Deep goel summer_internship_report_on_seed_management_updated - copy

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SEED MANAGEMENT
A SUMMER INTERNSHIP PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
Deep Goel
Roll No 859
2 Month Internship Done at IMT, MANESAR, GURGAON branch of
In partial fulfilment of summer internship for the award of the degree
Of
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
At
UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF LAW & MANAGEMENT STUDIES
SECTOR 40 GURGAON 122001 HARYANA
MAHARASHI DAYANAD UNIVERSITY ROHTAK
HARYANA- 124001
JULY 2014

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Declaration
I hereby declare that the work being presented as the summer internship project report titled
“Seed Management” is an authentic record of my work carried out at Sakata Seeds India under
the able guidance and supervision of Mr. Ram Niwas Yadav. The matter embodied in the report
has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma.
Deep Goel
College Roll No: 859
Exam Roll No

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Certificate
This is to certify that the Summer Internship Project Report Titled
“Seed Management ”
is bonafide work of
Mr. Deep Goel College Roll No _859_ Examination Roll No _____________ 2nd year, 3rd
Sem MBA in UILMS Gurgaon
and has been carried out under my supervision from
July 2014 to August 2014
at
Sakata Seeds India.
This report is in partial fulfilment of summer internship for the award of degree of MBA by
MDU Rohtak.
I wish him success in all his future endeavours.
Place Manesar, Gurgaon Signature of the Supervisor
Date: Name:
Designation:
Department/Organization:

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Acknowledgement
First of all, I would like to thank the Management at Sakata Deeds India for giving me the
opportunity to do my two-month project training at their esteemed organization. I am highly
obliged to Mr. Ram Niwas Yadav (Development Manager) for agreeing to supervise my
training at the Manesar branch. I am thankful to him for taking keen interest in my project and
for providing his constant guidance that made my training fruitful.
I express my thanks to all the Marketing Managers at the company under whose able guidance
and direction, I was able to give shape to my training. Their constant review and excellent
suggestions throughout the project are highly commendable.
My heartfelt thanks go to all the executives and employees of the company who spared their
valuable time and helped me gain knowledge about the actual working and the processes
involved in a seed research and marketing company. It has been a truly good learning
experience for me.
Deep Goel
College Roll No: 859
Exam Roll No

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Table of Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................... 11
1. Introduction to Agriculture.............................................................................................................. 13
1.1 Development of Scientific Agriculture..................................................................................... 13
1.2 Importance of Agriculture........................................................................................................ 13
1.3 Agriculture as Art, Science and Business of Crop Production.................................................. 14
1.4 Branches of Agriculture ........................................................................................................... 15
1.5 An introduction to Agronomy.................................................................................................. 16
1.5.1 Basic Principles of Agronomy........................................................................................... 16
1.6 Agricultural Inputs.................................................................................................................... 17
2. Seed Production and Types of Seeds............................................................................................... 19
2.1 Seed Evolution ......................................................................................................................... 19
2.2 Seed Production....................................................................................................................... 19
2.3 Types of Seeds – First Classification......................................................................................... 20
1. Open-pollination:......................................................................................................................... 20
2. Heirloom: ..................................................................................................................................... 21
3. Hybrids:........................................................................................................................................ 21
4. Genetically modified seeds (GMO – Genetically modified Organisms):...................................... 24
5. Organic:........................................................................................................................................ 24
2.4 So what is best —hybrid, open-pollinated, genetically modified, organic or heirloom
varieties?.............................................................................................................................................. 25
2.5 Difference between organic seeds/plants and heirloom seeds/plants................................... 26
2.6 Types of Seeds – Second Classification.................................................................................... 27
1. Nucleus seed:............................................................................................................................... 27
2. Breeder's seed: ............................................................................................................................ 27
3. Foundation seed: ......................................................................................................................... 27

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4. Certified seed:.............................................................................................................................. 27
3. Sakata Seed Corporation – An Introduction .................................................................................... 28
3.1 Sakata Seeds Corporation........................................................................................................ 28
3.2 History of Sakata Seed Corporation......................................................................................... 28
3.3 Sakata Company Profile........................................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Business............................................................................................................................ 31
3.3.2 Fields of Business............................................................................................................. 31
3.3.3 Paid-in Capital and Annual Turnover ............................................................................... 32
3.4 Major Research Products from Sakata Seeds.......................................................................... 32
3.5 Sakata Seeds in India................................................................................................................ 38
1. Poorvi – Okra –......................................................................................................................... 38
2. Green Express – Cabbage –...................................................................................................... 38
3. Anokhi – Chilli –........................................................................................................................ 38
4. Emerald – Tomato –................................................................................................................. 38
5. White Marble – Cabbage – ...................................................................................................... 38
6. Hachi Michi – Water Melon – .................................................................................................. 38
7. Yellow 300 - Marigold -............................................................................................................ 38
3.6 Corporate Governance at Sakata Seeds .................................................................................. 38
4. Seeds, Treatment, Sowing, Storage and Transport ......................................................................... 40
4.1 Characteristics of a Seed.......................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Advantages of Using Good Quality Seeds................................................................................ 40
4.3 Seed Germination .................................................................................................................... 41
4.3.1 Factors Affecting Seed Germination................................................................................ 41
4.4 Seed Rate ................................................................................................................................. 42
4.5 Seed Treatment ....................................................................................................................... 42
4.5.1 Methods of Seed Treatment............................................................................................ 43

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4.6 Sowing...................................................................................................................................... 43
4.6.1 Methods of Sowing.......................................................................................................... 43
4.7 Seed Storage and Transport .................................................................................................... 44
5. Soil Survey........................................................................................................................................ 47
5.1 Objectives of Soil Survey.......................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Plant Protection ....................................................................................................................... 48
6. Seed Regulation in India .................................................................................................................. 49
6.1 New Policy on Seed Development, 1988................................................................................. 49
6.2 Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order (Regulation of Import into India order) 1989......................... 49
6.3 Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Right Act, 2001 ..................................................... 51
6.4 National Seed Policy, 2002....................................................................................................... 54
6.5 Regulatory Measures Specific to Transgenic Seeds................................................................. 55
7. Structure of Seed Sector.................................................................................................................. 57
7.1 Structure of the Indian Seed Industry...................................................................................... 57
7.2 Public Sector Seeds Companies ............................................................................................... 57
7.3 Private Sector Seed Companies ............................................................................................... 59
7.4 Towards Developing Plant Varieties........................................................................................ 60
7.5 Public-Private Sector Cooperation........................................................................................... 61
8. Types of Seed Production and Distribution Organizations.............................................................. 63
8.1 Government Departments....................................................................................................... 63
8.2 State-Owned Corporations...................................................................................................... 63
8.3 Private Enterprises................................................................................................................... 63
8.4 Cooperatives............................................................................................................................ 64
8.5 Seed Producers' Associations .................................................................................................. 64
9. The Purpose of Seed Marketing....................................................................................................... 65
9.1 Marketing Information ............................................................................................................ 65

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9.1.1 The information required on general economic and political factors includes:.............. 66
9.1.2 The following information is needed about the market place:....................................... 66
9.1.3 Information required by managers on their company and its products: ........................ 66
9.1.4 Information required about competitor companies includes:........................................ 67
9.1.5 Seed companies will also require the following information on their distributors:........ 67
9.1.6 Information needed regarding farmers includes:............................................................ 68
9.1.7 Finally, information is required from the buyers of farm produce grown from the
company's seeds. This information includes: .................................................................................. 68
9.2 Sources of Information ............................................................................................................ 69
9.2.1 Internal Information......................................................................................................... 69
9.2.2 External Information........................................................................................................ 69
10. The Importance of Price............................................................................................................... 71
10.1 Price and Demand.................................................................................................................... 71
10.2 The Cost of Seed ...................................................................................................................... 72
10.3 Pricing Policy............................................................................................................................ 73
10.4 Pricing Strategies ..................................................................................................................... 74
10.4.1 Low Price Strategy............................................................................................................ 74
10.4.2 Market Price Strategy ...................................................................................................... 75
10.4.3 High Price Strategy........................................................................................................... 75
10.5 Pricing Techniques ................................................................................................................... 75
10.5.1 Cost-Plus Pricing............................................................................................................... 75
10.5.2 Contribution Pricing......................................................................................................... 75
10.5.3 Competitive Pricing.......................................................................................................... 76
10.5.4 Short-Term Pricing Techniques........................................................................................ 76
10.6 Distributors' Margins ............................................................................................................... 76
10.7 Price Lists, Terms and Conditions of Sale Price Lists................................................................ 77

