scenario.
To successfully complete this assignment, write a 3 page
critical essay in APA style format covering the following
topics:
1. Determine overall student satisfaction with the computer lab.
2. Do you think it was wise to have a group with both graduate
and undergraduate students included?
3. Analyze the focus group transcript very thoroughly. Make a
list of problems and ideas generated for the student computer
lab.
4. What do you see as the benefits and limitations of the focus
group findings? Do you think the task force plan for utilizing
the focus groups is appropriate?
5. What changes would you make to improve the problems or to
capitalize on the opportunities identified in the primary
research? Collect and describe student recommendations for
improvements.
Additional Requirements:
-APA citation
-Double-spaced
-Font size: 12
-Font: Time New Roman
-Title and Reference page
2. Case Scenario
Student Computer Lab
A major university served over 2,000 undergraduate and
graduate students majoring in business administration. The
large number of students enrolled in the Business School
coupled with increasing use of computer technol- ogy by faculty
and students created overwhelming demands on the Business
School’s computer center. In order to respond, the Business
School decided to upgrade its computer facilities.
Rod Stevenson, director of the Student Computer Center (SCC),
opened a new computer lab in the fall of 2007. The new lab
offered specialized software required by student courses and the
latest technology in hardware and software.
Computer Lab Project
After operating for six months, Stevenson recognized some
potential problems with the new computer lab. Although the
number of computers had doubled, student suggestions and
complaints indicated that the demand for computers at times
exceeded the available resources. To address this problem,
Stevenson established a task force to investigate the level of
student satisfaction with the computer lab. The task force was
made up of four graduate students and was established in
January 2008. The task force aimed to help the computer lab
identify student needs and provide suggestions on how those
needs could be most effectively met.
3. The first activity of the task force was to examine available
information on the lab and its functions and resources. Services
offered by the computer lab included network and printer
access. The lab usually had three to four lab monitors to collect
money for printouts and answer any of the student’s questions.
Lab hours were 8:00 a.m. to 9:30 p.m. on weekdays and 8:00
a.m. to 5:00on Saturdays and Sundays.
After reviewing available information on the lab, the task force
decided it needed to conduct some research before making
recommendations on the services offered. Exhibit 1 displays a
proposal written by the task force outlining the information to
be obtained and the time frame for the research.
Focus Group Study
Stevenson received the proposal and approved it. He agreed
with the task force’s use of focus groups to gain a
preliminary understanding of the students’ attitudes. The
focus groups would identify existing problems better than
secondary research, although the process of collecting and
analyzing the data would be more time consuming. After
receiving approval, the task force posted information around
the Business School to alert students that focus groups were
being conducted. Free laser copies were offered as an incentive
for participa- tion. Students were selected based on their
interest. The student focus group was held on March 10, 2008.
Seven students participated, five graduate and two undergradu-
ate. Transcripts are provided in Exhibit 2.
Because one of the responsibilities of the lab moni- tors is to
assist students with questions and problems, separate focus
groups were also conducted on March 9, 2008, and March 11,
2008, with eight lab monitors. Information from both the
student and lab monitor focus groups was used as a guide
to develop questions for the second phase, a student survey.
Information from the focus groups was reduced to a list of key
5. the student computer lab. Other Business School computer
facili- ties, such as the computer classrooms and the multimedia
lab, are outside the scope of this project.
Objectives: The research objectives are as follows:Determine
overall student satisfaction with the labIdentify current problem
areasCollect student recommendations for improvements
Methodology: The research design is divided into two parts,
exploratory research followed by descriptive research. The
exploratory research would attempt to gain a better
understanding of students’ perceptions of the computer lab and
to identify the issues that concern them. The student survey
would aim to quantify the magnitude of these problems and to
develop recommendations.
Focus Groups: The task force feels that focus groups would be
the most appropriate method for exploratory research. Two sets
of focus groups are recommended. One set will focus on
students who use the computer lab, while the other will address
the lab monitors who deal with student problems on a daily
basis.
Student Survey: The focus group information would be used to
develop questions for a subsequent survey. Since the population
of interest is students enrolled in the Business School, this
survey would be administered to students attending classes
within the Business School, both graduates and undergraduates.
Time Schedule Completed By
Focus Groups March 11
Questionnaire Design April 2
Pretest Questionnaire April 9
Survey April 23
Data Analysis May 10
6. Exhibit 2
Student Focus Group Transcript
Moderator: I’m Robert from Professional Interviewing. I really
appreciate your participation in this group session. As you can
see, I am taping this session so I can review all of your
comments. We are here tonight to talk about the computer lab at
the Business School. As business students, you all have access
to the lab for your class assignments. How do you think the
computer lab is meeting your needs?
Lisa: I think there is a problem with the lab because the folks
who are using computers don’t know about computers. That’s
been reflected in the fact that you go to one computer and you
pick up a virus. These people don’t know anything about
viruses, they’re transmitting them all over the place, nobody is
scanning for viruses, and there’s something that could easily be
put on the systems.
Oliver: I think there has to be training for the people who are
watching the computers. They are ignorant. You ask them any
question and they can’t answer it. It’s a computer lab and this
computer doesn’t seem to be doing the thing that it should be
doing, why? Why is this network different from the rest? How
are we supposed to handle this network? They don’t know.
Lisa: Not only that, they don’t know any of the software.
Oliver: Absolutely!
Lisa: This is like I have Word at home and this is WordPerfect,
‘‘How do I do XYZ in WordPerfect?’’ They don’t know. They
say, let
me go check with John and it takes three of them to try to
answer the question. (Continued)
case 5 519
7. Exhibit 2
Student Focus Group Transcript (Continued)
Marion: And there are three of them!
Lisa: I know!
Oliver: There is always a big queue so you cannot get onto a
Windows machine; you have to go to Pagemaker Plus if you
need to make a presentation. You cannot go to these
WordPerfect machines that have just keyboard entries. But there
are very few computers and a lot of lines in the peak times and
they are just not equipped to handle it. They have so many staff
over there, five people, all of these people, but not one of them
will help anyone.
Moderator: How about you, Jennifer, have you experienced
this?
Jennifer: Yeah, I even had it today. I just don’t have time to
wait in line to get a computer. It’s a half hour sometimes to go
in and get one.
Lisa: And that’s now. At the end of the semester it’s worse.
Jennifer: Yeah, it gets worse.
Lisa: It takes an hour and there’s no sign-up. There’s no regular
sign-up.
Mike: They truncated the hours the last two weeks of the
semester.
Jennifer: You could take these four people and turn that into
one educated person, or take the four people and have one
uneducated person there 24 hours a day. That would be nice. If
all they’re going to do is take your card and give you your copy,
why do you have to have four of them? That’s all they’re doing.
And studying.
Moderator: How about you, I didn’t get your name?
8. Tammy: Tammy.
Moderator: Welcome, Tammy, how about you. What kind of
things have you come across?
Tammy: What I’m hearing are a lot of the problems I’ve seen,
too. I just think there needs to be more computers in the lab and
the hours need to be longer.
