The Rocknest sand shadow analyzed by the Curiosity rover on Mars was similar to coarse-grained ripples analyzed by previous rovers. It consisted of an upper layer of very coarse sand grains armoring the surface, underlain by finer grains. Analysis found the sand was around 55% crystalline material of basaltic composition and 45% amorphous iron-rich glass. This amorphous component contained the volatiles detected and was similar to soils analyzed at other Mars sites, implying the materials were locally derived from similar basaltic sources globally on Mars.
The ChemCam instrument on the Curiosity rover identified two main soil types on Mars - a fine-grained mafic soil and a coarse-grained felsic soil locally derived. The mafic soil is similar to widespread martian soils and dust, and possesses a ubiquitous hydrogen signature from hydrated amorphous phases. This hydration may account for a significant fraction of hydrogen detected globally on Mars. ChemCam analyses did not reveal water vapor exchange between the soil and atmosphere. The observations provide constraints on the nature and hydration of amorphous phases in the soil.
The x-ray diffraction analysis of soil samples from Rocknest at Gale Crater on Mars revealed:
1) Crystalline components including plagioclase, olivine, augite, pigeonite, and minor amounts of other phases.
2) 27±14% of the soil was amorphous material, likely containing multiple iron-bearing and volatile phases including possibly hisingerite.
3) The crystalline components are similar to martian basalts and meteorites, while the amorphous component is similar to soils on Earth like those on Mauna Kea, Hawaii.
The Curiosity rover analyzed samples of Martian fines from the Rocknest site using its Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite. SAM detected water, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and oxygen as the major gases released when heating the fines. The water content and release temperature suggest the water is bound in amorphous materials. Much of the carbon dioxide was likely released from the decomposition of fine-grained iron or magnesium carbonates. Elevated levels of deuterium indicate recent interaction with the atmosphere. Several simple organic compounds were detected but are not definitively of Martian origin.
The petrochemistry of_jake_m_a_martian_mugeariteSérgio Sacani
The rock "Jake_M" was the first rock analyzed by Curiosity on Mars. It has a distinct chemical composition compared to other known Martian rocks. Jake_M has a basaltic composition but is alkaline, with over 15% normative nepheline content. Its chemical makeup is similar to terrestrial mugearites, fractionated alkaline rocks found at ocean islands and rifts. This suggests Jake_M formed through extensive fractional crystallization of an alkaline magma at elevated pressure, possibly with water. The discovery of an alkaline rock expands the diversity of known Martian igneous compositions.
Mineralogy of a_mudstone_at_yellowknife_bay_gale_crater_marsSérgio Sacani
The document summarizes the mineralogical analysis of two mudstone samples, John Klein and Cumberland, collected from Yellowknife Bay on Mars by the Curiosity rover. X-ray diffraction analysis found that the samples contain detrital basaltic minerals, calcium sulfates, iron oxides/hydroxides, iron sulfides, amorphous material, and trioctahedral smectites. The smectite in John Klein has a basal spacing of ~10 Å indicating little water interlayer hydration, while Cumberland smectite has a spacing of ~13.2 Å, suggesting partial chloritization or interlayer ions that facilitate water retention. The mudstone minerals are similar to nearby eolian deposits but
A habitable fluvio_lacustrine_at_gale_crater_mars1Sérgio Sacani
The Curiosity rover discovered fine-grained sedimentary rocks in Yellowknife Bay, Gale crater, Mars that are inferred to represent an ancient lake environment. Analysis found the environment would have been habitable by microorganisms, with a neutral pH, low salinity, and variable redox states of iron and sulfur. Key biogenic elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus were detected, suggesting the environment could have supported a Martian biosphere based on chemolithoautotrophy. The habitable conditions were likely present for hundreds to tens of thousands of years. These results highlight the potential for fluvial-lacustrine environments on Mars after the Noachian period to
In situ radiometric_and_exposure_age_dating_of_the_martian_surfaceSérgio Sacani
The document summarizes research on the Sheepbed mudstone sample collected by the Curiosity rover in Gale crater on Mars. Key points:
- Potassium-argon dating of the mudstone yielded an age of 4.21 ± 0.35 billion years, consistent with the expected antiquity of rocks in Gale crater.
- Cosmogenic neon-21, helium-3, and argon-36 isotopes in the mudstone yielded concordant surface exposure ages of 78 ± 30 million years, indicating recent exposure by wind erosion rather than during initial transport and deposition.
- The mudstone's composition and mineralogy suggest it has not been heated above 200°C and may preserve
Volatile and organic_composition_of_sedimentary_rocks_in_yellowknife_bay_gale...Sérgio Sacani
This document summarizes the results of experiments analyzing the volatile and organic compositions of sedimentary rock samples from Yellowknife Bay in Gale Crater, Mars. The samples were obtained using the Curiosity rover's drill. Analysis found the samples released water, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, oxygen, and other gases when heated. The water and oxygen releases suggest the presence of hydrated minerals like phyllosilicates and oxychlorine compounds. Small amounts of organic compounds, including chlorinated hydrocarbons, were also detected, though the carbon source is uncertain. The sediments appear to have preserved evidence of past environmental conditions and potential habitability in Yellowknife Bay.
The ChemCam instrument on the Curiosity rover identified two main soil types on Mars - a fine-grained mafic soil and a coarse-grained felsic soil locally derived. The mafic soil is similar to widespread martian soils and dust, and possesses a ubiquitous hydrogen signature from hydrated amorphous phases. This hydration may account for a significant fraction of hydrogen detected globally on Mars. ChemCam analyses did not reveal water vapor exchange between the soil and atmosphere. The observations provide constraints on the nature and hydration of amorphous phases in the soil.
The x-ray diffraction analysis of soil samples from Rocknest at Gale Crater on Mars revealed:
1) Crystalline components including plagioclase, olivine, augite, pigeonite, and minor amounts of other phases.
2) 27±14% of the soil was amorphous material, likely containing multiple iron-bearing and volatile phases including possibly hisingerite.
3) The crystalline components are similar to martian basalts and meteorites, while the amorphous component is similar to soils on Earth like those on Mauna Kea, Hawaii.
The Curiosity rover analyzed samples of Martian fines from the Rocknest site using its Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite. SAM detected water, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and oxygen as the major gases released when heating the fines. The water content and release temperature suggest the water is bound in amorphous materials. Much of the carbon dioxide was likely released from the decomposition of fine-grained iron or magnesium carbonates. Elevated levels of deuterium indicate recent interaction with the atmosphere. Several simple organic compounds were detected but are not definitively of Martian origin.