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10.7.1 Some Components of Terms and Conditions of Sale....................................................... 77
10.7.2 Terms and Conditions of Sale .......................................................................................... 78
11. Market Segmentation.................................................................................................................. 79
12. Management of Distribution and Sales ....................................................................................... 81
12.1 Sales Service............................................................................................................................. 81
12.2 Order and Stock Administration .............................................................................................. 82
12.3 Operations Calendar................................................................................................................ 84
12.4 Selection of Dealers ................................................................................................................. 84
12.5 Competitor Companies............................................................................................................ 84
12.6 Marketing Techniques that Sakata Seeds Can Adopt in India ................................................. 85
12.6.1 Participation in flower shows, vegetable shows and trade and village fairs –................ 85
12.6.2 Advertisement on Radio and Television including Kissan Channel ............................... 85
12.6.3 Sponsorship of Scholarships in State Agriculture Universities in India.......................... 86
12.6.4 Membership of National Seed Association of India and Advertisements in its Magazines
86
12.6.5 Employing of Direct Sales Agents of the Company ........................................................ 86
12.6.6 Partnership with Seed Dealers ......................................................................................... 86
12.6.7 Set up of dedicated Sakata Seeds Sale Channels/Counters Near the Agricultural Farms87
13. Opportunities for Sakata Seeds in India ...................................................................................... 88
13.1 Impact of Hybrid Technology in India...................................................................................... 88
13.2 Relevance of Hybrid Technology in India................................................................................. 92
13.3 Hybrid Revolution in Vegetables in India................................................................................. 94
13.4 Strengths, Weaknesses and Constraints in Hybrid Vegetable Seed Production in India......... 96
13.4.1 Strengths.......................................................................................................................... 96
13.4.2 Weaknesses ..................................................................................................................... 97
13.4.3 Constraints in Hybrid Seed Production............................................................................ 97

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13.5 Vegetable Hybrid Seed Production System ............................................................................. 98
14. Concluding Remarks................................................................................................................... 101
Appendix A............................................................................................................................................. 102
1. Changing Agricultural Scenario in India......................................................................................... 102
1.1 National horticulture mission ................................................................................................ 102
1.2 Agricultural Credit (Kisan credit card).................................................................................... 102
1.3 Agriculture Insurance............................................................................................................. 102
1.4 Agriculture Marketing Reforms ............................................................................................. 102
1.5 National Food Security Act, 2013 .......................................................................................... 103
1.5.1 Salient Features.................................................................................................................. 103
1.6 WTO: Indian Stand on Food Security..................................................................................... 104
2. Climate Change and Variability...................................................................................................... 105
2.1 Climate Change...................................................................................................................... 105
2.2 Climate Variability.................................................................................................................. 105
2.3 Causes of Climatic Variability................................................................................................. 106
2.3.1 External Causes.............................................................................................................. 106
2.3.2 Internal Causes............................................................................................................... 106
2.4 Effects of Climate Change...................................................................................................... 106
2.4.1 Greenhouse Effect –....................................................................................................... 107
Appendix B............................................................................................................................................. 108
1. References ..................................................................................................................................... 108

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Abstract
Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and the business of producing crops and the livestock
for economic purposes. It is the branch of science encompassing the applied aspects of basic
sciences. As various groups of men undertook deliberate cultivation of wild plants and
domestication of wild animals, agriculture came into being. Agronomy is a branch of agricultural
science which deals with principles and practices of field crop production and management of soil
for higher productivity.
Agriculture provides the bulk of wage goods required by non agriculture sectors and most of the raw
materials for the industries sector. Seeds form the most important agricultural input and directly
impact agricultural production and productivity. Seeds can be classified in many categories
depending on the pollination method or the breeder’s generation. Seed production today has become
a cost and labour intensive industry. In India, public sector companies look into low value, high
volume crop seeds while the private sector seed companies are focussed on the high value, low
volume vegetable and fruit seeds.
In the 100 years since its founding in 1913, Sakata Seed Corporation has always shown pride in
itself as a seed seller. It has been able to establish its research and sales centres across many counties
in the world. In 2008, it entered the Indian market as well. Its focus in the Indian market has been on
select vegetables and fruits for which the market is matured and there would be no apprehensions in
the mind of farmers. This will also provide a very good head start to the company in the Indian
market. What is required is to make the Indian farmers aware of the research based quality seeds
free from genetic modification being supplied by the company. This can be done through various
marketing techniques.
Also, Sakata Seeds has made entry in the Indian market at a very opportune time. Sakata Seeds is
mostly offering F1 vegetable hybrids. The Indian market is in a very receptive stage towards F1
vegetable hybrids. Many of the vegetable seeds being offered by Sakata Seeds in India have been
well received by Indian farmers and they have seen the positive impact of using such seeds in the
form of increased production up to 194 percent. In addition, many programs are being run to ensure
nutritional security for the Indian population. This has created even higher need for F1 hybrid seeds
in the Indian market. Hence, the Indian market presents very good opportunity to Sakata Seeds to
grow its market share and in turn be benefitted through the company’s R&D.
Private companies have been supplying the seed of the more easily controlled and more profitable
hybrid and vegetable crops, leaving the public sector to concentrate on the more strategic, higher
volume, non-hybrid crops. Non hybrid seed, which the farmer can save, will be more price sensitive
than hybrid seed. Seed held in stock at the various stages of processing also have to be financed.
This is a significant cost item and there may be serious financial consequences for a business that

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has high stock levels. Government pricing policy should not undermine private enterprise in a mixed
economy since the private sector will need to establish a price structure which will reflect the true
cost of seed and meet its business objectives.
The distribution of seeds takes place through retail outlets which can receive their supplies directly
from the seed producer, through intermediate distributors, or through wholly integrated companies
which control all the major functions of breeding, production and distribution and have a complete
sales network. In a market economy seeds of the same or similar varieties will be available from
various sources, allowing customers to choose between different brands. Individual customers have
different needs but an organization cannot provide a different product and service for each customer,
neither can customers be served properly if they are all treated as being the same. This calls for the
need of market segmentation.
Farmers' demands are seasonal and they generally buy seed just before sowing time, rather than
planning ahead, with the result that the transport and delivery system can be put under extreme
pressure. Intermediate storage between the seed company's stores and the retailers will therefore
need to be considered to make the system more responsive, but this will add to the cost.
Private companies supplying field crop seeds are unlikely to be able to justify a direct sales
organization unless they have a monopoly on the market or are selling a broad product range in a
developed market. The marketing manager in the supplying organization must be satisfied that
minimum storage standards can be met by the distributors, allowing for the length of time seed is
expected to be in store. The dealership should be worth holding so that dealer will work to achieve
targets rather than risk losing his dealership.
Private companies also need to look into the seed marketing aspects. There are seven aspects to seed
marketing covering information on general economic and political factors, market place, company
and its products, competitor companies, distributors, farmers and the buyers of farm produce grown
from the company's seeds. Information on these aspects can be and should be collected from both
internal and external sources.
Apart from this, private companies need to consider the pricing of their seeds, market segmentation
as the entire market cannot be reached and sales and distribution management including dealer
selection and dealer management.
All these aspects have been covered in this report as part of my internship input to the company.

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1. Introduction to Agriculture
Agriculture is the principal source of livelihood for more than 55 per cent of the population of this
country. Agriculture provides the bulk of wage goods required by non agriculture sectors and most
of the raw materials for the industries sector. The combined efforts of the Central Government, State
Governments, Corporate Sector and the Farming Community have succeeded in achieving record
production of 259.29 million tonnes of food grains during 2011-12.
1.1 Development of Scientific Agriculture
Early man was hunter-gatherer. He hunted animals, fished and collected fruits, roots and other forest
produce. He had wide knowledge on which plants to eat and which plants were poisonous. To this
day, some groups still pursue this simple way of life and others have continued as roving herdsmen.
However, as various groups of men undertook deliberate cultivation of wild plants and
domestication of wild animals, agriculture came into being. Cultivation of crops, notably grains
such as wheat, rice, barley and millets, encouraged settlement of stable farm communities, some of
which grew into a town or city in various parts of the world. Slowly, around 8000 years ago,
agriculture developed in Mehrgarh area in West Pakistan for the first time in human history. It
changed the way of life and man started living a more settled life tending to his plants.
Early agricultural implements-digging stick, hoe, scythe and plough-developed slowly over the
centuries and each innovation caused profound changes in human life. From early times too, men
created indigenous systems of irrigation especially in semi-arid areas and regions of periodic
rainfall.
1.2 Importance of Agriculture
Agriculture helps to meet the basic needs of human and their civilization by providing food,
clothing, shelter, medicine and recreation. Hence, agriculture is the most important enterprise in the
world. It is a productive unit where the free gifts of nature namely land, light, air, temperature and
rain water etc. are integrated into single primary unit indispensable for human beings. Secondary
productive units namely animals including livestock, birds and insects, feed on these primary units
and provide concentrated products such as meat, milk, wool, eggs, honey, silk and lac.