Mike: I don’t think they need more computers. They just need to
expand the hours and the computing labs.
Oliver: I had an idea where they don’t need more computers.
One suggestion I already put in the suggestion box is to have
people bring their own computers. Why doesn’t a grad student
who is going to be here for two years, going to interface with
technology when he leaves here, spend a thousand dollars and
go buy his own system? They should do that. Have your own
computer here, I’m saying it’s a requirement. It’s a requirement
at a lot of universities that you come with your own system.
Then you don’t have to worry, you don’t need access to our
labs. Now for undergraduates we still have similar problems,
but it would put less stress on the system.
Moderator: What would you suggest for people who would say,
okay I can get this computer system, but I have to get this
software for this class, and this software for this class, and this
software. That is a lot of money.
Oliver: Yeah, we can already jump into the network from home.
All you need is the software.
Lisa: I don’t think so.
Oliver: You can get in. I can check my mail and stuff.
Lisa: But not software.
Oliver: Oh, software. I haven’t tried, so I don’t know.
Tammy: Getting back to the machine. I’d love to have my own
machine but I don’t want to have it if I don’t have to. As long
as we have all these other computers, why not use what we’ve
got?
Mike: I can’t afford it. If you want to buy a good computer, a
decent printer, a decent monitor, you are still going to spend
between
9. $1,600 and $2,000.
Oliver: I think while we’re in school the school should support
us with computers.
Mike: I think one of the reasons there aren’t enough computers
is that people who aren’t enrolled in the Business School have
access to the lab. In the old building, they always checked your
ID.
Tammy: Yeah. Why don’t we use the card machines? They were
working, weren’t they? They had the doors closed and you used
a key card.
Oliver: I think the old lab was better because they controlled
people coming and going.
520 case 5
Exhibit 2
Student Focus Group Transcript (Continued)
Mike: Yeah. Gatekeeping.
Tammy: They had hours when only graduate students could
come in. I think that’s something that should be started again
because they have a lot more papers to type up.
Mike: I don’t see why this lab isn’t open 24 hours. I really
don’t. Why aren’t the labs open 24 hours?
Lisa: Monitor problem, they need someone to monitor them, to
work with them.
Jennifer: Three people, three eight-hour shifts.
Mike: They don’t have a budget to increase their hours. They
need to double the hours, like not having four monitors at one
time.
Moderator: There are peak hours and there are hours that there
10. are a lot of open computers, where people don’t generally come
in. If there was a way to monitor those times and put a schedule
up, people could come in and indicate a time when we could go
there. Continually monitor that, what do you think about that?
Mike: Every hour is a peak hour, particularly at the end of the
semester.
Oliver: I think it would be a good way of trying to smooth it
out, because that’s what you are trying to do. Have people go
there when it’s not so busy. But then what about times like
today? I happened to get out of class one-half hour early and
went downstairs and used it. But if I hadn’t signed up early,
there were a million folks in there. There are some trade-offs,
but I think it’s a great idea to try and smooth it out. This
morning there were four of us in there at 8:00 or 8:15 when it
opened, and I don’t think anybody else showed up until 10:00.
Mike: Another problem in the lab right now is that there are a
lot of computers that are broken at one time.
Oliver: Oh yeah!
Mike: There are six of them right now that aren’t working.
Oliver: That’s from people not knowing what they are doing. I
was sitting down there on one of the old machines and there was
a gentleman sitting next to me who couldn’t figure out why it
wouldn’t work. He took his disk out and shut the computer off.
When it came back on it got a boot error. Then he got scared
and he just left. He didn’t go tell anyone. The monitors are
looking from the other side, so they don’t know there is
anything wrong. Someone comes in, they just look around, and
see that the computer is broken, or it’s not booted up, and so on.
That’s why I am saying, it’s the students themselves. People
need to know how to use the system.
Ira: I think there should be a small note pasted next to the
computers with instructions as to how to use each computer.
Marion: Even a template for the word processing.
Ira: Even a small hint for troubleshooting, please don’t do this
and do this.
Tammy: I think an excellent model for this are the computer
11. labs in the dorms. The first time you use them, they scan your
ID to
be sure you are a dorm resident, they know if it’s the first time
you are using it, they ask you to make sure you know how to
use the software. They have a rack with every different kind of
title and anything you need to use the software. They tell you
exactly what’s going to come up on the machine and what you
have to do. I’m sure the Business School can get copies of it all
and
then just copy it.
Marion: We have no reference guides for the software.
Tammy: And then they have the guides there. The little orange
books.
Moderator: Are there any other concerns we haven’t talked
about?
Ira: Is there any way the cost for a laser print can be reduced?
Tammy: It kills me.
Ira: It should be 7 cents. It is 6 cents in the library.
Tammy: You used to have the option to go to a dot matrix
printer. They changed that this semester. The only way to go to
the dot matrix was to go to an AT&T machine. Don’t tell me
someone is looking at cost.
Ira: I think the initial cost is pretty high, that is why they’re
keeping it at 10 cents.
Jennifer: If they are planning on getting more printers, I think
they should have at least one or two individual print stations
where you can grab your stuff. If you’re working on your
resume and you want to print on bond paper or do envelopes,
the people behind the desk won’t let you do it because they
don’t know if other people are going to send before you do, they
don’t know
what is going to come out. (Continued)
case 5 521
12. Exhibit 2
Student Focus Group Transcript (Continued)
Oliver: Or they waste your paper because they can’t coordinate
it.
Jennifer: So I think there should be some individual
workstations.
Oliver: I have something to say and maybe I’m the only one
with this problem. I always find that when I go there and I am
working alone, other groups are creating a racket, so it’s really
frustrating. I’m working on a project, I need to think. I don’t
need this kind of heavy distraction, this loud talk. I go and work
in groups too, we try to whisper. There should be some kind of
discipline in the computer lab. I think I may be the only one
being that sensitive, but I think silence has to be maintained. It
is a computer lab,
it is a place for people working, if you’re having a fun time go
have it outside.
Moderator: How effective do you think their waiting lists
system is?
Tammy: It stinks.
Ira: I didn’t even know they had one.
Tammy: It would be better to set up a physical waiting list
where there would be chairs or a bench or something like that.
Ira: Or like a number.
Tammy: Or six chairs in a row and you sit down next to the
computers and that means you are next to get on; then if you
leave the next person can move down and then you can see that
no one is getting in front of you.
Oliver: It worked pretty well for me. Every time I used the
waiting list I had to wait for maybe a half hour and my name
was called and I could get a computer. I have no complaints.
13. This happened every time. There was no problem. I had no
problems at all.
Mike: Until now I didn’t even know there was a waiting list. If
there was an open computer, I would just sit down.
Tammy: I found out the hard way, I went down and sat down
and someone told me.
The paper only needs to be 1 page
•Provide a brief summary of the study.
•Describe the main findings.
•Discuss how this research advances the study of PNI
•Discuss what kind of follow-up research you think is needed in
this area.