The petrochemistry of_jake_m_a_martian_mugeariteSérgio Sacani
The rock "Jake_M" was the first rock analyzed by Curiosity on Mars. It has a distinct chemical composition compared to other known Martian rocks. Jake_M has a basaltic composition but is alkaline, with over 15% normative nepheline content. Its chemical makeup is similar to terrestrial mugearites, fractionated alkaline rocks found at ocean islands and rifts. This suggests Jake_M formed through extensive fractional crystallization of an alkaline magma at elevated pressure, possibly with water. The discovery of an alkaline rock expands the diversity of known Martian igneous compositions.
Mineralogy of a_mudstone_at_yellowknife_bay_gale_crater_marsSérgio Sacani
The document summarizes the mineralogical analysis of two mudstone samples, John Klein and Cumberland, collected from Yellowknife Bay on Mars by the Curiosity rover. X-ray diffraction analysis found that the samples contain detrital basaltic minerals, calcium sulfates, iron oxides/hydroxides, iron sulfides, amorphous material, and trioctahedral smectites. The smectite in John Klein has a basal spacing of ~10 Å indicating little water interlayer hydration, while Cumberland smectite has a spacing of ~13.2 Å, suggesting partial chloritization or interlayer ions that facilitate water retention. The mudstone minerals are similar to nearby eolian deposits but
A habitable fluvio_lacustrine_at_gale_crater_mars1Sérgio Sacani
The Curiosity rover discovered fine-grained sedimentary rocks in Yellowknife Bay, Gale crater, Mars that are inferred to represent an ancient lake environment. Analysis found the environment would have been habitable by microorganisms, with a neutral pH, low salinity, and variable redox states of iron and sulfur. Key biogenic elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus were detected, suggesting the environment could have supported a Martian biosphere based on chemolithoautotrophy. The habitable conditions were likely present for hundreds to tens of thousands of years. These results highlight the potential for fluvial-lacustrine environments on Mars after the Noachian period to
In situ radiometric_and_exposure_age_dating_of_the_martian_surfaceSérgio Sacani
The document summarizes research on the Sheepbed mudstone sample collected by the Curiosity rover in Gale crater on Mars. Key points:
- Potassium-argon dating of the mudstone yielded an age of 4.21 ± 0.35 billion years, consistent with the expected antiquity of rocks in Gale crater.
- Cosmogenic neon-21, helium-3, and argon-36 isotopes in the mudstone yielded concordant surface exposure ages of 78 ± 30 million years, indicating recent exposure by wind erosion rather than during initial transport and deposition.
- The mudstone's composition and mineralogy suggest it has not been heated above 200°C and may preserve
Volatile and organic_composition_of_sedimentary_rocks_in_yellowknife_bay_gale...Sérgio Sacani
This document summarizes the results of experiments analyzing the volatile and organic compositions of sedimentary rock samples from Yellowknife Bay in Gale Crater, Mars. The samples were obtained using the Curiosity rover's drill. Analysis found the samples released water, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, oxygen, and other gases when heated. The water and oxygen releases suggest the presence of hydrated minerals like phyllosilicates and oxychlorine compounds. Small amounts of organic compounds, including chlorinated hydrocarbons, were also detected, though the carbon source is uncertain. The sediments appear to have preserved evidence of past environmental conditions and potential habitability in Yellowknife Bay.
The document summarizes the elemental geochemistry of sedimentary rocks analyzed by the Curiosity rover at Yellowknife Bay, Mars. Key findings include:
1) The rocks have compositions similar to iron-rich basalt and contain elevated levels of iron, chlorine, and calcium sulfate compared to most Martian soils.
2) Mineralogical analysis found phyllosilicates, magnetite, calcium sulfates, and an amorphous component in the mudstones.
3) Geochemical evidence suggests magnetite is likely a diagenetic mineral that formed after deposition rather than a detrital mineral delivered from another source.
4) Ternary diagrams of elemental compositions indicate secondary alteration minerals
The habitability of Proxima Centauri b - I. Irradiation, rotation and volatil...Sérgio Sacani
Proxima b is a planet with a minimum mass of 1.3 M⊕ orbiting within the habitable zone (HZ) of Proxima Centauri, a very low-mass,
active star and the Sun’s closest neighbor. Here we investigate a number of factors related to the potential habitability of Proxima b
and its ability to maintain liquid water on its surface. We set the stage by estimating the current high-energy irradiance of the planet
and show that the planet currently receives 30 times more EUV radiation than Earth and 250 times more X-rays. We compute the time
evolution of the star’s spectrum, which is essential for modeling the flux received over Proxima b’s lifetime. We also show that Proxima
b’s obliquity is likely null and its spin is either synchronous or in a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, depending on the planet’s eccentricity and
level of triaxiality. Next we consider the evolution of Proxima b’s water inventory. We use our spectral energy distribution to compute
the hydrogen loss from the planet with an improved energy-limited escape formalism. Despite the high level of stellar activity we find
that Proxima b is likely to have lost less than an Earth ocean’s worth of hydrogen (EOH) before it reached the HZ 100–200 Myr after
its formation. The largest uncertainty in our work is the initial water budget, which is not constrained by planet formation models. We
conclude that Proxima b is a viable candidate habitable planet.
Ancient aqueous environments_at_endeavour_crater_marsSérgio Sacani
The document summarizes findings from the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity regarding ancient aqueous environments at Endeavour Crater on Mars. CRISM orbital data identified a location with a spectral signature of Fe3+-rich smectite clay minerals. Opportunity investigated this area in detail called the Matijevic formation. It found fine-grained layered rocks containing spherical concretions and was cut by calcium sulfate veins. Composition data suggests the rocks formed from aqueous leaching that altered the rocks to aluminum-rich smectites. This provides evidence for water-rock interactions before and after the impact, under slightly acidic to neutral pH environments that could have been more favorable for prebiotic chemistry.
Radial velocity monitoring has found the signature of a Msin i = 1:3 M planet located within the Habitable Zone of Proxima
Centauri, the Sun’s closest neighbor (Anglada-Escudé et al. 2016). Despite a hotter past and an active host star the planet Proxima b
could have retained enough volatiles to sustain surface habitability (Ribas et al. 2016). Here we use a 3D Global Climate Model (GCM)
to simulate Proxima b’s atmosphere and water cycle for its two likely rotation modes (the 1:1 and 3:2 spin-orbit resonances) while
varying the unconstrained surface water inventory and atmospheric greenhouse eect (represented here with a CO2-N2 atmosphere.)