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Agriculture provides food, feed, fibre, fuel, furniture, raw materials and materials for factories;
provides a free fare and fresh environment, abundant food for driving out famine and favours
friendship by eliminating fights. Satisfactory agricultural production brings peace, prosperity,
harmony, health and wealth to individuals of a nation by driving away distrust, discord and anarchy.
It helps to elevate the community consisting of different castes and clauses, thus it leads to a better
social, cultural, political and economical life. Agriculture consists of growing plants and rearing
animals in order to produce and thus it helps to maintain a biological equilibrium in nature.
Agricultural development is multidirectional having galloping speed and rapid spread with respect
to time and space.
In India, after green revolution, farmers started using improved cultural practices and agricultural
inputs in intensive cropping systems with labourer intensive programmes to enhance the production
potential per unit land, time and input. It provided suitable environment to all these improved
genotypes (crop varieties) to foster and manifest their yield potential in newer areas and seasons.
1.3 Agriculture as Art, Science and Business of Crop
Production
Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and the business of producing crops and the livestock
for economic purposes.
A. As an art, it embraces knowledge of the ways to perform the operations of the farm in a
skilful manner. The skill is categorized as:
Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to carry out the operation in an efficient way e.g.,
handling of farm implements, animals etc., sowing of seeds, fertilizer and pesticides application, etc.
Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a decision based on experience, such as (i) time and method
of ploughing, (ii) selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and climate, (iii) adopting
improved farm practices etc.
B. As science: It utilizes all modern technologies developed on scientific principles such as
crop improvement/breeding, crop production, crop protection, economics etc. to maximize
the yield and profit. For example, new crops and varieties developed by hybridization,
transgenic crop varieties resistant to pests and diseases, hybrids in each crop, high fertilizer

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responsive varieties, water management, herbicides to control weeds, use of bio-control
agents to combat pest and diseases etc.
C. As business: As long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population, production is
ultimately bound to consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at maximum net return
through the management of land, labour, water and capital, employing the knowledge of
various sciences for production of food, feed, fibre and fuel. In recent years, agriculture has
been commercialized to run as a business through mechanization.
1.4 Branches of Agriculture
Agriculture has 3 main spheres viz., geoponic (cultivation in earth-soil), aeroponic (cultivation in
air) and hydroponic (cultivation in water).
Agriculture is the branch of science encompassing the applied aspects of basic sciences. The applied
aspects of agricultural science consist of study of field crops and their management (agriculture)
including soil management.
Crop production - It deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops, fodder
crops, fibre crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. It includes agronomy, soil science, entomology, pathology,
microbiology, etc. The aim is to have better food production and how to control the diseases.
Horticulture – It is the branch of agriculture that deals with the production of flowers, fruits,
vegetables, ornamental plants, spices, condiments (includes narcotic crops-opium, etc. which has
medicinal value) and beverages.
Agricultural engineering - It is an important component for crop production and horticulture
particularly to provide tools and implements. It is aiming to produce modified tools to facilitate
proper animal husbandry and crop production tools, implements and machinery in animal
production.
Forestry - It deals with production of large scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying wood,
timber, rubber, etc. And it also supplies raw materials for industries.
Animal husbandry - The animals being produced, maintained, etc. maintenance of various types of
livestock for direct energy (work energy). Husbandry is common for both crop and animals. The
objective is to get maximum output by feeding, rearing, etc. The arrangement of crops is done to get
minimum requirement of light or air. This arrangement is called geometry.

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Fishery science - It is for rearing marine fish and inland fishes including shrimps and prawns.
Home science - Application and utilization of agricultural produces in a better manner. When
utilization is enhanced production is also enhanced, e.g., a crop once in use in South was found that
it had many uses now.
1.5 An introduction to Agronomy
The word agronomy has been derived from the two Greek words, agros and nomos having the
meaning of field and to manage, respectively. Literally, agronomy means the “art of managing
field”. Technically, it means the “science and economics of crop production by management of farm
land”.
Definition: Agronomy is the art and underlying science in production and improvement of field
crops with the efficient use of soil fertility, water, labourer and other factors related to crop
production.
Agronomy is the field of study and practice of ways and means of production of food, feed and fibre
crops. Agronomy is defined as a branch of Agricultural science which deals with principles and
practices of field crop production and management of soil for higher productivity.
Importance: Among all the branches of agriculture, agronomy occupies a pivotal position and is
regarded as the mother branch or primary branch. Like agriculture, agronomy is an integrated and
applied aspect of different disciplines of pure sciences. Agronomy has three clear branches namely,
(i) crop science
(ii) soil science, and
(iii) environmental science that deals only with applied aspects i.e., soil-crop-environmental
relationship
Agronomy is a synthesis of several disciplines like crop science, which includes plant breeding,
crop physiology and biochemistry etc. and soil science, which includes soil fertilizers, manures etc.
and environmental science which includes meteorology and crop ecology.
1.5.1 Basic Principles of Agronomy
Basic principles of agronomy include:
 Planning, programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of land, labourer,
capital and other factors of production

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 Choice of crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation, soil fertility,
season and method of cultivation and befitting to the cropping system
 Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for irrigation and
drainage, checking soil erosion, levelling and adopting other suitable land improvement
practices
 Adoption of multiple cropping and also mixed or intercropping to ensure harvest even under
adverse environmental conditions
 Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop and improvement of soil
fertility and productivity. Correction of ill-effects of soil reactions and conditions and
increasing soil organic matter through the application of green manure, farm yard manure,
organic wastes, bio-fertilizers and profitable recycling of organic wastes
 Choice of quality seed or seed material and maintenance of requisite plant density per unit
area with healthy and uniform seedlings
 Proper water management with respect to crop, soil and environment through conservation
and utilization of soil moisture as well as by utilizing water that is available in excess, and
scheduling irrigation at critical stages of crop growth
 Adoption of adequate, need-based, timely and exacting plant protection measures against
weeds, insect-pests, pathogens, as well as climatic hazards and correction of deficiencies and
disorders
 Adoption of suitable and appropriate management practices including intercultural
operations to get maximum benefit from inputs dearer and difficult to get, low-monetary and
non-monetary inputs
 Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to reduce field loss and to
release land for succeeding crop(s) and efficient utilization of residual moisture, plant
nutrients and other management practices
 Adoption of suitable post-harvest technologies
1.6 Agricultural Inputs
Agro Inputs
Input is Something put into a Agriculture/farming to achieve output in terms of yield/income or a
result, especially:
a. Energy, work, or power used to drive a machine - Current, electromotive force, or power supplied
to an electric circuit, network, or device.
b. The other commonly used agricultural Inputs are Seeds, Fertilizers, pesticides and human &

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natural resources, water, manures, sunlight, etc.
Of these, seeds are one of the most important inputs which have the tremendous potential to
increase productivity, especially during climate change. Seeds are also the subject of study for this
project report also as Sakata Seed is a seed research and seed producing company.

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2. Seed Production and Types of Seeds
2.1 Seed Evolution
The evolution of plants has resulted in increasing levels of complexity, from the earliest algal mats,
through bryophytes and ferns to the complex gymnosperms and angiosperms of today. While the
groups which appeared earlier continue to thrive, especially in the environments in which they
evolved, each new grade of organisation has eventually become more "successful" than its
predecessors by most measures.
Seed Development, Maturation and Seed Structure
A true seed is defined as a fertilized mature ovule consisting of embryo, stored food material and
protective coats. The important events involved in seed development and maturation include:
1. Pollination
2. Fertilization
3. Development of the fertilized ovule by cell division
4. Accumulation of reserve food material
5. Loss of moisture content.
2.2 Seed Production
Seed companies produce and sell seeds for flowers, fruit and vegetables to the farmers. The
production of seed is a multibillion dollar business, which uses growing facilities and growing
locations worldwide. While most seed is produced by large specialist growers, large amounts are
produced by small growers that produce only one to a few crop types. These larger companies
supply seed both to commercial resellers and wholesalers. The resellers and wholesalers sell to
vegetable and fruit growers, and to companies who package seed into packets and sell them on to
the farmers.
Most seed companies or resellers that sell retail, produce a catalogue – generally published during
early winter for seed to be sown the following spring. These catalogues are eagerly awaited by the
farmers, as during winter months there is little that can be done in the garden, so this time can be
spent planning the following year’s gardening. The largest collection of nursery and seed trade

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catalogues in the U.S. is held at the National Agricultural Library. The earliest catalogues there date
from the late 18th century, with most published from the 1890s to the present. Shakers were among
the earliest commercial producers of garden seeds; the first seeds sold in paper packets were
produced by the Watervliet Shakers.
Seed companies produce a huge range of seeds from highly developed F1 hybrids to open
pollinated wild species. Many gardeners like to stick to old familiar varieties but each year seed
companies produce new varieties for gardeners to try. They have extensive research facilities to
produce plants with better genetic materials that result in improved uniformity and gardening
appeal. These improved qualities might include disease resistance, higher yields, dwarf habit and
vibrant or new colors. These improvements are often closely guarded to protect them from being
utilized by other producers, thus plant cultivars are often sold under their own names and by
international laws protected from being grown for seed production by others. Along with the growth
in the allotment movement, and the increasing popularity of gardening, there have emerged many
small independent seed companies. Many of these are active in seed conservation and encouraging
diversity. They often offer organic and open pollinated varieties of seeds as opposed to hybrids.
Many of these varieties are heirloom varieties. The use of old varieties will continue to maintain
diversity in the horticultural gene pool. There is a good case for gardeners to use older (heirloom)
varieties as the modern seed types are often the same as those grown by commercial producers, and
so characteristics which are useful to them (e.g. vegetables ripening at the same time) may be
unsuited to home growing.
2.3 Types of Seeds – First Classification
Deciding which seed to plant can be a daunting task, and the decision is often more complicated
than simply trying to pick which beautiful tomatoes to grow. Among the more important decisions
every gardener makes is the choice between open-pollinated, hybrid, heirloom, organic and
genetically modified seed varieties. Each of these seed types has something to offer, depending on
the gardener's needs, interests, and values.
For seed-saving purposes, the most significant distinction among these types is that gardeners can
save true-to-type seed from open-pollinated and heirloom varieties, but not hybrids or GMs.
Here are a few more distinctions that might help a gardener decide what to grow in a season:
1. Open-pollination: Open-pollination occurs when pollination occurs by insect, bird, wind,
humans, or other natural mechanisms. Because there are no restrictions on the flow of pollen
between individuals, open-pollinated plants are more genetically diverse. This can cause a greater