•Be sure to include the full reference for the article you chose in
APA format.
REVIEW ARTICLE
Resources, Stress, and Immunity: An Ecological Perspective
on Human Psychoneuroimmunology
Suzanne C. Segerstrom, Ph.D.
Published online: 5 June 2010
# The Society of Behavioral Medicine 2010
Abstract Ecological immunology provides a broad theoret-
14. ical perspective on phenotypic plasticity in immunity, that is,
changes related to the value of immunity across different
situations, including stressful situations. Costs of a maxi-
mally efficient immune response may at times outweigh
benefits, and some aspects of immunity may be adaptively
suppressed. This review provides a basic overview of the
tenets of ecological immunology and the energetic costs of
immunity and relates them to the literature on stress and
immunity. Sickness behavior preserves energy for use by the
immune system, acute stress mobilizes “first-line” immune
defenders while suppressing more costly responses, and
chronic stress may suppress costly responses in order to
conserve energy to counteract the resource loss associated
with stress. Unexpected relationships between stress “buf-
fers” and immune functions demonstrate phenotypic plastic-
ity related to resource pursuit or preservation. In conclusion,
ecological models may aid in understanding the relationship
between stress and immunity.
Keywords Ecology. Optimism . Psychoneuroimmunology.
Sickness behavior. Social . Stress
Introduction
The days of belief that the immune system operates
autonomously are over. Demonstrations that the immune
system can be classically conditioned, that it is innervated
by the sympathetic nervous system, that it responds to
hormonal changes, that it has both circadian and circannual
rhythms, and that its changes correlate with changes in
psychological states such as emotion have all led to the
abandonment of the model of a “shielded” immune system
and the development of the field of psychoneuroimmunol-
ogy, the study of interrelationships among the mind,
15. nervous system, and immune system [1].
Immune changes that accompany stressful events have
perhaps garnered more scientific scrutiny than any other
topic in human psychoneuroimmunology. Meta-analytic
findings support the principle that psychologically stressful
events lasting anywhere from minutes to years associate
with changes in the immune system [2]. Ecological
immunology provides a broad theoretical perspective on
these changes. From the ecological perspective, the well-
being of an organism is maintained by efficiently matching
biological and behavioral priorities to the demands of the
environment. Unlike some other organs, the immune
system is necessary for survival mainly when an immuno-
logical challenge such as infection is present. In fact,
evidence suggests that too much tonic immunological
activity can lead to poor long-term health outcomes such
as the development of heart disease, Alzheimer’s disease,
frailty, and some kinds of cancer [3–5]. Therefore, robust
immune activity is undesirable except during immunolog-
ical challenge, and prioritizing immune function across all
situations may not be adaptive. Specifically, it may not
always be the fittest response to prioritize the immune
system’s demands for physiological resources1—which can
1 I will use the term “energy” to stand in for these physiological
resources so as to avoid confusion with the psychosocial
resources
that are the focus of the latter half of this review. However, it
should
be understood that this is a broad use of the term that could
encompass
not only physiological resources that are literally understood as
energy
(e.g., glucose, fatty acids) but also other proposed mediators
such as
16. proteins that act as transporters for these forms of physiological
fuel
(e.g., apolipophorin III; [89]).
S. C. Segerstrom (*)
Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky,
115 Kastle Hall,
Lexington, KY 40506-0044, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125
DOI 10.1007/s12160-010-9195-3
be considerable—above other potential demands. Under
some circumstances, suppressing immune function below
optimal levels in terms of protection against pathogens may
actually be to the overall benefit of the organism [6]. An
ecological perspective that places the functioning of the
immune system in an array of potential uses of energy has
the potential to explain the effects of immune activation on
motivation and behavior as well as diverse effects of
motivation and behavior on immune function in humans.
An ecological perspective is particularly useful in
understanding cases in which individual differences that
should act as buffers against stress sometimes act as
vulnerabilities. For example, epidemiological evidence
correlating smaller social networks with increased all-
cause mortality supports the idea that social relationships
buffer against stress and improve health [7]. There are,
however, some unusual and perplexing findings with regard
to the effects of social networks on immune function.
Larger social networks have associated with poorer cellular
immunity in healthy young adults and HIV patients [8, 9].
One study found that the increased risk of upper respiratory
17. infection that accompanies severe life stressors increased
further for those people with large social networks [10].
Social relationships are not the only “buffer” to predict
worse immunity. Dispositional optimism, the tendency to
expect more good events than bad in the future, often
predicts better cellular immune function during stressors
but almost equally often predicts worse function, usually
when stressors are more difficult or severe [11].
The Immune System and Its Energetic Costs
A comprehensive review of the immune system is beyond
the scope of this paper; the interested reader is referred to
immunology sources (e.g., Refs. [12, 13]) for more detailed
discussion of the immune components reviewed below. For
the purposes of this paper, it is most important to
understand the basic components of the immune system,
their functions, and the relative costs associated with those
functions [14].
The human immune system is made up of cells and
organs that protect the body against foreign invaders as well
as traitors within the ranks, that is, some types of cancerous
cells. Its first line of defense is the innate immune system, a
phylogenetically primitive subgroup of cells such as
neutrophils and macrophages that respond to nonspecific
signals of invasion such as tissue damage with an equally
nonspecific defense, inflammation. Inflammation is pro-
moted by proteins called cytokines, which are secreted by
these cells. Proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor
necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1, and IL-6, promote
local responses such as vasodilation and infiltration of
circulating immune cells into the affected tissue, as well as
systemic responses such as fever.
18. Although the inflammatory response is important for
early responses to infection, it is inadequate to control most
infections to the point of clearing them. A second line of
defense, the acquired2 immune system, is required. The
acquired immune system comprises groups of cells that
respond to specific antigenic stimulation, that is, specific
and unique signatures—antigens—expressed or produced
by invaders. For example, an antigen might be a viral
protein, a component of bacterial cell wall, or a bacterial
toxin. The antigen-specific lymphocytes that respond
include helper T cells, which release cytokines such as IL-
2, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10 to activate and direct other immune
cells; cytotoxic T cells, which have the capacity to kill
compromised cells such as an epithelial cell infected by a
virus; and B cells, which produce antibody. Antibody can
attach to an invader and either inactivate it or target it for
killing by other cells.
Both innate and acquired immunities entail energetic
costs. Perhaps the best-recognized cost of innate immunity
is fever. It has been recognized for almost a century that
increases in body temperature come at metabolic costs,
estimated at 7–13% of daily metabolism per degree Celsius
[15–17]. The daily metabolic cost for mild (i.e., 1°C) fever
is comparable to the metabolic demands of the brain and
the heart [16].
In addition to the well-known cost of fever, two other
immune functions are particularly energetically costly:
protein production and clonal proliferation [18]. Immune
responses require cells to produce and secrete various
proteins including cytokines, cytotoxic proteins that will
effect the death of target cells, and antibody. In vitro,
stimulated cells increase oxygen consumption, an index of
metabolic rate, for the purpose of protein production by
70% [18]. In vivo, mice vaccinated with a benign antigen to
19. produce antibody increased their metabolic rate by 20–30%
in the absence of fever. In general, vaccination results in
15–30% increases in metabolic rate [15, 17]. Protein
production therefore entails significant energetic costs.