We find that a broad range of atmospheric compositions can allow surface liquid water. On a tidally-locked planet with a surface water
inventory larger than 0.6 Earth ocean, liquid water is always present (assuming 1 bar of N2), at least in the substellar region. Liquid
water covers the whole planet for CO2 partial pressures & 1 bar. For smaller water inventories, water can be trapped on the night side,
forming either glaciers or lakes, depending on the amount of greenhouse gases. With a non-synchronous rotation, a minimum CO2
pressure of 10 mbar (assuming 1 bar of N2) is required to avoid falling into a completely frozen snowball state if water is abundant.
If the planet is dryer, 0.5 bar of CO2 would suce to prevent the trapping of any arbitrary small water inventory into polar ice
caps. More generally, any low-obliquity planet within the classical habitable zone of its star should be in one of the climate regimes
discussed here.
We use our GCM to produce reflection/emission spectra and phase curves for the dierent rotations and surface volatile inventories.
We find that atmospheric characterization will be possible by direct imaging with forthcoming large telescopes thanks to an angular
separation of 7=D at 1 m (with the E-ELT) and a contrast of 10 7. The magnitude of the planet will allow for high-resolution
spectroscopy and the search for molecular signatures, including H2O, O2, and CO2.
The observation of thermal phase curves, although challenging, can be attempted with JWST, thanks to a contrast of 210 5 at 10 m.
Proxima b will also be an exceptional target for future IR interferometers. Within a decade it will be possible to image Proxima b and
possibly determine whether this exoplanet’s surface is habitable.
Extensive Noachian fluvial systems in Arabia Terra: Implications for early Ma...Sérgio Sacani
Valley networks are some of the strongest lines of evidence for
extensive fluvial activity on early (Noachian; >3.7 Ga) Mars. However,
their purported absence on certain ancient terrains, such as
Arabia Terra, is at variance with patterns of precipitation as predicted
by “warm and wet” climate models. This disagreement has contributed
to the development of an alternative “icy highlands” scenario,
whereby valley networks were formed by the melting of highland ice
sheets. Here, we show through regional mapping that Arabia Terra
shows evidence for extensive networks of sinuous ridges. We interpret
these ridge features as inverted fluvial channels that formed in
the Noachian, before being subject to burial and exhumation. The
inverted channels developed on extensive aggrading flood plains. As
the inverted channels are both sourced in, and traverse across, Arabia
Terra, their formation is inconsistent with discrete, localized sources
of water, such as meltwater from highland ice sheets. Our results are
instead more consistent with an early Mars that supported widespread
precipitation and runoff.
SPECTROSCOPIC CONFIRMATION OF THE EXISTENCE OF LARGE, DIFFUSE GALAXIES IN THE...Sérgio Sacani
We recently identified a population of low surface brightness objects in the field of the z = 0.023 Coma cluster,
using the Dragonfly Telephoto Array. Here we present Keck spectroscopy of one of the largest of these “ultradiffuse
galaxies” (UDGs), confirming that it is a member of the cluster. The galaxy has prominent absorption
features, including the Ca II H+K lines and the G-band, and no detected emission lines. Its radial velocity of
cz=6280±120 km s−1 is within the 1σ velocity dispersion of the Coma cluster. The galaxy has an effective
radius of 4.3 ± 0.3 kpc and a Sérsic index of 0.89 ± 0.06, as measured from Keck imaging. We find no indications
of tidal tails or other distortions, at least out to a radius of ∼2re. We show that UDGs are located in a previously
sparsely populated region of the size—magnitude plane of quiescent stellar systems, as they are ∼6 mag fainter
than normal early-type galaxies of the same size. It appears that the luminosity distribution of large quiescent
galaxies is not continuous, although this could largely be due to selection effects. Dynamical measurements are
needed to determine whether the dark matter halos of UDGs are similar to those of galaxies with the same
luminosity or to those of galaxies with the same size.
Predictions of the_atmospheric_composition_of_gj_1132_bSérgio Sacani
GJ 1132 b is a nearby Earth-sized exoplanet transiting an M dwarf, and is amongst the most highly
characterizable small exoplanets currently known. In this paper we study the interaction of a magma
ocean with a water-rich atmosphere on GJ 1132b and determine that it must have begun with more
than 5 wt% initial water in order to still retain a water-based atmosphere. We also determine the
amount of O2
that can build up in the atmosphere as a result of hydrogen dissociation and loss.
We find that the magma ocean absorbs at most ∼ 10% of the O2 produced, whereas more than
90% is lost to space through hydrodynamic drag. The most common outcome for GJ 1132 b from our
simulations is a tenuous atmosphere dominated by O2
, although for very large initial water abundances
atmospheres with several thousands of bars of O2
are possible. A substantial steam envelope would
indicate either the existence of an earlier H2
envelope or low XUV flux over the system’s lifetime. A
steam atmosphere would also imply the continued existence of a magma ocean on GJ 1132 b. Further
modeling is needed to study the evolution of CO2
or N2
-rich atmospheres on GJ 1132 b.
The GRAIL spacecraft measured the gravity field of the Moon at high resolution, allowing determination of the bulk density and porosity of the lunar crust. The analysis found:
1) The bulk density of the lunar highlands crust is 2550 kg/m3, substantially lower than previous estimates due to impact-induced porosity.
2) The average porosity of the crust is 12%, varying regionally from 4-21% and correlated with impact basins.
3) A new global crustal thickness model was constructed satisfying seismic constraints with an average thickness of 34-43 km, indicating the Moon's composition is not highly enriched compared to Earth.
This 3-phase mission aims to establish a permanent human base on Mars through terraforming. Phase 1 involves robotic rovers collecting soil, ice, and rock samples from two Martian sites to analyze for life-supporting capabilities. Phase 2 sends supply ships to the more suitable site to establish a research outpost. Phase 3 involves sending 20 astronauts aboard one ship to the outpost to transform it into an operational base and conduct experiments testing 4 terraforming theories, with the goal of determining the most efficient method. The mission must launch before 2040 and conclude by 2045, and involves international cooperation to address funding and other constraints.