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amount of variation within plant populations, which allows plants to slowly adapt to local growing
conditions and climate year-to-year. As long as pollen is not shared between different varieties
within the same species, then the seed produced will remain true-to-type year after year.
2. Heirloom: An heirloom variety is a plant variety that has a history of being passed down
within a family or community, similar to the generational sharing of heirloom jewellery or furniture.
An heirloom variety must be open-pollinated, but not all open-pollinated plants are heirlooms.
While some companies create heirloom labels based on dates (such as a variety that is more than 50
years old), Seed Savers Exchange identifies heirlooms by verifying and documenting the
generational history of preserving and passing on the seed. All Heirloom seeds are open-pollinated
(OP). Whatever the birds, bees or wind does, these seeds are stable, in that they produce the same
plant characteristics as the parent plants, year after year. Heirloom vegetables have been grown and
passed down through farmers and gardeners for hundreds or thousands of years.
3. Hybrids: Hybridization is a controlled method of pollination in which the pollen of two
different species or varieties is crossed by human intervention. Hybridization can occur naturally
through random crosses, but commercially available hybridized seed, often labelled as F1, is
deliberately created to breed a desired trait. The first generation of a hybridized plant cross also
tends to grow better and produce higher yields than the parent varieties due to a phenomenon called
‘hybrid vigour’. However, any seed produced by F1 plants is genetically unstable and cannot be
saved for use in following years. Not only will the plants not be true-to-type, but they will be
considerably less vigorous. Gardeners who use hybrid plant varieties must purchase new seed every
year. Hybrid seeds can be stabilized, becoming open-pollinated varieties, by growing, selecting, and
saving the seed over many years.
In the 19th century, a European monk called Gregor Mendel, unravelled the genetic code of plants,
starting with peas. Mendel's code pertains to many life forms and answers question as to why two
blue-eyed humans can produce a brown-eyed baby.
Hybridization of plants has greatly expanded our choices. Hybridists and common-or-garden yokels
are constantly producing new hybrids, seemingly better than before. These are done under closed
pollination conditions to keep away birds, bees and wind.
For example, we can take a strawberry plant which produces luscious strawberries, but sadly
averages only two fruits per plant. But if we take the seeds of those strawberries and cross pollinate
them with the seeds of a strawberry plant that has abundant fruit, but with average lusciousness.
Then we have a new hybrid strawberry plantm with abundant, luscious fruit!
Ah, would it be so easy! It can take up to many thousands and more attempts to get the
characteristics we desire. Over generations of experiments, finally it can pay off, and a new hybrid

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is produced. Or, maybe not, because this grand new hybrid somehow is too disease prone to stand
up to general commercial conditions, so hybridists have to go back to the greenhouse to go down
another gene line.
Corn is a good example. From little finger sized wild corn found in North and South America, we
now have hundreds of varieties that feed livestock and humans — some larger than a policeman's
foot! And desirable characteristics have been bred into other plants that provide us with superior
building materials, clothing fibre and beauty, and flood, desert or erosion control.
2.3.1 What are New Hybrid or F1 & F2 hybrids?
F1 (First filial generation) and F2 hybrid seeds produce vigorous, uniform plants. These hybrids are
produced after extensive inbreeding to arrive at plants with totally predictable characteristics. Pure
genetic lines have been crossed and re-crossed with each other over many generations, and at
obviously great expense.
The pure gene lines of these new hybrids need to be constantly maintained, so that the same F1 &
F2 hybrid seeds are produced each year. This is done in controlled conditions by hand. That’s why
they cost a lot.
2.3.1.1 F1 Hybrid
An F1 hybrid (or Filial 1 hybrid) is the first filial generation of offspring of distinctly different
parental types. F1 hybrids are used in genetics and selective breeding. The term is sometimes
written with a subscript, as F1 hybrid. The offspring of distinctly different parental types produce a
new, uniform phenotype with a combination of characteristics from the parents. In plant and animal
genetics the parents usually are two inbred lines. Mules are F1 hybrids between horse and donkey.
Today, certain domestic hybrid breeds, such as the Savannah cat, are classified by their filial
generation number.
In plants, crossing two genetically different plants produces a hybrid seed. This can happen
naturally, and includes hybrids between species (for example, peppermint is a sterile F1 hybrid of
watermint and spearmint). In agronomy, the term “F1 hybrid” is usually reserved for agricultural
cultivars derived from two parent cultivars. These F1 hybrids are usually created by means of
controlled pollination, sometimes by hand-pollination. For annual plants such as tomato and maize,
F1 hybrids must be produced each season.
For mass-production of F1 hybrids with uniform phenotype, the parent plants must have predictable
genetic effects on the offspring. Inbreeding and selection for uniformity for multiple generations
ensures that the parent lines are almost homozygous. The divergence between the (two) parent lines

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promotes improved growth and yield characteristics in offspring through the phenomenon of
heterosis ("hybrid vigour" or "combining ability").
Two populations of breeding stock with desired characteristics are subjected to inbreeding until the
homozygosity of the population exceeds a certain level, usually 90% or more. Typically this
requires more than ten generations. Thereafter the two strains must be crossed, while avoiding self-
fertilization. Normally this happens in plants by deactivating or removing male flowers from one
population, taking advantage of time differences between male and female flowering or hand-
pollinating.
2.3.1.2 F2 Hybrid
In plants, F2 hybrids are the result of self or cross pollination of F1s and lack the consistency of
F1s, though they may retain some desirable traits and can be produced more cheaply, because hand
pollination or other interventions are not required. Some seed companies offer F2 seed at less cost,
particularly in bedding plants where consistency is less critical.
2.3.1.3 Advantages of F1 Hybrids
1. Homogeneity and predictability: The genes of individual plant F1 offspring of
homozygous pure lines display limited variation, making their phenotype uniform and
therefore attractive for mechanical operations and easing fine population management.
Once the characteristics of the cross are known, repeating this cross yields exactly the
same result.
2. Higher performance: As most alleles code for different versions of a protein or enzyme,
having two different versions of this allele amounts to having two different versions of the
enzyme. This increases the likelihood of an optimal version of the enzyme being present
and reduces the likelihood of a genetic defect.
2.3.1.4 Disadvantages of F1 Hybrids
The main advantage of F1 hybrids in agriculture is also their drawback.
1. When F1 cultivars are used as parents, their offspring (F2 generation) vary greatly from
one another. Some F2s are high in homozygous genes, as found in their grandparents, and
these will lack hybrid vigour. From the point of view of a commercial seed producer who
does not wish customers to produce their own seed, this genetic assortment is a desired
characteristic.
2. Both inbreeding and crossing the ancestral lines of the hybrid are costly, which translates
into a much higher price. In general, the higher yield, etc., offsets this disadvantage.

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3. F1 hybrids mature at the same time when raised under the same environmental conditions.
They all ripen simultaneously and can be more easily harvested by machine. Traditional
cultivars and landraces are often more useful to gardeners because they crop over a longer
period of time, avoiding gluts and food shortages.
4. Genetically modified seeds (GMO – Genetically modified Organisms): Genetic
modification means introducing the DNA of one species, say animals into another species, in this
case, plants. This is done in laboratories, and involves combining genes from one species into a
completely different one (think fish and corn), something that is impossible for nature to do. The
risks are enormous and the outcomes for the future are unknown and feared dangerous.
Many major crops like corn, soybeans and wheat are now grown with GMO seed, bred to resist
certain chemicals such as herbicides.
Most GMO crops have been designed to produce sterile seeds by inserting what they call a gene
terminator. This means farmers have to re-purchase new seeds each year from the corporations that
own the patent rights to these seeds.
5. Organic: Organic seeds are those seeds produced by organic farms. When buying organic
seeds, buyer can be assured that the parent plants were raised using organic techniques, most likely
in healthier soil and free from more toxic synthetic chemicals. Typically, organic farms carry the
USDA National Organic Standards label and advertise their organic status on their seeds and
produce.
Simply put, organic seed comes from organic farms. When customers ask for organic seeds they
have two goals in mind: one is to support this farming method in order to increase demand for it;
and the other is to complete the organic cycle by using the seed to organically grow their own
garden and consume the produce.
Organic farming uses integrated pest management methods, such as crop rotation, compost and
green manure for crops and pastures. One important goal is to restore the natural balance of land
that has been damaged by decades of use of manufactured fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth
regulators (hormones) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
According to the USDA, organic seed producers are allowed to process seeds in a number of ways
and still call their seeds organic. These processing techniques include treating seeds with hot water,
using legume inoculants to protect against disease, pelletizing seeds (encasing them in a protective