The costs of clonal proliferation are also significant. The
number of antigens for which a responsive T cell exists is
estimated in the millions, but there are not enough cells
with each antigen specificity present to effectively respond
to a challenge. As a consequence, when an antigen is
detected, the stimulated cell makes copies of itself, creating
an expanded population of cells capable of responding.
With regard to the costs of creating these cells, DNA
2 Also known as the adaptive branch of the immune system. The
term
“acquired” is used here to avoid confusion with the term
“adaptive” as
implied by evolutionary theory, that is, increasing fitness.
ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125 115
replication alone increases in vitro oxygen consumption in
stimulated immune cells by 17% [18].
In sum, almost every function of immune cells requires
energy. As a consequence of the energetic demands of
immunity, energy availability significantly impacts immune
function. Although more work with humans is needed [19],
in animal models, caloric restriction in the diet and
reductions in body fat led to reduced expression of genes
associated with antigen processing and presentation and
antibody-mediated immune responses3, suppression of
immune functions, and increased risk of infection (see
20. Refs. [15, 17, 20] for reviews). Experimental surgical
removal of body fat from rodents caused them to respond
less effectively to vaccine than control animals. If they
regained body fat, their response returned to normal [21].
Suppression of costly immune functions is likely to be
an adaptive mechanism to preserve energy when it is at a
premium. Although it is not ideal to gamble with immunity,
it is possible for an organism to do so and survive,
particularly if the risk for infection is low and if energy
can be diverted to other systems or activities more
important to survival. In fact, organisms that fail to gamble
immunity may pay an even greater cost. One study
activated bumblebee immune systems with a benign
antigen, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Under starvation con-
ditions, immune activation significantly shortened survival
time compared with control bumblebees. In short, energy
used by an activated immune system accelerated time to
death from starvation [22].
Ecological Immunology
An evolutionary, ecological perspective on behavior and
immunity predicts trade-offs between the costs and benefits
of immune activity. The basic principles are as follows (cf.,
Ref. [23]). Optimal immune responsiveness maximizes the
cost/benefit ratio. Circumstances can, of course, change
costs and benefits and therefore the optimum for immune
activity. Immunity is therefore expected to show “pheno-
typic plasticity” or “reaction norms”, that is, variability that
occurs when “the value of a trait ... varies in relationship to
one or more environmental variables” ([24], p. 1590).
Phenotypic plasticity is provided by the organism’s if–then
reaction norms: genetically encoded reactions to the
environment that can include changes in behavior and
21. immunity [24]. Reaction norms provide the flexibility to
respond to changing environmental circumstances and the
reordering of the organism’s priorities.
When an infection is present, the benefit of immune
activity increases, so optimal immune responsiveness
should increase. Likewise, when the cost of immune
activity increases, optimal immune responsiveness should
decrease. What are the costs of immunity? One that plays
an important role in ecological models is the opportunity
cost of the energy used by immune activity, that is, other
activities that could be pursued with the energy used by the
immune system. For example, maintaining immune func-
tion but failing to escape from a predator could impose a
very steep opportunity cost. Optimal immune function
could decrease in the presence of opportunities as well as
threats. Behavioral goal pursuit both demands energy and
improves reproductive opportunities, particularly when the
goal involves gaining status and resources that could
increase one’s value as a mate [25, 26]. When the
opportunity to gain such resources presents itself, the
opportunity costs of other energetic uses, such as immunity,
increase and optimal immune function should decrease,
particularly if both energy and resources are limited. The
range of situations that fall under the rubric of “stress” may
encompass more than one of these circumstances, so any
understanding of immunological responses to “stress”
needs to consider the potential priorities of the organism
in each specific situation. This paper will consider three
such situations: infection, acute or “fight or flight”
stressors, and chronic stressors. In each case, immunolog-
ical adaptations may maximize the cost/benefit ratio.
When Immunity is a Priority: Sickness Behavior
In the face of infection, the best chance of survival comes
22. from making energy available to the immune system. In a
practical sense, this means reducing other activities com-
peting for that energy. When infection is not a threat,
energy is well used by foraging for food, competing for and
attracting mates, and forming social bonds, and animals
(including humans) are motivated to engage in these
activities. When an infection is present, however, motiva-
tion and priorities should and do change.
A substantial body of evidence from nonhuman animals
demonstrates that when proinflammatory cytokines are
stimulated by the injection of LPS or are directly
administered, a series of behavioral changes ensues.
Affected animals reduce their activity levels and stop
exploring their environments, reduce their food intake and
grooming, lose interest in investigating new conspecifics in
3 The increases in longevity associated with long-term caloric
restriction do not appear to be mediated by improved immunity;
in
fact, caloric restriction is associated with poorer immunity.
Instead,
increased expression of tumor suppressor genes points to
decreased
rates of cancer as the major mechanism by which caloric
restriction
increases longevity. Increased expression of genes protective
against
oxidative stress may also play a role in the decreased rates of
neurodegenerative disorders and cardiovascular disease
observed with
caloric restriction [20].
116 ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125
23. their environments, decrease sexual receptivity and behav-
ior (particularly in females), and increase sleep (particularly
non-rapid eye movement sleep) [27, 28]. One consequence
of these behavioral changes is less energy expended in
motivated behavior to acquire food, friends, and mates, and
more energy available to the immune system. Although low
motivation to eat may seem to work against the goal of
providing energy to the immune system, the energetic costs
of foraging may be more consequential during illness, food
metabolism may compete with immune function [29], or
some combination thereof. Therefore, it may be more
efficient to rely on stored energy during illness.
Sickness behavior is observed in humans who have high
levels of proinflammatory cytokines either from exogenous
administration as medical treatment or endogenous produc-
tion as a consequence of infection. Administration of
chemotherapeutic cytokines such as interferon-α stimulates
the release of endogenous proinflammatory cytokines. A
substantial number of patients receiving interferon-α
experience moderate to severe symptoms of sickness
behavior such as anhedonia, appetite disturbance, sleep
disturbance, and especially fatigue [30]. Acute, febrile
infections that are characterized by proinflammatory cyto-
kine production also produce sickness behavior. Patients
infected with pathogens such as Ross River virus, Epstein–
Barr virus, or Q fever reported even higher frequency of
sickness behavior than patients receiving interferon-α, with
over half reporting malaise, loss of appetite, and fatigue,
and all reporting anhedonia. Cells from patients with severe
symptoms also produced more proinflammatory cytokines
in culture than those from patients with mild symptoms,
consistent with the experimental evidence linking these
cytokines to sickness behavior [31].