Phosphine gas in the cloud decks of VenusSérgio Sacani
The document reports the discovery of phosphine (PH3) gas in Venus's atmosphere based on millimeter-wave spectral detections from the JCMT and ALMA telescopes. Detections of absorption at the predicted wavelength of the PH3 1-0 rotational transition were observed to be consistent with Venus' velocity. The inferred PH3 abundance is approximately 20 parts per billion. However, the presence of PH3 in Venus' atmosphere is currently unexplained as there are no known abiotic production mechanisms for PH3 under Venus' atmospheric conditions. The PH3 could potentially originate from unknown photochemistry or geochemistry, or from the presence of life by analogy to biological PH3 production on Earth. Further observations are needed to confirm the detection
This document summarizes a study of fluid exchange between a subducting slab and mantle wedge in the Guatemala Suture Zone. Samples of schist, jadeitite, and eclogite were analyzed to understand the chemical composition of the mantle wedge and subducting slab. Zoning in mica crystals was examined using an optical microscope, electron probe microanalysis, and laser ablation-ICPMS to provide a chemical history of fluid events. Zoning was observed in mica from the schist and jadeitite samples but not the eclogite, suggesting the eclogite experienced fewer fluid events. Analyzing mica zoning provides insight into the chemical exchange between subducting slabs and mantle wedges.
VIMS images of the Huygens landing site on Titan acquired during Cassini flybys in October and December 2004 provide insight into surface features near the landing site with spatial resolutions of 14.4-19 km/pixel. Ratio images of the brightest and darkest spectra in the 2.03 μm window reveal a particularly contrasted structure north of the landing site, consistent with local enrichment in exposed water ice. The images also show a possible 150 km diameter impact crater with a central peak. While scattering from haze particles dominates Titan's spectrum, spectral ratios of bright and dark areas suggest differences in surface composition and/or topography related to DISR images of the site.
This document summarizes a study of the Corona Australis star-forming region using data from the Herschel space telescope. Key findings include:
1) Herschel maps reveal many cluster members, including some embedded very low-mass objects, several protostars (some extended), and substantial emission from the surrounding cloud.
2) Striking structures are seen, such as bright filaments around the IRS 5 protostar complex and a bubble-shaped rim associated with the Class I object IRS 2.
3) Disks around Class II objects show a wide range of properties, from massive primordial disks to disks with substantial dust depletion or evidence of inside-out evolution. This indicates a diversity of disk evolution
The nonmagnetic nucleus_of_comet_67_p_churyumov_gerasimenkoSérgio Sacani
Artigo descreve como a sonda Rosetta e o módulo Philae descobriram que o cometa Churyumov-Gerasimenko não é magnetizado, contrariando uma teoria da formação do Sistema Solar.
Artigo relata como a Terra sofreu com os impactos de ateroides a 4 bilhões de anos atrás, e como a superfície do planeta foi remodelada e os oceanos formados.
A terrestrial planet_candidate_in_a_temperate_orbit_around_proxima_centauriSérgio Sacani
At a distance of 1.295 parsecs,1 the red-dwarf Proxima Centauri (α Centauri C, GL 551,
HIP 70890, or simply Proxima) is the Sun’s closest stellar neighbour and one of the best studied
low-mass stars. It has an effective temperature of only 3050 K, a luminosity of 0.1 per
cent solar, a measured radius of 0.14 R⊙
2 and a mass of about 12 per cent the mass of the
Sun. Although Proxima is considered a moderately active star, its rotation period is 83
days,3 and its quiescent activity levels and X-ray luminosity4 are comparable to the Sun’s. New
observations reveal the presence of a small planet orbiting Proxima with a minimum mass of
1.3 Earth masses and an orbital period of 11.2 days. Its orbital semi-major axis is 0.05 AU,
with an equilibrium temperature in the range where water could be liquid on its surface.5
This document summarizes information about Mars and India's Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan). It discusses that Mars is the fourth planet from the sun with an iron oxide surface that gives it a red appearance. It has two moons and the tallest mountain, Olympus Mons. Past rover missions have found evidence that Mars once had water. India's first interplanetary mission, Mangalyaan, launched in 2013 with objectives to demonstrate Mars orbit insertion technology and study the surface, atmosphere, and mineral composition using onboard scientific payloads and cameras. The ultimate goal is to enable a permanent human settlement on Mars.
Localized aliphatic organic material on the surface of CeresSérgio Sacani
This document summarizes research on the detection of organic material on the surface of the dwarf planet Ceres. Spectral data from the Dawn spacecraft's VIR instrument shows a clear detection of an organic absorption feature at 3.4 micrometers localized near the Ernutet crater on Ceres. This signature is characteristic of aliphatic organic matter. The presence of organics as well as other compounds like ammonia-bearing minerals, water ice, carbonates and salts indicates a complex chemical environment on Ceres that could be favorable for prebiotic chemistry. The organics are concentrated in a 1000 square kilometer region near Ernutet crater, and their origin is unclear but may be from an impactor or endogenous to Ceres
The Mastcam instrument on the Curiosity rover observed isolated outcrops of cemented pebbles and sand grains with textures typical of fluvial sedimentary conglomerates at three locations along the rover's traverse. The rounded pebbles indicate substantial fluvial abrasion by water flows. ChemCam analysis found the conglomerate to have a predominantly feldspathic composition, consistent with minimal aqueous alteration. The sediments were mobilized by ancient water flows that were deep and fast enough to transport pebbles several centimeters in diameter. This evidence suggests Mars once had a warmer, wetter climate that could support overland water flows, in contrast to the current hyper-arid conditions.
The document summarizes the elemental geochemistry of sedimentary rocks analyzed by the Curiosity rover at Yellowknife Bay, Mars. Key findings include:
1) The rocks have compositions similar to iron-rich basalt and contain elevated levels of iron, chlorine, and calcium sulfate compared to most Martian soils.
2) Mineralogical analysis found phyllosilicates, magnetite, calcium sulfates, and an amorphous component in the mudstones.
3) Geochemical evidence suggests magnetite is likely a diagenetic mineral that formed after deposition rather than a detrital mineral delivered from another source.
4) Ternary diagrams of elemental compositions indicate secondary alteration minerals
The habitability of Proxima Centauri b - I. Irradiation, rotation and volatil...Sérgio Sacani
Proxima b is a planet with a minimum mass of 1.3 M⊕ orbiting within the habitable zone (HZ) of Proxima Centauri, a very low-mass,
active star and the Sun’s closest neighbor. Here we investigate a number of factors related to the potential habitability of Proxima b
and its ability to maintain liquid water on its surface. We set the stage by estimating the current high-energy irradiance of the planet
and show that the planet currently receives 30 times more EUV radiation than Earth and 250 times more X-rays. We compute the time
evolution of the star’s spectrum, which is essential for modeling the flux received over Proxima b’s lifetime. We also show that Proxima
b’s obliquity is likely null and its spin is either synchronous or in a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance, depending on the planet’s eccentricity and
level of triaxiality. Next we consider the evolution of Proxima b’s water inventory. We use our spectral energy distribution to compute
the hydrogen loss from the planet with an improved energy-limited escape formalism. Despite the high level of stellar activity we find
that Proxima b is likely to have lost less than an Earth ocean’s worth of hydrogen (EOH) before it reached the HZ 100–200 Myr after
its formation. The largest uncertainty in our work is the initial water budget, which is not constrained by planet formation models. We
conclude that Proxima b is a viable candidate habitable planet.