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covering) as long as no fungicides are included in the pellet, as well as various other treatments
such as the application of microbial activators and bacterial inoculants. No genetically modified
organisms are allowed to be used to treat seeds. In general, most of these treatments are designed to
protect the seed against fungal and bacterial disorders, which can wreak havoc with healthy plants.
It's important to note, however, that an "organic seed" will not necessarily produce an organic plant.
An organic seed will merely produce a seedling that came from organically grown parent plants. To
produce a fully organic plant, the seedling should be grown using organic principles and, when
necessary, organically approved chemicals. If strict organic production is important to buyer, he or
she needs be especially aware of buying seedling starting soil.
For seed-saving purposes, the most significant distinction among these types is that gardeners can
save true-to-type seed from open-pollinated and heirloom varieties, but not hybrids.
2.4 So what is best —hybrid, open-pollinated, genetically
modified, organic or heirloom varieties?
While hybrids have their benefits, choosing open-pollinated varieties conserves the genetic diversity
of garden vegetables and prevents the loss of unique varieties in the face of dwindling agricultural
biodiversity.
Furthermore, focusing on heirloom varieties creates a historical connection to gardening and food
production, building a more sustainable future by carrying on our garden heritage. By choosing
open-pollinated and heirloom varieties, farmers have the ability to help conserve biodiversity and to
contribute to the stories behind their seeds.
And it also helps to conserve the true taste of vegetables unlike the hybrids. Gardeners can also
localize their heirloom seeds because of their well-known adaptability. That means each year they
select the best plants to save seeds from, and over time the slight variations will produce a slight
strain difference that has adapted perfectly to their particular climate and conditions. Heirloom
seeds give gardeners huge choices, different ripening times and lots of fun experimenting with all
their quirky shapes, colours and characteristics.
Benefits of Seed Hybridization:
 Higher yields
 Improved fruit setting
 Reduced pest and disease problems due to stronger vigour
 Extended growing season
 Earlier maturity

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 Withstands adversities, such as weather stresses
 Known outcomes in terms of uniformity
Disadvantage of Hybrids:
 Very sadly the progress made with our edible plants, coupled with our food and buying
habits has resulted in many cases in us, the public, having less choice!
 Hybrids now fill up supermarket shelves. They are routinely bred with tough skins to stop
damage; same shape and size for easy packing; less sweetness to repel insect, bird and
animal damage: capable of being picked green and ripened in storage with gas... so we end
up with less taste, less softness, less nutrition, and less choice of varieties and sizes.
 With the newer hybrids, seeds saved will generally not breed true and revert to the parents'
traits. They may be lucky and depending on the variety, gardeners could save the seeds for
another year or so and they will still be like original seeds. But eventually they will have to
buy new seeds if they want the same results, that means high input cost or with few plants
they can propagate them from cuttings or from division.
Home garden vegetables are so far not genetically modified. History will show just who is playing
fast and loose with the truth on genetic modification of our food. We need to know soon whether
GMO is good progress, or a very fast disaster in the making, for all life on Earth.
2.5 Difference between organic seeds/plants and heirloom
seeds/plants
Organic refers to a specific way plants and seeds are grown, while heirloom describes a plant's
heritage. Plants and seeds labelled as organic must be grown and processed in accordance with the
USDA's National Organic Program (NOP), which prohibits the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides, genetically engineered seeds and materials, sewage sludge (bio-solids), and fresh
manure. Organic growers and processors, and the plants and seeds they produce, must be certified
as organic by an inspection agency accredited by the USDA.
The definition of heirlooms is less cut-and-dried. With seed-grown plants, only open-pollinated
varieties are considered heirlooms. Unlike hybrids, open-pollinated seeds will reproduce true to
type, meaning the offspring will display the same characteristics as the parent plant, and seeds can
be saved from season to season. Plants are considered heirlooms if they were once significant in
gardens but are now rare or even extinct in cultivation. For example, there are many cultivars of iris
or phlox or daylilies from the early 20th century that are nearly impossible to find. Seeds are
generally considered heirlooms if they were introduced into cultivation at least 40 years prior to the

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current date, though some heirloom experts consider seeds heirlooms only if they were introduced
prior to World War II.
Gardening organically goes hand in hand with growing heirlooms, since many heirlooms were
introduced into cultivation before synthetic fertilizers and pesticides became available. Home
gardeners play a very important role in the preservation of heirlooms. Many people preserve special
plants and pass them down from one generation to the next along with the stories and histories
surrounding these heirlooms. When we lose that essential connection, it is often lost forever.
2.6 Types of Seeds – Second Classification
Generation system of seed multiplication is nothing but the production of a particular class of seed
from specific class of seed up to certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed multiplication
model is the key to further success of a seed programme. The types of seeds considered here as
follows:
1. Nucleus seed: Nucleus seeds are the initial hand full of seeds obtained from selected
individual plants of a particular variety, for the purpose of purifying and maintain that variety, by
originating plant breeder.
2. Breeder's seed: Progeny of Nucleus seeds, its production is directly controlled by the
originating or the sponsoring breeder or institution, providing for the initial and recurring increase
of foundation seed.
3. Foundation seed: The Progeny of breeders or foundation seed handled to maintain specific
genetic purity and identity. This seed is the source of all other certified seed classes.
4. Certified seed: The progeny of foundation or certified seed that is handled so as to maintain
satisfactorily genetic identity and purity and that has been approved and certified by the certifying
agency.

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3. Sakata Seed Corporation – An Introduction
3.1 Sakata Seeds Corporation
With Passion in Seed, Sakata is a world leader in breeding and producing vegetable and ornamental
seed and vegetative cuttings. Sakata breeders around the world work diligently to develop varieties
that offer superior performance and set new standards for the industry. It was established by Takeo
Sakata in the year 1913.
3.2 History of Sakata Seed Corporation
1913
Establishment of Sakata Noen after return of Takeo Sakata from Europe and
North America.
1921 Establishment of the first germination laboratory in the private sector in Japan.
1930
Establishment of Chigasaki breeding station and commencement of R&D over
wide ranging varieties.
1934
Sakata awarded Silver prize in the All-America selections for the first time with
the F1 all double petunia "victorious mixed", world's first all double flower
petunia.
1940 Announcement of "Suteki Kanran", the world's first F1 hybrid cabbage.
1942
Company is incorporated as "Sakata Seed Corporation."
Shanghai Branch closes due to proliferation of war.
1951
Retail section establishment in head office, one of Japan´s first gardening shops
(presently garden center Yokohama).
1959 Establishment of Misato research station.
1960 Establishment of Chogo research station.
1961 Establishment of Nakai research station.
1962
Commencement of sales of the "Prince" melon. Historically melon was a luxury
item grown in green houses and available to very few people. Prince Melon was
created as a cross-breed of melons native to Japan and to Europe. Initially Sakata
struggled to produce melons in Japan's hot, humid climate. Through a process of

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trial and error, the "Prince" melon was born; a melon with high sugar content, a
good smell and soft flesh that could be grown in the open fields in Japan for the
first time.
1965
Medallion of honour of the All-America selections awarded to Takeo Sakata.
Commencement of sales of the "Kinkei 201" cabbage.
"Savoy king" cabbage awarded prize in the All-America selections.
1966
Establishment of Hazawa distribution center as packaging and shipping base.
World's first F1 Pansy "majestic giant mixed" and "white with blotch". Awarded
bronze in the All-America selections.
1971
Import and sale of sweet corn "Honey Bantam".
Kimitsu research station established and vegetable seed research program
expanded.
1972
Commencement of sales of the "Atlas" spinach and "Zuiko" tomato with multiple
disease resistance.
1977
Establishment of Sakata Seed America, Inc.
Commencement of sales of the "Andes" melon.
1983 Flower exhibition held at Mukogaoka-Yuen in celebration of the 70th anniversary.
1985
Commencement of sales of "Peter Corn" sweet corn and Sakurasuto high tech
seeds.
1986 Corporate name changed to “Sakata Seed Corporation”.
1987
“Sakata Seed Corporation” listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange Second Section.
Successful pollen culture of Chinese cabbage.
Successful culturing of broccoli from anthers.
Successful raising of male sterile cabbage from cultivar.
1990
Establishment of Sakata Seed Europe B.V.(presently Sakata Holland B.V.).
Sakata Seed listed on the first section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange.
Establishment of Kakegawa research center.
Establishment of Hokkaido research station.
Participation in international garden and greenery exposition, and grand prize
awarded to "King of Snow" lisianthus.
1991 Establishment of Sakata Seed Chile S.A.
1993
Flower exhibition "Dream Show" held at Kakegawa Research Center in
celebration of the 80th anniversary.
Establishment of Sakata Seed Mexico S.A. de C.V.
Opening of Florida Research Station.
1994
Purchase of Agroflora S.A.
Establishment of Sakata Seed Do Brazil Ltda. (presently Sakata Seed Sudamerica
Ltda).