24. At a phenomenological level, these changes may be the
consequence of anhedonia, so ordinarily rewarding activi-
ties such as eating, socializing, and sex are no longer of
interest to the sick individual. Anhedonia had the highest
correlation with proinflammatory cytokine production by
cells from pathogen-infected patients [31]. This and other
studies (e.g., Ref. [32]) suggest that infection decreases
appetitive motivations that might otherwise be priorities for
the animal, promoting energy-conserving behavior such as
sleep and withdrawal [33].
There is evidence that sickness behavior shows pheno-
typic plasticity. In this case, the “trait” of sickness behavior
varies in relationship to an evolutionarily important
situation: threats to young. Mouse dams were injected with
LPS. The resulting sickness behavior included deficits in
nest-building and time to retrieve pups removed from the
nest. However, these deficits were reversed by lowering the
ambient temperature [34]. Because mouse pups depend on
the nest to regulate their body temperature, their survival is
threatened if they are outside the nest when temperatures
drop. Under those circumstances, the dam’s sickness
behavior took a back seat to her motivation to protect her
offspring (as reflected in renewed alacrity in nest-building
and pup-retrieving).
When Survival is a Priority: Fight or Flight
When infection is present or the risk of infection is high, a
physiological shift that prioritizes availability of energy for
an immune response seems most adaptive. However, some
circumstances that pose a high risk of infection also
produce competing demands for energy. Such competition
occurs during acute stress responses, commonly described
as fight-or-flight responses.
25. The label “fight or flight” describes the behavioral
responses available when confronting situations such as
predation, storms, fires, or hostile peers, to name a few
likely stressors for early humans as well as other animals.
Both fighting and fleeing entail significant energetic
demand. In order to support this behavior, well-described
metabolic and physiological changes occur that support the
important actors in fight or flight: the muscles. Sympathetic
nervous system activation increases respiratory and heart
rates and directs blood to the heart and large muscles. With
increasing exertion, blood flow in the muscles increases
from 1,200 to 22,000 mm/min. Blood flow in the viscera,
however, decreases markedly. Blood flow to the kidney, for
example, decreases from 1,100 to 250 mm/min [35].
Sympathetic activation also provides increased fuel to
working muscles. Catecholamines mobilize stores of
glycogen and triacylglycerol to glucose and fatty acids that
can be used by muscles. Activation of the HPA axis and
secretion of cortisol also promotes conversion of glycogen
to glucose, although cortisol also inhibits the uptake of
glucose by muscle [36].
Along with changes in blood flow and metabolism come
changes in the immune system. The energetic costs of
fighting and fleeing would seem to dictate the opposite
pattern from that seen in sickness behavior: energy should
be directed away from the immune system and made
available to the heart and muscles. On the other hand, this
might not be the most ecologically adaptive response
because the circumstances that dictate fighting or fleeing
also increase risk of infection [2, 37]. Targets of predators
or human enemies, if they survive, would be likely to incur
scratches, punctures, or bites. Headlong flight from a storm
or flood might also involve injury such as scrapes from tree
branches. Any wound that breaks the barrier of the skin or
26. allows pathogens entry into the bloodstream is a candidate
for infection. Bacteria, for example, are omnipresent in the
environment, and most wounds are therefore contaminated
by definition [38]. Infections of wounds acquired during
ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125 117
fight or flight were a common cause of death in ancestral
environments [39].
Acute stressors therefore pose a conundrum for the
organism. Provide too little energy to the muscles and risk
the possibility of death by predation, attack, or natural
disaster, or provide too little energy to the immune system
and risk the possibility of death by infection. Examination
of the kind of immune changes that occur during acute
stressors illustrates how this conundrum is solved. A meta-
analysis of studies of human participants challenged with
acute stressors indicated that there are a number of reliable
changes in the immune system during such tasks [2]. These
changes are energetically conservative but could provide
increased short-term protection against infection incurred
during fight or flight.
First, cells and proteins are redistributed. In particular,
there is a dramatic increase in the number of neutrophils
and natural killer cells in the blood. Neutrophils and natural
killer cells have in common their roles as innate first-line
defenders. Neutrophils are the first cells to respond to injury
or infection in the tissues and initiate further inflammatory
responses; natural killer cells contain viral infections until
antigen-specific T cell-mediated responses are possible.
Therefore, during acute stress, the blood becomes more
highly populated with cells that provide first-line defense. It
27. is important to note that there is little evidence that these
cells individually become more potent. For example,
natural killer cell cytotoxicity on the level of an individual
cell does not increase with acute stress [2].
Another potentially important redistribution involves the
release of antibody into secretions, particularly saliva.
Although the time frame of acute stressors is often too
short to permit the de novo synthesis of antibody,
preformed antibody is secreted at a faster rate, increasing
the density of potentially protective antibody in saliva.
Redistribution is perhaps the least energetically costly of
immune functions; by loading blood and saliva with first
responders, the immune system prepares itself for challenge
in an energetically conservative way.
Second, lymphocyte proliferation, particularly among T
cells, reliably decreases. Because proliferation is a costly
response of antigen-specific cells, it is not relevant to the
short-term, nonspecific responses that would be most
critical during acute threat of infection. Decreased prolifer-
ation during acute stressors could also be due to redistri-
bution, since not all T cells have equal proliferative
capacity. T cells are capable of a finite number of
replications; once that number has been reached, the cells
maintain their cytotoxic and cytokine-producing capabili-
ties but lose co-stimulatory molecules and the ability to
proliferate [40]. One possibility to explain the decrease in
T-cell proliferation during acute stress is that these cells are
distributed into the blood because they offer potential for
protection without the cost of proliferation. Supporting this
possibility, acute exercise differentially mobilized T cells
with restricted proliferative ability [41]. This redistribution
means that proliferative capabilities in other immune
compartments such as lymph nodes might be preserved or
28. even enhanced (as cells with low proliferative ability are
distributed out of the lymph nodes into the blood).
Compared with blanket suppression of T-cell proliferation,
a redistribution of T cells would be more adaptive insofar as
it preserves capacity for later antigen-specific responses in
immune compartments other than the blood.
Typical “fight or flight” stressors such as predation,
storms, fires, or fights, carry with them both the energetic
demand of fighting or fleeing (or both) and an increased
risk for infection. In this case, humans appear to have
adapted by associating acute stressors with immune
changes that could potentially provide better first-line
defense against infection at a low cost.
When Resources are a Priority: Sacrificing Immunity?
Unlike acute stressors, chronic stressors—those that last
from days to years—are not associated with changes in the
immune system that could lead to more robust immune
responses. Instead, these changes mostly involve decre-
ments in immune cell functions including proliferation,
cytotoxicity, cytokine production and secretion, and anti-
body production. These changes are seen during stressors
ranging in both severity and duration from academic
examinations to caring for a loved one with dementia.
The longer the stressor, the broader the changes, so that
stressors that last only a few days are more likely to affect
cellular (i.e., killer cell-mediated or Th1 functions), whereas
those that last months or years appear to affect both cellular
and humoral (i.e., antibody-mediated or Th2) functions [2].