Ancient aqueous environments_at_endeavour_crater_marsSérgio Sacani
The document summarizes findings from the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity regarding ancient aqueous environments at Endeavour Crater on Mars. CRISM orbital data identified a location with a spectral signature of Fe3+-rich smectite clay minerals. Opportunity investigated this area in detail called the Matijevic formation. It found fine-grained layered rocks containing spherical concretions and was cut by calcium sulfate veins. Composition data suggests the rocks formed from aqueous leaching that altered the rocks to aluminum-rich smectites. This provides evidence for water-rock interactions before and after the impact, under slightly acidic to neutral pH environments that could have been more favorable for prebiotic chemistry.
Radial velocity monitoring has found the signature of a Msin i = 1:3 M planet located within the Habitable Zone of Proxima
Centauri, the Sun’s closest neighbor (Anglada-Escudé et al. 2016). Despite a hotter past and an active host star the planet Proxima b
could have retained enough volatiles to sustain surface habitability (Ribas et al. 2016). Here we use a 3D Global Climate Model (GCM)
to simulate Proxima b’s atmosphere and water cycle for its two likely rotation modes (the 1:1 and 3:2 spin-orbit resonances) while
varying the unconstrained surface water inventory and atmospheric greenhouse eect (represented here with a CO2-N2 atmosphere.)
We find that a broad range of atmospheric compositions can allow surface liquid water. On a tidally-locked planet with a surface water
inventory larger than 0.6 Earth ocean, liquid water is always present (assuming 1 bar of N2), at least in the substellar region. Liquid
water covers the whole planet for CO2 partial pressures & 1 bar. For smaller water inventories, water can be trapped on the night side,
forming either glaciers or lakes, depending on the amount of greenhouse gases. With a non-synchronous rotation, a minimum CO2
pressure of 10 mbar (assuming 1 bar of N2) is required to avoid falling into a completely frozen snowball state if water is abundant.
If the planet is dryer, 0.5 bar of CO2 would suce to prevent the trapping of any arbitrary small water inventory into polar ice
caps. More generally, any low-obliquity planet within the classical habitable zone of its star should be in one of the climate regimes
discussed here.
We use our GCM to produce reflection/emission spectra and phase curves for the dierent rotations and surface volatile inventories.
We find that atmospheric characterization will be possible by direct imaging with forthcoming large telescopes thanks to an angular
separation of 7=D at 1 m (with the E-ELT) and a contrast of 10 7. The magnitude of the planet will allow for high-resolution
spectroscopy and the search for molecular signatures, including H2O, O2, and CO2.
The observation of thermal phase curves, although challenging, can be attempted with JWST, thanks to a contrast of 210 5 at 10 m.
Proxima b will also be an exceptional target for future IR interferometers. Within a decade it will be possible to image Proxima b and
possibly determine whether this exoplanet’s surface is habitable.
Extensive Noachian fluvial systems in Arabia Terra: Implications for early Ma...Sérgio Sacani
Valley networks are some of the strongest lines of evidence for
extensive fluvial activity on early (Noachian; >3.7 Ga) Mars. However,
their purported absence on certain ancient terrains, such as
Arabia Terra, is at variance with patterns of precipitation as predicted
by “warm and wet” climate models. This disagreement has contributed
to the development of an alternative “icy highlands” scenario,
whereby valley networks were formed by the melting of highland ice
sheets. Here, we show through regional mapping that Arabia Terra
shows evidence for extensive networks of sinuous ridges. We interpret
these ridge features as inverted fluvial channels that formed in
the Noachian, before being subject to burial and exhumation. The
inverted channels developed on extensive aggrading flood plains. As
the inverted channels are both sourced in, and traverse across, Arabia
Terra, their formation is inconsistent with discrete, localized sources
of water, such as meltwater from highland ice sheets. Our results are
instead more consistent with an early Mars that supported widespread
precipitation and runoff.
SPECTROSCOPIC CONFIRMATION OF THE EXISTENCE OF LARGE, DIFFUSE GALAXIES IN THE...Sérgio Sacani
We recently identified a population of low surface brightness objects in the field of the z = 0.023 Coma cluster,
using the Dragonfly Telephoto Array. Here we present Keck spectroscopy of one of the largest of these “ultradiffuse
galaxies” (UDGs), confirming that it is a member of the cluster. The galaxy has prominent absorption
features, including the Ca II H+K lines and the G-band, and no detected emission lines. Its radial velocity of
cz=6280±120 km s−1 is within the 1σ velocity dispersion of the Coma cluster. The galaxy has an effective
radius of 4.3 ± 0.3 kpc and a Sérsic index of 0.89 ± 0.06, as measured from Keck imaging. We find no indications
of tidal tails or other distortions, at least out to a radius of ∼2re. We show that UDGs are located in a previously
sparsely populated region of the size—magnitude plane of quiescent stellar systems, as they are ∼6 mag fainter
than normal early-type galaxies of the same size. It appears that the luminosity distribution of large quiescent
galaxies is not continuous, although this could largely be due to selection effects. Dynamical measurements are
needed to determine whether the dark matter halos of UDGs are similar to those of galaxies with the same
luminosity or to those of galaxies with the same size.
Predictions of the_atmospheric_composition_of_gj_1132_bSérgio Sacani
GJ 1132 b is a nearby Earth-sized exoplanet transiting an M dwarf, and is amongst the most highly
characterizable small exoplanets currently known. In this paper we study the interaction of a magma
ocean with a water-rich atmosphere on GJ 1132b and determine that it must have begun with more
than 5 wt% initial water in order to still retain a water-based atmosphere. We also determine the
amount of O2
that can build up in the atmosphere as a result of hydrogen dissociation and loss.