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1995 Head office moved to Tsuzuki-ku, Yokohama.
1996
Establishment of Sakata Siam Seed Co. Ltd. (Thailand)
Establishment of Sakata Seed Iberia D.L. (Spain)
Establishment of Sakata Seed France S.A.R.L. (presently Sakata Vegetables
Europe S.A.S.).
Acquisition of Samuel Yates Ltd. (presently Sakata UK limited).
1997 Purchase of Chung Won Seed Co. Ltd. (presently Sakata Korea Co. Ltd.).
1998
Establishment of Sakata Seeds (Suzhou) Co. Ltd.
Establishment of research center in Uchaux, France.
1999
Zinnia "Profusion Cherry" and "Profusion Orange" both awarded Gold prizes in
the All-America selections.
Purchase of May Ford Holding Ltd. (presently Sakata Seed Southern Africa (pty)
L td.).
2000
Establishment of Yoju Research Station (Korea).
Sakata Seed Guatemala, S.A. established.
2001
Zinnia "Profusion White" awarded Gold prize in the All-America selections.
Establishment of European Sakata Holding (France) S.A.S. as headquarters for
Europe/Africa
2002
Garden center Yokohama renewed.
Purchase of Alf Christianson Seed Co.
The sales in Japan changed to four-branch organization.
2003
Celebration of the 90th anniversary.
Acquisition of the flower division of l.dæhnfeldt A/S (Denmark).
Establishment of Sakata Ornamentals Europe A/S.
Seed testing dept. (presently quality control dept.) obtained the certification of the
international seed testing association for the first time in Japan among private
companies.
2005
Medallion of honour of the All-America selections awarded to Shunichiro Suda,
Senior Managing Director.
Purchase of Qualiveg Seed production, Inc. (America)
2006 Establishment of Yaita logistics center.
2007 Adoption of Executive Officer System.
2008
Establishment of Sakata Seed India Private Limited.
Breeder's cup of the All-America selections awarded to Masao Bessho, Deputy
General Manager of production dept.
2010
F1 "Seirin" cabbage authorized for "2009 ministry of agriculture and forestry
authorized variety," the first authorized variety developed in the private sector.
2011 Establishment of Sakata Turkey.

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60th year anniversary of Garden Center Yokohama and 80th year anniversary of
mail order.
2013 Celebration of the 100th anniversary
In the 100 years since its founding in 1913, Sakata Seed Corporation has always shown pride in
itself as a seed seller. Its work however, does not stop at seed sales. The company is truly committed
to making the world a better place by brightening home and gardens for as many people as possible.
3.3 Sakata Company Profile
3.3.1 Business
Sakata Seed was the first Japanese breeding company to export seeds and has actively developed
the global market for its products from its foundation. Currently Sakata Seed provides many best
selling varieties in more than 130 countries. They have a dynamic global network of research
production and sales activities in 16 countries, which are rooted in the needs of each region, so as
to develop greater market for their products. By offering varieties which meet every need though a
total support network under the reputed 'Sakata Brand', they continue to provide dreams to their
customers throughout the world.
They are actively developing their business not just in wholesale channel, but in support of
landscape and flower gardening review as well as garden centres for direct sales to consumers.
It is important to note that Sakata Seeds is not in the business of producing any genetically
modified seeds or crop.
3.3.2 Fields of Business
1. Production and sales of vegetable seeds, flower seeds, grass seeds, vegetable seedlings, flower
seedlings, bulbs and agricultural/gardening materials. Publication of gardening literature.
2. Research and development, contract seed production.
3. Designing, management and contract of following constructions: landscaping, greenhouse,
agricultural facilities.

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3.3.3 Paid-in Capital and Annual Turnover
The company has a paid capital of 13,500 million Yen, annual turnover of 53,922 million yen and
ordinary profits of 3,909 million yen.
3.4 Major Research Products from Sakata Seeds
The top vegetable and ornamental products from Sakata Seeds can be listed in the table below:
# Product Image
1 Broccoli
2 Cabbage

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3 Carrot
4 Cantaloupe Melon
5 Okra

36
11 Sunflower
12 Pansy/Viola

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13 Petunia
14 SunPatiens
15 Zinnia

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3.5 Sakata Seeds in India
Seeds on offer in India are primarily vegetable seeds. There are a few fruits and flower seeds also.
These can be listed as below:
1. Poorvi – Okra – Early maturity with fruits ready for harvest in 40-43days after sowing,
dark green fruits with smooth surface and 5 ribs, recommended for cultivation in Rabi and
Kharif seasons.
2. Green Express – Cabbage – Medium size, very firm, solid heads are well textured and
have exceptionally good flavour, excellent for early market, 5-55 days after transplanting
weighs 1 kg.
3. Anokhi – Chilli – Tall plants with spreading habit, green fruit with pendent bearing
habit, good dry fruit colour and quality.
4. Emerald – Tomato – Determinate, vigorous plants with good foliage cover, fruits are
ready to harvest in 60-65 days after transplanting, oval shaped uniform and deep red fruits
have smooth surface.
5. White Marble – Cabbage – Matures in 50-55 days after transplanting, curd shaped
dome, early tropical and plant size is small, weight 0.5 kg, Colour – White, Curd
protection – Open.
6. Hachi Michi – Water Melon – Oval to oblong with blackish green skin colour, fruit
weight 1.5-2 kg, harvesting after 70 days.
7. Yellow 300 - Marigold - A compact, deep yellow colour flower with strong
branching, plant height 35-60 cm depending upon days length, ball shaped firm flower.
3.6 Corporate Governance at Sakata Seeds
Basic policies regarding internal control and measures adopted to improve internal control at its
meeting of may 19, 2006, the board of directors adopted the following basic eight-point policy
related to the development of internal systems as prescribed under articles 362-4-6 and 362-5 of the
corporation law. These articles of the corporation law require companies to establish systems to
ensure that the directors, in executing their duties, act in compliance with the relevant laws and
ordinances and in compliance with their articles of incorporation. The eight-point policy has also

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been developed in accordance with ministerial ordinances of the ministry of justice, which aim to
ensure the appropriateness of other activities by joint stock corporations.
1. Mechanisms to ensure that, in executing their duties, the directors and employees act in
accordance with relevant laws and ordinances and with Company’s Articles of
Incorporation.
2. Mechanisms to ensure the preservation and control of information related to the directors’
execution of duties
3. Regulations and other structures to protect against the risk of losses
4. Mechanisms to ensure efficient execution of duties by the directors
5. Mechanisms that ensure the appropriate conduct of operations of the Corporate Group
(comprising the Company and its subsidiaries)
6. Matters with respect to the employees concerned when the corporate auditors request the
assistance of employees in carrying out their auditing duties; matters related to ensuring the
independence of such employees from the directors
7. Mechanisms related to reporting by the directors and employees to the corporate auditors
and to other instances of reporting to the corporate auditors
8. Mechanisms related to ensuring the effectiveness of the corporate auditors in other areas.

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4. Seeds, Treatment, Sowing, Storage and Transport
Plants reproduce sexually by seeds and asexually by vegetative parts. Grains, which are used for
multiplication, are called seeds while those used for human or animal consumption are called grains.
Good stalks of planting materials are basic to profitable crop production. The seed or planting
material largely determines the quality and quantity of the produce. A good seed or stalk of planting
material is genetically satisfactory and true to type, fully developed and free from contamination,
deformities, diseases and pests.
Seed is a fertilized ripened ovule consisting of three main parts namely seed coat, endosperm and
embryo, which in due course gives rise to a new plant. Endosperm is the storage organ for food
substance that nourishes the embryo during its development. Seed coat is the outer cover that
protects or shields the embryo and endosperm.
4.1 Characteristics of a Seed
A good quality seed should posses the following characteristics:
• seed must be true to its type i.e., genetically pure, free from admixtures and should belong
to the proper variety or strain of the crop and their duration should be according to agro
climate and cropping system of the locality
• seed should be pure, viable, vigorous and have high yielding potential
• seed should be free from seed borne diseases and pest infection
• seed should be clean; free from weed seeds or any inert materials
• seed should be in whole and not broken or damaged; crushed or peeled off; half filled and
half rotten
• seed should meet the prescribed uniform size and weight
• seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper age
• seed should contain optimum amount of moisture (8-12%)
• seed should have high germination percentage (more than 80%)
• seed should germinate rapidly and uniformly when sown
4.2 Advantages of Using Good Quality Seeds
The following are the advantages of using good quality seeds.