Although acquired immunity appears to decrease during
chronic stress, innate immunity—particularly the produc-
tion of proinflammatory cytokines—may be increased [42].
One possibility is that innate immunity is being mustered to
provide a potentially less costly compensation for decreased
29. acquired immunity; another possibility, considered in more
detail later, is that the process of containing acquired
immunity results in innate immunity “escaping” from that
containment.
The dominant perspective on these changes is that
chronic stress perturbs homeostatic mechanisms in the
body and results in poorer immune functions in the cellular
arm, the humoral arm, or both. When the fight-or-flight
response, which was designed to meet short-term energetic
demands, is prolonged, undesirable consequences ensue
[43]. Changes in the immune system under chronic stress
therefore reflect maladaptive, chronic use of a system
118 ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125
adapted to respond to acute threat and distress. This is a
reasonable and useful perspective as evidenced by its
influence and longevity in psychoneuroimmunology re-
search. However, it is not the only potential explanation
and, in fact, more than one mechanism may be acting at
once to influence the immune system during chronic stress.
From an ecological perspective, immunological changes
during chronic stress may reflect a change in priorities in
which the pursuit, protection, or restoration of resources
becomes more important, and optimal immunity becomes
less important.
An Ecological Perspective on Chronic Stress and Immunity
An ecological perspective does not assume that immuno-
logical responses to chronic stressors are necessarily
maladaptations. Instead, there may be a range of optima
in terms of immunocompetence depending on the circum-
30. stances. From this perspective, suppression of costly
immune functions such as decreased cytotoxicity or
antibody production can be adaptive because immunity is
located in an array of potential uses of energy, some of
which may be more important to the organism’s long-term
well-being, survival, or reproductive capacity. In fact, from
an evolutionary perspective, the ultimate measure of an
organism’s adaptive quality is not how well it fights
infection but how well it transmits genes to the next
generation. Fighting infection is important, but not at the
cost of reproductive opportunities or protection of off-
spring. As an example, Bateman’s principle of life-history
strategies states that longevity is more important to females’
fitness, whereas increasing mating rates are more important
to males’ fitness. This principle may explain the finding in
many species that females have stronger immune responses
than males [44].
Resources other than mating opportunities may “trump”
immunity. In murine models, pursuing as well as protecting
ecologically important social and environmental resources
were associated with poorer immunity against experimental
parasite exposure. Scent exposure that signaled upcoming
competition or a mating opportunity with another mouse
increased infection severity and duration [45]. Importantly,
olfactory signals of both the need to protect an existing
resource (in this case, social dominance protected from
another male mouse) and the opportunity to gain a new
resource (in this case, mating opportunity gained with a
female mouse) were associated with worse immunity
against the parasite. Another study randomly assigned
group-housed male mice to cages that were or were not
equipped with shelves and nestboxes, examining the effects
of providing “defendable resources” ([46], p. 1224).
Greater parasitic burden and longer infection occurred in
mice provided with these environmental resources. There-
31. fore, phenotypic plasticity in immunity against parasites
appears to occur in response to the need to both pursue and
protect social and environmental resources.
Decreases in costly immune responses in the service of
protecting threatened resources does not necessarily con-
tradict usual models of stress, since the “threat” of losing
resources could be appraised as stressful and result in
immune changes. Such decreases in the service of pursuing
possible new resources, however, provoke a broader
perspective in which this change takes place as “part of
an adaptive mechanism of physiological and behavioural
decision-making, rather than as simply an unwelcome
incidental cost” ([46], p. 1223).
Human Resources and Ecology
Important human resources overlap significantly with
important mouse resources. On the most basic level,
humans and mice share with many other organisms their
needs for physical energy, the means to replenish that
energy (e.g., food), and the ability to protect their physical
integrity (e.g., shelter). Among social species, acceptance
into a social group can mean sharing food and shelter, as
well as providing mutual protection from predators, so
social resources facilitate access to basic resources. Finally,
within a social group, status can provide more access to
food, shelter, and protection. Basic resources, social
resources, and status resources all contribute to the ultimate
outcome from an evolutionary perspective: representation
of one’s genes in subsequent generations.
Resource loss either implicitly or explicitly plays a role
in most theories of stress. Stress appraisal models accord a
lesser role to resources, predicting that stress occurs only
32. when demands tax or exceed available resources [47]. If
one has enough resources to “spend” in compensating for a
stressful event, these models propose that it is possible to
counteract the demands of stress. However, resource-
focused models are more expansive than appraisal models
in that they propose that any net resource loss is stressful
[48, 49]. Even if resources can be mustered to address the
stressor itself, the process of that mustering also creates
stress. Such loss may be felt acutely if resources in that
domain are already scarce; that is, loss is felt proportion-
ately to available resources [48, 50]. This model accounts
for some phenomena related to stress, resources, and health.
First, in the realm of status resources, there is a
continuous gradient between SES and health [51]. If the
protective value of income arose from having enough
money available to meet the demands of stressors, there
should be a nonlinear relationship between income and
health in which the greatest benefit comes with having
enough income to counteract common stressors (such as
parking tickets) or meet basic needs (such as living in a safe
ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125 119
neighborhood). Living in a safe, luxurious neighborhood
should not provide much benefit above and beyond
living in a safe, middle-class neighborhood. The resource
model, however, predicts that stressors are felt—albeit
differentially—across the income spectrum. At the lower
end, a ticket that costs 10% of one’s monthly income is
more stressful than one that costs 5%, but likewise, at the
upper end, one that costs 0.05% is more stressful than
one that costs 0.01%.
33. Second, in the realm of social relationships, using social
resources does not buffer stress as well as having social
resources. Available social support is a better predictor of
health than received social support [52]; receiving social
support alleviates distress only to the extent that the
recipient is unaware of it [53]; and providing support to
others may be healthier than receiving support from others
[54]. One case in which receiving social support does seem
to be protective is when the recipient has a high level of
available resources [55]; as in the parking ticket example,
spending resources is healthier when doing so depletes a
smaller proportion of the resource pool. Social resources
seem to counteract stress and protect health to the extent
that individuals have them rather than spend them. This is
consistent with a resource model that proposes that building
resources rather than spending them buffers against
stressors.
In order to minimize stress, then, humans must expend
energy to maintain and pursue their resources. From the
perspective of ecological immunology, pursuit of goals and
resources reasonably and rationally changes optimum
immune function. If chronic stress can be effectively
defined as resource loss, immunosuppression under these
circumstances might be a mechanism that makes energy
available to preserve and renew lost resources.
Resources and Immunity: Evidence That More
is Sometimes Less
The basic premise of ecological immunology is that
immunity can be reduced in the service of other beneficial
uses of energy. In many vertebrates, chronic stressors
involve increased energy expenditure, decreased energy
sources, or both. During migration, drought, or famine,
animals may travel long distances to find scarce food or
34. water sources. Even chronic social conflict may compro-
mise an animal’s ability to acquire food, as when a
subordinate animal has food taken from it by a dominant
animal. These chronically stressful situations involve
energy imbalance arising from decreased energy availabil-
ity coupled with increased energy demand in trying to find
(and keep) food. Under such circumstances, it would be
adaptive to cut back on nonessential spending, especially
on costly projects such as immunity and reproduction.