We find that the magma ocean absorbs at most ∼ 10% of the O2 produced, whereas more than
90% is lost to space through hydrodynamic drag. The most common outcome for GJ 1132 b from our
simulations is a tenuous atmosphere dominated by O2
, although for very large initial water abundances
atmospheres with several thousands of bars of O2
are possible. A substantial steam envelope would
indicate either the existence of an earlier H2
envelope or low XUV flux over the system’s lifetime. A
steam atmosphere would also imply the continued existence of a magma ocean on GJ 1132 b. Further
modeling is needed to study the evolution of CO2
or N2
-rich atmospheres on GJ 1132 b.
The GRAIL spacecraft measured the gravity field of the Moon at high resolution, allowing determination of the bulk density and porosity of the lunar crust. The analysis found:
1) The bulk density of the lunar highlands crust is 2550 kg/m3, substantially lower than previous estimates due to impact-induced porosity.
2) The average porosity of the crust is 12%, varying regionally from 4-21% and correlated with impact basins.
3) A new global crustal thickness model was constructed satisfying seismic constraints with an average thickness of 34-43 km, indicating the Moon's composition is not highly enriched compared to Earth.
This 3-phase mission aims to establish a permanent human base on Mars through terraforming. Phase 1 involves robotic rovers collecting soil, ice, and rock samples from two Martian sites to analyze for life-supporting capabilities. Phase 2 sends supply ships to the more suitable site to establish a research outpost. Phase 3 involves sending 20 astronauts aboard one ship to the outpost to transform it into an operational base and conduct experiments testing 4 terraforming theories, with the goal of determining the most efficient method. The mission must launch before 2040 and conclude by 2045, and involves international cooperation to address funding and other constraints.
Phosphine gas in the cloud decks of VenusSérgio Sacani
The document reports the discovery of phosphine (PH3) gas in Venus's atmosphere based on millimeter-wave spectral detections from the JCMT and ALMA telescopes. Detections of absorption at the predicted wavelength of the PH3 1-0 rotational transition were observed to be consistent with Venus' velocity. The inferred PH3 abundance is approximately 20 parts per billion. However, the presence of PH3 in Venus' atmosphere is currently unexplained as there are no known abiotic production mechanisms for PH3 under Venus' atmospheric conditions. The PH3 could potentially originate from unknown photochemistry or geochemistry, or from the presence of life by analogy to biological PH3 production on Earth. Further observations are needed to confirm the detection
This document summarizes a study of fluid exchange between a subducting slab and mantle wedge in the Guatemala Suture Zone. Samples of schist, jadeitite, and eclogite were analyzed to understand the chemical composition of the mantle wedge and subducting slab. Zoning in mica crystals was examined using an optical microscope, electron probe microanalysis, and laser ablation-ICPMS to provide a chemical history of fluid events. Zoning was observed in mica from the schist and jadeitite samples but not the eclogite, suggesting the eclogite experienced fewer fluid events. Analyzing mica zoning provides insight into the chemical exchange between subducting slabs and mantle wedges.
VIMS images of the Huygens landing site on Titan acquired during Cassini flybys in October and December 2004 provide insight into surface features near the landing site with spatial resolutions of 14.4-19 km/pixel. Ratio images of the brightest and darkest spectra in the 2.03 μm window reveal a particularly contrasted structure north of the landing site, consistent with local enrichment in exposed water ice. The images also show a possible 150 km diameter impact crater with a central peak. While scattering from haze particles dominates Titan's spectrum, spectral ratios of bright and dark areas suggest differences in surface composition and/or topography related to DISR images of the site.
This document summarizes a study of the Corona Australis star-forming region using data from the Herschel space telescope. Key findings include:
1) Herschel maps reveal many cluster members, including some embedded very low-mass objects, several protostars (some extended), and substantial emission from the surrounding cloud.
2) Striking structures are seen, such as bright filaments around the IRS 5 protostar complex and a bubble-shaped rim associated with the Class I object IRS 2.
3) Disks around Class II objects show a wide range of properties, from massive primordial disks to disks with substantial dust depletion or evidence of inside-out evolution. This indicates a diversity of disk evolution
The nonmagnetic nucleus_of_comet_67_p_churyumov_gerasimenkoSérgio Sacani
Artigo descreve como a sonda Rosetta e o módulo Philae descobriram que o cometa Churyumov-Gerasimenko não é magnetizado, contrariando uma teoria da formação do Sistema Solar.
Artigo relata como a Terra sofreu com os impactos de ateroides a 4 bilhões de anos atrás, e como a superfície do planeta foi remodelada e os oceanos formados.
A terrestrial planet_candidate_in_a_temperate_orbit_around_proxima_centauriSérgio Sacani
At a distance of 1.295 parsecs,1 the red-dwarf Proxima Centauri (α Centauri C, GL 551,
HIP 70890, or simply Proxima) is the Sun’s closest stellar neighbour and one of the best studied
low-mass stars. It has an effective temperature of only 3050 K, a luminosity of 0.1 per
cent solar, a measured radius of 0.14 R⊙
2 and a mass of about 12 per cent the mass of the
Sun. Although Proxima is considered a moderately active star, its rotation period is 83
days,3 and its quiescent activity levels and X-ray luminosity4 are comparable to the Sun’s. New
observations reveal the presence of a small planet orbiting Proxima with a minimum mass of
1.3 Earth masses and an orbital period of 11.2 days. Its orbital semi-major axis is 0.05 AU,
with an equilibrium temperature in the range where water could be liquid on its surface.5
This document summarizes information about Mars and India's Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan). It discusses that Mars is the fourth planet from the sun with an iron oxide surface that gives it a red appearance. It has two moons and the tallest mountain, Olympus Mons. Past rover missions have found evidence that Mars once had water. India's first interplanetary mission, Mangalyaan, launched in 2013 with objectives to demonstrate Mars orbit insertion technology and study the surface, atmosphere, and mineral composition using onboard scientific payloads and cameras. The ultimate goal is to enable a permanent human settlement on Mars.
Localized aliphatic organic material on the surface of CeresSérgio Sacani
This document summarizes research on the detection of organic material on the surface of the dwarf planet Ceres. Spectral data from the Dawn spacecraft's VIR instrument shows a clear detection of an organic absorption feature at 3.4 micrometers localized near the Ernutet crater on Ceres. This signature is characteristic of aliphatic organic matter. The presence of organics as well as other compounds like ammonia-bearing minerals, water ice, carbonates and salts indicates a complex chemical environment on Ceres that could be favorable for prebiotic chemistry. The organics are concentrated in a 1000 square kilometer region near Ernutet crater, and their origin is unclear but may be from an impactor or endogenous to Ceres
The Mastcam instrument on the Curiosity rover observed isolated outcrops of cemented pebbles and sand grains with textures typical of fluvial sedimentary conglomerates at three locations along the rover's traverse. The rounded pebbles indicate substantial fluvial abrasion by water flows. ChemCam analysis found the conglomerate to have a predominantly feldspathic composition, consistent with minimal aqueous alteration. The sediments were mobilized by ancient water flows that were deep and fast enough to transport pebbles several centimeters in diameter. This evidence suggests Mars once had a warmer, wetter climate that could support overland water flows, in contrast to the current hyper-arid conditions.