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• reduced cost of cleaning, standardization and disinfections
• uniform germination thus avoiding replanting, gap filling
• vigorous seedling growth, which reduces weed and disease, damages
• uniform growth stages, maturity and products
• maintain good quality under storage conditions
• reduced cost
4.3 Seed Germination
Germination is a protrusion of radicle or seedling emergence. Germination results in rupture of the
seed coat and emergence of seedling from embryonic axis. Factors affecting germination are soil,
environment, water, temperature, light, atmospheric gases and exogenous chemicals required for
germination of seeds.
4.3.1 Factors Affecting Seed Germination
Soil: Soil type, texture, structure and microorganism greatly influence the seed germination.
Environment: Generally, the environmental conditions favouring growth of seedling also favours
germination. Germination does not occur until the seeds attain physiological maturity.
Water (soil moisture and seed moisture): Imbibition of water is the prerequisite process for
germination. Both living and dead seeds imbibe water and swell. Dead seeds imbibe more water and
swell rapidly as compared to good seeds. The amount imbibed is related to the chemical
composition of the seed such as proteins, mucilage’s pectins and biochemical components. Cereal
grains such as maize imbibe water to approximately 1/3 of its seed weight, soybean seeds to 1/2 of
its seed weight.
Seed germination will be at its maximum when the soil moisture level is at field capacity. Slower
rate of germination is noticed in places where soil moisture is near or at wilting point.
Temperature: The optimum temperature is that one gives the highest germination percentage in the
shortest period of time.
Light: The most effective wavelength for promoting and inhibiting seed germination is red (660
nm) and infrared (730 nm), respectively.

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Atmospheric gases: Most crop seeds germinate well in the ambient composition of air with 20%
Oxygen, 0.03% Carbon-di-oxide and 78.2% Nitrogen.
Exogenous chemicals: Some chemicals induce or favour quick and rapid germination.
• Gibberellins stimulate germination in protoplasmic seeds.
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used for legumes, tomato and barley.
• Ethylene (C2H4) is used for stimulating groundnut germination.
4.4 Seed Rate
Seed rate is the quantity of seed required for sowing or planting in a unit area. The seed rate for a
particular crop would depend not only on its seed size/test weight, but also on its desired population,
germination percentage and purity percentage of seed.
4.5 Seed Treatment
Seed treatment is a process of application either by mixing or by coating or by soaking in solutions
of chemicals or protectants (with fungicidal, insecticidal, bactericidal, nematicidal or biopesticidal
properties), nutrients, hormones or growth regulators or subjected to a process of wetting and drying
or subjected to reduce, control or repel disease organisms, insects or other pests which attack seeds
or seedlings growing there from. Seed treatment also includes control of pests when the seed is in
storage and after it has been sown or planted. The seed treatment is done for the following reasons:
• To protect from seed borne pests and diseases.
• To protect from or repel birds and rodents.
• To supply plant nutrients.
• To inoculate microorganisms.
• To supply growth regulators.
• To supply selective herbicides.
• To break seed dormancy.
• To induce drought tolerance.
• To induce higher germination percentage, early emergence.
• To obtain polyploids (genetic variation) by treating with x-rays, gamma rays and
colchicines.
• To facilitate mechanized sowing.

43
4.5.1 Methods of Seed Treatment
Dry Treatment: Mixing of seed with powder form of pesticides/nutrients.
Wet Treatment: Soaking of seed in pesticide/nutrient solutions
Slurry Treatment: Dipping of seeds/seedlings in slurry. Example–rice seedlings are dipped in
Phosphate slurry.
Pelleting: It is the coating of solid materials in sufficient quantities to make the seeds larger, heavier
and to appear uniform in size for sowing with seed drills. Pelleting with pesticides as a protectant
against soil organisms, soil pests and as a repellent against birds and rodents is also done.
4.6 Sowing
Sowing is the placing of a specific quantity of seeds in the soil for germination and growth while
planting is the placing of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cuttings, rhizomes, clones, tubers etc.)
in the soil to grow as plants.
4.6.1 Methods of Sowing
Seeds are sown directly in the field (seed bed) or in the nursery (nursery bed) where seedlings are
raised and transplanted later. Direct seeding may be done by:
Broadcasting - Broadcasting is the scattering or spreading of the seeds on the soil, which may or
may not be incorporated into the soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical
spreader or aeroplane. Broadcasting is the easy, quick and cheap method of seeding.
The difficulties observed in broadcasting are uneven distribution, improper placement of seeds and
less soil cover and compaction. As all the seeds are not placed in uniform density and depth, there is
no uniformity of germination, seedling vigour and establishment. It is mostly suited for closely
spaced and small seeded crops.
Dibbling - It is the placing of seeds in a hole or pit made at a predetermined spacing and depth with
a dibbler or planter or very often by hand. Dibbling is laborious, time consuming and expensive

44
compared to broadcasting, but it requires less seeds and, gives rapid and uniform germination with
good seedling vigour.
Drilling - It is a practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth, covered with soil and compacted.
Sowing implements like seed drill or seed cum fertilizer drill are used. Manures, fertilizers, soil
amendments, pesticides, etc. may be applied along with seeds. Seeds are drilled continuously or at
regular intervals in rows. It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains uniform population
per unit area. Rows are set according to the requirements.
Sowing behind the country plough - It is an operation in which seeds are placed in the plough
furrow either continuously or at required spacing by a man working behind a plough. When the
plough takes the next adjacent furrow, the seeds in the previous furrow are closed by the soil closing
the furrow. Depth of sowing is adjusted by adjusting the depth of the plough furrow. E.g. Ground
nut sowing in dry land areas of Tamil Nadu is done in this manner.
Planting - Placing seeds or seed material firmly in the soil to grow.
Transplanting - Planting seedlings in the main field after pulling out from the nursery. It is done to
reduce the main field duration of the crops facilitating to grow more number of crops in a year. It is
easy to give extra care for tender seedlings. For small seeded crops like rice and ragi which require
shallow sowing and frequent irrigation for proper germination, raising nursery is the easiest way.
4.7 Seed Storage and Transport
There are several reasons why seeds are stored:
 To allow the efficient management of seed handling and processing;
 To cover the natural time gap between seed harvest and sowing;
 To enable sufficient stocks to be carried in the distribution system;
 To carry over unsold stock from season to season;
 To provide security of supply (buffer stocks) to meet fluctuations in demand and supply and
meet the agreed inventory policy;
 To provide sufficient stock seed for future production requirements.
Assuming that seed is harvested at maturity with satisfactory germination and vigour, it will become
subject to a natural process of deterioration over time, the rate of decline being influenced by several
factors such as moisture content, packaging, treatments and storage. These factors must be

45
controlled to ensure that seed bought by farmers is in satisfactory condition and has retained its
potential for high performance.
It is very important that storage conditions are satisfactory and that seed is regularly monitored for
both internal as well as external deterioration. Dealers frequently sell fertilizer as well as seeds and
it is imperative that seed is not stored alongside fertilizer. Fertilizer attracts moisture from the
atmosphere creating damp conditions that damage seeds. Separate arrangements have to be made for
the transport and distribution of potato seed, which requires special cool storage conditions. Storage
problems and seed quality loss are caused by:
 High humidity and high temperature causing loss of germination and vigour;
 Water, causing direct damage, increasing humidity and promoting fungal attack;
 Insects and pests (birds and rodents) causing direct damage and spillage;
 Cross contamination from fertilizers, chemicals and toxic materials;
 Pilfering of seed due to the insecurity of the store.
To avoid such storage problems a company should consider constructing or renting high quality
buildings which may be both fumigated and ventilated, with concrete floors, waterproof roofs,
moisture-proof walls, good roof space above stack height, power and light. The location chosen
should have adequate drainage and not be prone to flooding. Seed should be stacked off floor level
and apart from other products. Holes in roofs, walls and under doors need to be avoided to prevent
pests from entering the store. The stores should be secure with an efficient stock control system in
place; and regular checks of buildings and seed storage conditions should be carried out.
Although ownership of the seed may have passed to the dealer it is the name of the supplying
organization which is carried on the bag. The marketing manager in the supplying organization must
be satisfied that minimum storage standards can be met by the distributors, allowing for the length
of time seed is expected to be in store. Reference could be made to these minimum standards in the
representation agreements. In planning storage a judgment must be made concerning peak holding
capacity and carry-over requirements, the capital cost of building and the availability and the cost of
space which can be rented, and the off-take rate during the sales season. The latter will depend on
distance, transport, demand patterns and storage at the point of sale.
If the seed organization has a regional structure, a network of regional seed stores should be
provided from which distributors and retail sales points can be quickly supplied. Apart from
concerns about security and basic protection, physical storage requirements will depend on the
amount of time that the seed is likely to be held. Generally, seed can be moved back to central stores
which have the required specifications after the selling season, to ensure that quality is maintained
over longer periods of time. This will also make retesting and relabeling more convenient. A policy
decision will have to be made regarding the provision of a return system for dealers.

46
The supplying organization can be expected to have comprehensive insurance for goods held in its
own stores but special cover may have to be arranged for goods in transit if the seed-supplying
organization undertakes delivery. Alternatively, seed can be sold ex-store with responsibility
passing to the customer. The decision whether to supply ex-store or deliver can only be made in
relation to the local situation but will be influenced by the product type, customer base and the
competition.