Therefore, costly aspects of human immunity might be
adaptively suppressed during chronic stressors as a con-
served response to ancestral chronic stressors, which
usually and explicitly involved energy shortages.
If one also considers chronic stress to involve the
scarcity or loss of resources other than food and water,
human immunity might also be adaptively suppressed
during chronic stressors in order to protect, maintain, and
pursue those resources. For many vertebrates, these
activities might involve physical acts such as retrieving
offspring, competing for mates, and acquiring and defend-
ing territory such as a nestbox [34, 45, 46]. For humans,
these activities might involve the pursuit of maintaining and
acquiring resources such as socioeconomic status or social
integration. When resources are lost or threatened through
social conflict, bereavement, unemployment, and the like,
an adaptive response would be to redirect energy toward
rebuilding or compensating for those resources. This
response could account for some of the decreases in
immune function (e.g., in proliferation, protein production,
and cytotoxicity) observed during stressors such as marital
conflict, bereavement, and unemployment [2]. It might also
create empirical relationships that are unexpected: people
making stronger efforts to maintain or accumulate resources
might have poorer immune function than those making
35. weaker efforts, particularly if they are facing multiple
demands on their energy. In fact, several examples of just
such relationships exist. The largest number of examples
examines the relationships among stressors, social net-
works, and immune function, but there is also evidence that
personality factors associated with persistent goal pursuit
can yield similar findings.
Social Networks, Energy, and Immunity
Large and diverse social networks generally associate with
better immunity and longevity [7, 56]. They also take time
and energy to maintain. The number of social contacts
received and available social support are directly related to
efforts to initiate social contacts and provide social support
[57, 58]. Social resources, like other resources, are actively
built and maintained.
These building and maintenance activities, when com-
bined with other demands, may come at an energetic and
immunological cost. In a review of the literature on social
relationships and HIV infection, perceived availability of
social support was often associated with higher number of
CD4+ T cells (the cells selectively infected and destroyed
by the HIV virus), higher natural killer cell cytotoxicity,
later symptom onset, and longer survival [8]. This is
consistent with the finding that perceived social support is
the most salubrious kind [52]. Other social parameters, such
as social network size, were either unrelated to immunity
120 ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125
and health or had negative consequences, particularly in
prospective studies. More anticipated social activity, greater
36. affinity with social networks, larger social networks, and
less loneliness were associated with faster CD4+ T-cell
decline, earlier symptom onset, and greater mortality [8].
The energetic costs of maintaining or even interacting with
large social networks may be detrimental to immunity and,
therefore, health in the context of chronic infection.
Paradoxical effects of social network size on immunity
have also been observed in healthy, young adults. For first-
year law students, one of the major challenges is balancing
curricular demands with extracurricular interests and activ-
ities, and finding time and energy to interact with
significant others such as friends and family is a significant
concern. Among first-year law students, relocation to attend
law school and attendant separation from established social
networks was associated with better cellular immunity as
measured by delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) testing.
Within-person changes in social network size across the
first six months of law school paralleled this between-
person finding: at those assessment points when a student
had more social contacts, he or she also had poorer cellular
immunity [9]. Although there might be a psychological
benefit to tonic and phasic engagement with one’s social
network, there also appears to be an immunological cost
associated with maintaining network contacts while also
meeting the demands of law school.
Finally, ecologically motivated changes in immunity
may have health consequences. A diary study of students
found that life events were associated with higher numbers
of clinically verified upper respiratory infections only
among students with large social networks [10]. One
potential explanation for this interaction among social
networks, stress, and infectious disease is that social
networks provide more opportunities for infection. Howev-
er, this explanation cannot suffice to explain differences in
37. response to DTH testing or studies of HIV infection in
which controls for potential reexposure were included (e.g.,
Ref. [59]).
Optimism, Energy, and Immunity
The potential energetic and immunological costs of social
networks are also evident in a series of studies focusing on
the consequences of stress and dispositional optimism.
Dispositional optimism reflects generalized expectations for
a positive future [60]. In turn, positive expectations result in
more goal-directed motivation and persistence both in and
out of the lab [61–64]. In law students, more optimistic
students should be expected to engage conflicts between
academic and social demands while their pessimistic
counterparts reduce their effort to meet curricular demands,
extracurricular demands, or both [63].
In three separate samples, optimism was negatively
correlated with cellular immunity (again, as measured by
DTH testing) in students who did not move away to attend
law school and positively correlated with cellular immunity
in students who did [65, 66]. These results reflect
phenotypic plasticity in response to energetic cost of goal
pursuit under demanding circumstances. In this case, the
cost is observed among individuals in the most demanding
context and with the greatest propensity to pursue and
protect goals and resources (i.e., optimists). A similar effect
has been observed in community-dwelling women. In this
sample, during short-term stressors (i.e., less demanding
circumstances), dispositional optimism correlated with
higher numbers of T cells. During long-term stressors (i.e.,
more demanding circumstances), however, dispositional
optimism correlated with lower numbers of T cells [67].
Similarly, in laboratory studies, dispositional optimism
predicted higher immune parameters (such as natural killer
38. cell cytotoxicity or skin test response) after less demanding
stressors or rest, but lower immune parameters after more
demanding stressors [68, 69]. In demanding circumstances,
optimists’ energetic efforts to overcome or master difficulties
and stressors appear to result in lower cellular immune
function than the withdrawal more typical of their pessimis-
tic counterparts.
These effects are, however, potentially interpretable in
another light. Specifically, it has been suggested that when
positive expectations are not borne out, optimism can result
in disappointment and distress and thereby compromise
immunity [67, 69, 70]. However, there is little evidence to
support this mechanism. Explicit tests of the effects of
disappointing situations do not show that optimists are
vulnerable relative to pessimists [66, 71, 72] or that
affective pathways mediate between optimism and DTH
responses [66].
Further Considerations
Can Traditional and Ecological Models Coexist?
Ecological effects do not eliminate the need for traditional
views of stress and stress buffers, and vice versa. For
example, the interaction between dispositional optimism
and social demands (as indexed by relocation) predicted
number of T cells and the immune response to DTH testing
in a manner consistent with the ecological model [65, 66],
but in the same samples, appraisals of law school as more
stressful correlated with lower natural killer cell cytotox-
icity and poorer response to DTH testing, more negative
daily mood correlated with poorer immune responses to
DTH testing, and more positive daily mood correlated with
more robust responses [66, 73, 74].
39. ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125 121
Ideally, psychoneuroimmunology research should begin
to combine these perspectives to best understand changes in
the immune system that accompany stressors. Many
investigations into the relationship between stressors and
immunity have assessed stress appraisals or negative moods
directly, but the assessment of resources is rare. Resource
assessments for PNI studies could be standardized, as in the
Conservation of Resources Evaluation [50]; idiosyncratic to
situation, as in loss of possessions after an earthquake [75];
or idiographic, as in self-nominated resources pertinent to
current goals [76]. In any case, combining assessments of
resources and distress may yield fruitful insights into the
relationship between stress and immunity. These effects
may be additive: among hospital workers who experienced
the Northridge earthquake, both distress and resource loss
were independently associated with number of T cells [75].
It may also be important to examine the construct of
stress through an evolutionary or ecological lens in order to
determine what kind of response is demanded by the
stressor and what the adaptive response might be. One
principle of evolutionary science is that adaptations emerge
in response to specific challenges in the environment. The
nonspecificity of the term “stress” disguises the variety of
environmental challenges. Equating stress with threat and
the “fight or flight” response supposes that stressors should
invariably result in increased energy directed to the
periphery (through autonomic and neuroendocrine mecha-
nisms described above), particularly the muscles. Behavior
is the prioritized response. However, stress can also result
from an internal threat such as infection, in which case the
“protein production and proliferation” response of the
40. immune system should result and behavior will be
inhibited. Immunity is the prioritized response. Finally,
stress may also result from opportunities to acquire resources
that require self-regulatory responses. In this case, the needs
of the brain to “pause and plan” may take priority, with
energy directed away from the periphery [77]. Definitions of
stress as equivalent to threat may not be broad enough to
encompass all important situations in human ecology.
Chronic Stress and Proinflammatory Cytokines
Although stressors typically associate with decrements in
immunity in the cellular and humoral compartments, recent
evidence demonstrates that stressors, both acute and
chronic, are associated with higher levels of proinflamma-
tory cytokines [42, 78]. How does a potentially energy-
conserving mechanism (ecologically driven suppression of
immune functions such as cell proliferation and antibody
production during chronic stress) account for increased
levels of proinflammatory cytokines? One possibility is that
the mechanism by which acquired immunity is contained
eventually allows innate immunity to escape this contain-
ment. Tonic and phasic control over immune activity is
likely to be achieved via immunosuppressive mechanisms
such as corticosteroids. In animal models, withdrawing
corticosteroids via adrenalectomy results in a pathological
level of immune activity that can result in mortality from
autoimmunity or septic shock [79, 80]. Humans with
insufficient endogenous production of cortisol are also at
higher risk for death from septic shock, a risk that can be
ameliorated by administration of exogenous corticosteroids
[81]. Titration of immune activity to meet optimal levels is
likely to be achieved by greater or lesser degrees of
suppression, not by immune enhancement—the effects of
a merely unrestricted immune system are potent enough.
41. Prolonged exposure to elevated cortisol can alter the
sensitivity of receptors on immune cells and blunt its anti-
inflammatory potential [82]. These findings suggest that
after some time, ecologically titrated containment of the
immune system may fail. A similar failure as a consequence
of frequent or prolonged “fight or flight” responses has
been implied in the development of allostatic load (i.e., “the
wear and tear that results from chronic overactivity” of
stress response systems; [83], p. 171). The time course of
the progress from ecological allostasis to pathological
allostatic load will be an important area of further
investigation. The clinical implications of this failure are
not trivial, insofar as inflammatory escape can increase
health risk associated with proinflammatory cytokines such
as IL-6 [3–5], the energetic costs of this escape may reduce
availability of energetic resources for other systems (cf.
Ref. [22]), or both.
The Ecological Model and Long-term Implications
for Health
The basic premise of the ecological model is that costs (e.g.,
increased risk of infection) can be traded for benefits (e.g.,
resources or reproduction). Empirical tests of this proposition
in humans are needed, although the factors that are
associated with phasic reductions in immunity in healthy
adults (i.e., social network size and dispositional optimism)
in small-scale psychoneuroimmunology studies also tend to
be associated with better long-term health outcomes in
epidemiological and meta-analytic studies (e.g., Refs. [7,
84]). Therefore, the long-term health evidence suggests that
the immunological cost associated with protecting or
building resources may be more than offset by the longer-
term health advantage of having those resources.
42. Adamo [85] lists major problems in interpreting immune
function in light of disease resistance and health:
(1) correlations between assays of immunity and
disease resistance are typically pathogen specific, (2)
correlations between assays of immunity and disease
122 ann. behav. med. (2010) 40:114–125
resistance are sometimes weak or nonexistent, (3)
research suggests that some immune components
have a threshold value such that changes above that
threshold value may have no biological significance
(p. 1443).
These problems raise interesting questions about eco-
logical effects on immunity and their consequences for
health. For example, life history of pathogen exposure, as a
signal of what kinds of infectious threats exist in the
environment, might affect which immune components are
more or less susceptible to ecological effects. Immune
components that have been called into use may be less
susceptible. As another example, different populations may
differ in their “threshold value”, such that ecological effects
have health consequences for some populations (e.g., HIV
patients or the elderly) but not others (e.g., healthy children
or young adults).
Mechanisms of Ecological Effects on Immunity
Further investigations into the role of energy in stress-
related immune change and especially the mechanisms
involved are needed. Schmid-Hempel [86] noted that in the
ecological immunology literature, survival costs or reduc-
43. tion in physical condition during immune responses
become apparent only when additional energy challenge is
present (e.g., starvation), possibly because up to a point it is
possible to compensate for energetic demands (e.g., through
additional food intake). Hormonal pathways directly related
to energy and energy mobilization (e.g., cortisol) are
therefore obvious potential mediators between ecological
demands and immunological responses. However, others
have been proposed. Lessells [24] points out that energy
starvation per se may act as a mediator of ecologically
motivated immunosuppression, but it is “better to shut [the
immune system] down in an orderly fashion that allows
remaining resources to be used to maximum effect than to
starve it into inactivity” (p. 1593). The neuroendocrine
system is likely to provide signals about resources that
mediate ecological trade-offs with immunity. Testosterone
may account for immunological differences between the
sexes that conform to the Bateman principle, although such
sex differences also exist in invertebrates that lack
testosterone [44]. Leptin, a hormone secreted by adipose
tissue (i.e., body fat), has been suggested as a signal to the
immune system about the amount of energy available to the
organism [15]. Melatonin has been proposed to signal
energetic trade-offs related to the seasons, including
immunological trade-offs [87]. Finally, others (e.g., Refs.
[88]) have argued that lack of energy may not entirely
mediate the negative effects of stress on the immune
system. Rather, an increase in energy turnover or metabolic
rate during stress could increase the production of free
radicals that damage the immune system and prevent it
from functioning effectively.
Conclusion
An ecological approach to the relationship between stress
44. and immune function specifies that immune function may
be sacrificed to meet other goals, a process that does not
necessary imply threat but incorporates the idea of limited
energetic resources. This approach can account for immune
responses to both acute and chronic stressors, as well as
seemingly paradoxical effects of stress buffers such as
social network size and optimism on immune function.
Acknowledgements The author thanks David Westneat and
Gregory
E. Miller for their helpful comments on an earlier version of the
manuscript.
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