Analysis of Surface Materials by Curiosity Mars Rover - Special CollectionCarlos Bella
Curiosity used its instruments to analyze materials along its traverse on Mars, yielding three key results:
1) It found a unique alkaline volcanic rock called "Jake_M" that is compositionally similar to rare mugearite rocks on Earth.
2) It analyzed windblown deposits and found two soil types - a common mafic type similar to global Martian soils, and a locally derived felsic type from broken down bedrock.
3) Chemical analysis of the soils found evidence of hydration in the amorphous soil components, suggesting absorbed water plays a role in Mars' global hydration signal detected from orbiters.
Martian soil as revealed by ground-penetrating radar at the Tianwen-1 landing...Sérgio Sacani
Much of the Martian surface is covered by a weathering layer (regolith or soil) produced
by long-term surface processes such as impact gardening, eolian erosion, water weathering,
and glacial modifications. China’s first Martian mission, Tianwen-1, employed the Mars
Rover Penetrating Radar (RoPeR) to unveil the detailed structure of the regolith layer and
assess its loss tangent. The RoPeR radargram revealed the local regolith layer to be highly
heterogeneous and geologically complex and characterized by structures that resemble partial
or complete crater walls and near-surface impact lenses at a very shallow depth. However,
comparable radar data from the Lunar far side are rather uniform, despite the two surfaces
being geologically contemporary. The close-to-surface crater presented in this study shows
no detectable surface expression, which suggests an accelerated occultation rate for small
craters on the surface of Mars as compared to the rate on the Moon. This is probably due to
the relentless eolian processes on the Martian surface that led to the burial of the crater and
thus shielded it from further erosion. The high loss tangent indicates that the regolith at the
Tianwen-1 landing site is not dominated by water ice.
Exocometary gas in_th_hd_181327_debris_ringSérgio Sacani
An increasing number of observations have shown that gaseous debris discs are not an
exception. However, until now we only knew of cases around A stars. Here we present the first
detection of 12CO (2-1) disc emission around an F star, HD 181327, obtained with ALMA
observations at 1.3 mm. The continuum and CO emission are resolved into an axisymmetric
disc with ring-like morphology. Using a Markov chain Monte Carlo method coupled with
radiative transfer calculations we study the dust and CO mass distribution. We find the dust is
distributed in a ring with a radius of 86:0 0:4 AU and a radial width of 23:2 1:0 AU. At
this frequency the ring radius is smaller than in the optical, revealing grain size segregation
expected due to radiation pressure. We also report on the detection of low level continuum
emission beyond the main ring out to 200 AU. We model the CO emission in the non-LTE
regime and we find that the CO is co-located with the dust, with a total CO gas mass ranging
between 1:2 10 6 M and 2:9 10 6 M, depending on the gas kinetic temperature and
collisional partners densities. The CO densities and location suggest a secondary origin, i.e.
released from icy planetesimals in the ring. We derive a CO cometary composition that is
consistent with Solar system comets. Due to the low gas densities it is unlikely that the gas is
shaping the dust distribution.
The ExoplanetSat Mission to Detect Transiting Exoplanets with a CShawn Murphy
1) ExoplanetSat is a CubeSat mission that aims to detect Earth-sized exoplanets transiting nearby bright stars using ultra-precise photometry.
2) It will monitor individual target stars to detect the characteristic dip in light level caused by a transiting exoplanet. Any planets detected could then be studied by larger telescopes to characterize their atmospheres.
3) ExoplanetSat's design incorporates a 6cm telescope combined with a fine image stabilization system to achieve near shot-noise limited photometry, allowing detection of Earth-sized planets transiting stars as bright as magnitude 6.
This document summarizes a 1.3 mm continuum survey of protoplanetary disks in the 2-3 Myr old IC348 star cluster using the Submillimeter Array. 10 disks out of 85 young stars were detected with masses ranging from 2-6 Jupiter masses. This distribution is shifted to lower masses by a factor of 20 compared to younger regions like Taurus and Ophiuchus. The results reveal a rapid decline in the number of small dust grains in disks after 1 Myr, likely due to grain growth. The few detected disks may be the best candidates in IC348 to study planet formation.
Evidence for widespread hydrated minerals on asteroid (101955) BennuSérgio Sacani
Early spectral data from the Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer (OSIRISREx) mission reveal evidence for abundant hydrated minerals on the surface of near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu in the
form of a near-infrared absorption near 2.7 µm and thermal infrared spectral features that are most similar to those of aqueously altered CM-type carbonaceous chondrites. We observe these spectral features across the surface of Bennu, and there
is no evidence of substantial rotational variability at the spatial scales of tens to hundreds of metres observed to date. In the
visible and near-infrared (0.4 to 2.4 µm) Bennu’s spectrum appears featureless and with a blue (negative) slope, confirming
previous ground-based observations. Bennu may represent a class of objects that could have brought volatiles and organic
chemistry to Earth.
This document is a Mars atlas published by the Space Applications Centre of ISRO that contains images and information about Mars from the Mars Orbiter Mission. It includes an overview of the solar system and Mars, details about the Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft and its objectives. It then shows global views of Mars captured by the mission and categorized images of different geological features on Mars like impact craters, volcanic features, and tectonic landforms. The atlas also contains temperature maps of Mars from the mission's instruments and discusses ongoing analysis of Mars' atmosphere and surface.
The document summarizes information about the Mars Curiosity rover mission. It describes Curiosity's goals of investigating Martian climate, geology, and assessing habitability. It details Curiosity's landing site in Gale Crater and comparisons to previous Mars rovers. Curiosity uses a supersonic parachute during its descent through the thin Martian atmosphere to slow its descent, which involves complex fluid structure interaction challenges.