47
5. Soil Survey
Soils are non-renewable natural resource of any country. A thorough knowledge of a soil is very
essential for making all kinds of land use policies. To frame such land use policies, an inventory of
soil resources of a country should be made first. Preparation of such inventory starts with soil
survey. Without soil survey, effective land development projects, irrigation projects, development of
wild life sanctuaries, parks laying out transport facilities cannot be executed property. The soil
survey helps us in several ways.
At national level, soil survey helps to prepare soil resource inventory and overall land related
policies and plans.
At state level, it is basic to form land related development schemes. It is also useful to delineate
agricultural, forestry wastelands etc. At town level, soil survey reports are of immense use for town
planning or locating areas for residential building, roads, parks, waste disposal sites, other sanitation
facilities etc.,
In an agro climatic region, soil survey helps us in locating research stations and in identifying
representative soils for conducting field experiment, on farm trials and demonstration plots.
At farm level, it helps to identify the suitable crops, cropping sequence, irrigation and nutrient
managements.
Soil survey can be defined as the study of soil in the field for their morphological and other
characteristics supplemented by certain laboratory analysis, to classify the soils and map them into
texa usually up to soil series level so as to enable any user to interpret their potentialities for
different uses.
In soil survey, we obtain the following information a through field examination and laboratory
analysis. The information so obtained is used to interpret the utility of soil, limitation of soil for
specific use and to suggest suitable soil management practices.
• a complete description of soil
• distribution of different soil types
5.1 Objectives of Soil Survey

48
A thorough knowledge of soil is very essential for effective land use planning and conservation. Soil
survey is the 1st step for any land use planning. The objectives of soil survey may be fundamental or
applied (practical). The fundamental objectives of soil survey help thorough understanding of
genesis and classification of soils. The applied objectives or practical aspects of soil survey are
numerous. A few important applied practical objectives are listed below:
• To delineate cultivated soils, problem soils (such as saline soil, saline-alkali and alkali,
water logged, drained soils, coarse and heavy textured soils and wastelands.)
• To identify areas prone (subject) to wind and water erosion and suggest soil conservation
measures.
• To identify areas suited to specific crops.
• To identify areas having one or more nutrient deficiencies or stresses.
• To identify areas for settlement, rehabilitation, tax, appraisal, location of rail lines, airport,
roads, parks etc.
• To assess the suitability of area for irrigation and to assess the soil health due to irrigation
etc.
• To provide soil related information to development agencies or department for planning
optimum land use policies or executing those policies.
5.2 Plant Protection
Plant protection is of importance in crop production given the high degree of losses on account of
pests & diseases. The field of plant protection encompasses primarily activities aimed at minimizing
crop losses due to pest and diseases, promotion of sustainability management practises like
integrated pest management, regulation of pesticides, and preservation of bio-security and capacity
building of all stakeholders.

49
6. Seed Regulation in India
Signing of WTO in 1995 paved the way for private research and development of varieties. In order
to regulate such varieties, the protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Right Act was passed in
2001 which was followed by National Seed Policy, 2002 and Seeds Bill, 2004.
6.1 New Policy on Seed Development, 1988
The policy was formulated to provide Indian farmers with access to the best available seeds
and planting materials of domestic as well as imported
 The policy permits the import of selected seeds under Open General License (OGL), to
make available to farmers high quality seeds to maximize yield, increase productivity thereby
farm income. The policy allow import under OGL of items such as seeds of oilseed crops,
pulses, coarse grains, vegetables, flowers, ornamental plants, tubers, bulbs, cuttings and saplings
of flowers.
 While the import of horticultural crops including flowers need recommendation from
Directors of Horticulture, import of crop seeds require permission from ICAR. ICAR will direct
multi -locational trials in various agro-climatic conditions at least for one season.
 Evaluation of important traits such as yield, pest resistance etc. needs to be done within 3
months of harvest after which importer shall apply to the DAC for permit. Within a month, DAC
will process it and thereafter controller of Imports and Exports will issue a license.
 Private seed producing firms should compulsorily register with NSC before importing the
seeds.
The policy was immediately followed by an order by Government of India (Plants, Fruits and
Seeds Order) for the purpose to regulate the import of agricultural items into India.
6.2 Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order (Regulation of Import into
India order) 1989
The order was made suppressing the Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order (Regulation of Import
into India) 1984 and provides regulations during import based on post entry quarantine
checks.

50
 Post entry quarantine facilities shall be established which shall be permitted to be released
by Designated Inspection Authority.
 Import of any form of seed for consumption or sowing should carry a permit issued by the
competent authority, and the import should be only through specified customs stations.
 The consignment shall be inspected by the Plant Protection Advisor.
Amendments have been made for the above order during 1998, 2000 and 2001. With the
liberalized trade in agriculture, as consequence to WTO agreements, Government thought of
providing new legislative provisions under the new order, Plant Quarantine (Regulation of
import into India) Order, 2003. The Order has now replaced the Plants, Fruits and Seeds
order, 1989.
 The order has widened the scope of plant quarantine activities and has made pest risk
analysis compulsory for imports
 The order includes provision for regulating the import of soil, moss, germplasm and
GMO's for research, insects, microbial cultures and bio-control agents, timber and wooden logs
 The order prohibits import of commodities contaminated with weeds, alien species, and
packaging material of plant origin unless the material has been treated
 Agricultural imports are thus classified as: prohibited plant species, restricted species
where import permitted only by authorized institutions and declarations and plant material
imported for consumption or industrial processing permitted with phytosanitary certificate
 Phytosanitary certificate according to Plant Quarantine requirements has to be provided so
as to prevent spread of noxious pests
 Pest risk analysis during post entry quarantine is compulsory.
 Import of germplasm has to be permitted by NBPGR and any other biological materials
such as soil, microbes, moss etc. has to be permitted by Plant Protection Advisor
 A list of 590 quarantine pests and 61 weed species have been declared under the Order
 Notified entry points for import have been increased compared to PFS Order, 1989
 Strengthening Plant Quarantine facilities, opening new quarantine stations, establishing
advanced molecular diagnostic facilities for rapid pathogen detection, setting up of National Pest
Risk Analysis unit are other important features of the Order

51
Global realization on the role of plant genetic resources in development of superior crop varieties
and use of many traditionally grown plants in development of medicines and various industrial
applications raised concerns for Conservation of Biological Diversity (CBD) which came into force
in the year 1993. Government of India felt the need to provide protection to plant varieties which
have tremendous commercial value after India became signatory to the Trade Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (TRIPS) in the year 1994. The TRIPS agreement required
the member countries to provide for protection of plant varieties either by a patent or by an effective
sui generis system or by any combination there-of. The sui generis system for protection of plant
varieties was developed by India integrating the rights of breeders, farmers, and village
communities. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Right Act was thus formulated in the
year 2001.
6.3 Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Right Act, 2001
 The Act covers all categories of plants except microorganisms
 The variety being claimed for protection needs to be notified
 The food crops including major cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables and fruit crops are
selected on first priority
 Crops important for India in the world trade, species of Indian origin, crops where India
could benefit from introduction of new germplasm are other priorities
 The act is unique in the world with inclusion of rights of farmers, breeders, researchers and
equity concerns
 The Central Government shall establish a PPV & FR Authority with a Chairman and 15
members to implement the various functions of the Act
 A variety can be registered for protection if it satisfies the criteria of Novelty, Distinctness,
Uniformity and Stability (NDUS)
Novel means the variety was not sold or disposed by the breeder for commercial exploitation in
India earlier than one year or outside India, earlier than four years before the date of filing of
application for registration.
Distinct means the variety is clearly distinguishable by at least one essential characteristic from
any other variety whose existence is known in any country at the time of filing of application

52
Uniformity means the variety is sufficiently uniform for essential characteristics other than the
variation that may be expected within the variety due to its mode of reproduction
Stability means the variety remain unchanged for its essential characteristics even after repeated
propagation
 The DDS test guidelines have been laid for - many crops and registration for many crops
for protection has already been initiated. In cotton, 37characters for tetraploid and 31 for diploid
cotton have been identified. A manual is available giving the description of such traits in various
crops published by Directorate of Seed Research, MAU
 The detailed contents to be provided in the application form for registration has been
given. Complete passport data of the variety, clear pedigree and source of origin of the variety,
statement declaring no terminator gene is present, specification on novel and distinct character of
the variety etc. are some of the major features in the form
 It shall not apply for registration of farmers’ varieties
 Period of protection is six years in case of crops and may be renewed on condition that the
total period of validity does not exceed 15 years
 Breeder has to pay an annual fee based on the royalty gained by the variety for retention of
registration of the same
 Registration certificate issued to a breeder confer him/her exclusive right to produce, sell,
market, distribute, import or export the variety
 Researchers are not prevented for conducting research using the registered variety or using
the same for creating newer varieties provided an authorization is given by the breeder indicating
the necessity of use of protected variety
 The breeder of essentially derived varieties so developed using the protected varieties shall
have the same rights as the breeder of other new varieties
 Farmers have been provided right to avail protection of varieties conserved or developed
by them
 Farmers can save, re-sow, exchange, share and sell farm produce of any protected variety
except its commercial marketing with brand name
 Farmers have the right for innocent infringement when, at the time of infringement he is
not aware of the existence of breeder rights

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