Unique chemistry of a diamond-bearing pebble from the Libyan Desert Glass str...Carlos Bella
This document summarizes research on a unique black, shiny, and intensely fractured stone named "Hypatia" found in the Libyan Desert Glass strewnfield in southwest Egypt. Analysis showed the stone is composed primarily of amorphous carbonaceous matter containing nanodiamonds. Isotopic signatures of carbon and noble gases rule out a terrestrial origin and match cometary materials. The researchers propose Hypatia is a remnant of a comet nucleus fragment that was incorporated into the bolide that created the Libyan Desert Glass in an atmospheric airburst event 28.5 million years ago. Its shock transformation produced a weathering-resistant material that has been exceptionally preserved.
The document discusses the growing issue of space debris and meteoroids in Earth's orbit. It provides background on where space debris comes from, including derelict spacecraft and rocket parts. Models like ORDEM and MEM are used to track and predict the movement of debris. Mitigation efforts aim to minimize new debris, but the issue continues growing as the amount of objects in space increases each year. Shields help protect satellites from impacts, but more must be done to curb the problem to ensure safe space travel.
In situ collection of dust grainsfalling from Saturn’s rings intoits atmosphereSérgio Sacani
The Cassini spacecraft detected dust grains falling from Saturn's rings into its atmosphere using an onboard cosmic dust analyzer (CDA). The CDA collected nanometer-sized dust grains during Cassini's final orbits between Saturn and its inner D ring. Analysis found the dust was predominantly tens of nanometers in size and composed of water ice and silicates. The silicate content of 8-30% was higher than inferred from previous ring observations. Spatial distribution data showed the dust flux was highest at the ring plane and varied with the CDA's orientation, providing evidence that the dust originated from the rings and was influenced by Saturn's offset magnetic field into its atmosphere.
This document proposes a new method for rapidly assessing the age of geological units on Mars using measurements of topographic roughness. It hypothesizes that roughness will be correlated with age derived from crater size-frequency distributions, as craters increase surface roughness over time. To test this, the author analyzes topography images and measures roughness from 125 sites across Mars. Age is calculated from crater counts and compared to roughness measurements. Preliminary results show a significant relationship between some roughness measures and age, though there is also variation likely due to crater degradation processes altering roughness without affecting size distributions. If validated, roughness could provide a faster way to assess relative Martian surface ages than traditional crater counting.
The document summarizes findings from studying asteroid 4 Vesta using data from NASA's Dawn spacecraft. It finds that Vesta has experienced a violent collisional history, with large impacts creating steep slopes and resurfacing much of the surface. While no unambiguous volcanic deposits were found, some dark material in impact craters may be from excavated subsurface volcanic features. Smooth ponds found on Vesta are also seen on asteroid Eros and are thought to form from impact ejecta collecting in depressions.
The document analyzes the mechanical properties of a Martian regolith simulant called JSC Mars-1A through a series of soil mechanics experiments. Sieve and hydrometer analyses were used to determine particle size distribution, showing the regolith was poorly graded. Direct shear tests measured the simulant's friction angle of 41.3 degrees, indicating relatively weak shear strength similar to some Earth soils. While the regolith properties provided drainage, its grading and strength were suboptimal for construction. Further research is needed to modify regolith properties or identify alternative construction materials to enable building directly on Mars using local resources. Understanding Martian soil properties is crucial to establishing human colonies off Earth and ensuring long-term survival.
The document discusses various exploration techniques used to locate uranium deposits, including geologic mapping, remote sensing, and geophysical methods. It describes how exploration involves establishing baseline conditions, finding alteration zones and ore bodies, determining mineability and processability of ore, locating infrastructure, and refining exploration models. Key steps involve defining deposit models, selecting target areas, interpreting regional data, reconnaissance work including drilling, and discovering ore. Geologic mapping involves collecting and interpreting data in the field to understand rock distributions and make decisions about land and resource use. Remote sensing techniques like satellite imagery and hyperspectral analysis are also used to detect and identify minerals. Geophysical methods leverage variations in gravity, magnetism, conductivity and other properties to map subsurface
SFERO is a 3D printing habitat concept on Mars planet that relies on:
The alliance of the resources that symbolize two planets (Mars and Earth): iron and water. A burrowing construction mast, equipped with two, independent robotic arms that allow for the additive manufacturing of two resistant shells, and the positioning of an insulation tarp (filled with water or other “Martian” materials)
Sedimentological studies of marine oil fields in order to reduce drilling risk...bijceesjournal
Detailed studies of sedimentology and petrology of oil fields, especially oil fields located in the seas, play a very important role in reducing the risk of danger, increasing harvest, and reducing the amount of environmental pollution. The South Pars gas field in the waters of the Persian Gulf on the joint border line of Iran and Qatar and on the south coast of Iran has been used as a comprehensive model for this type of study. In these studies, the sedimentary environment and sequential stratigraphy of the Scorpion and Sarvak Formations in the South Pars gas field in wells 1 and 3 have been investigated. Microscopic studies and analysis of gamma-ray and acoustic diagrams of these formations have led to the identification of 9 facies in three facies belts related to wetland, dam, and open sea. Dam facies have been identified only in Sarvak formation. This study shows that the facies belts of the abovementioned formations in a ramp platform are also sloping. Sequence stratigraphy of Kazhdomi and Sarvak Formations in the study wells shows that Kazhdomi Formation has one sedimentary sequence (third category cycle) and Sarvak Formation has two sedimentary sequences. The lower boundaries of sequences 1 and 2 and the upper boundary of sequence 3 have type 1 (SB1) discontinuities, and the boundary between sequences 2 and 3 has type 2 (SB2) discontinuities.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Gliese 12 b: A Temperate Earth-sized Planet at 12 pc Ideal for Atmospheric Tr...Sérgio Sacani
Recent discoveries of Earth-sized planets transiting nearby M dwarfs have made it possible to characterize the
atmospheres of terrestrial planets via follow-up spectroscopic observations. However, the number of such planets
receiving low insolation is still small, limiting our ability to understand the diversity of the atmospheric
composition and climates of temperate terrestrial planets. We report the discovery of an Earth-sized planet
transiting the nearby (12 pc) inactive M3.0 dwarf Gliese 12 (TOI-6251) with an orbital period (Porb) of 12.76 days.
The planet, Gliese 12 b, was initially identified as a candidate with an ambiguous Porb from TESS data. We
confirmed the transit signal and Porb using ground-based photometry with MuSCAT2 and MuSCAT3, and
validated the planetary nature of the signal using high-resolution images from Gemini/NIRI and Keck/NIRC2 as
well as radial velocity (RV) measurements from the InfraRed Doppler instrument on the Subaru 8.2 m telescope
and from CARMENES on the CAHA 3.5 m telescope. X-ray observations with XMM-Newton showed the host
star is inactive, with an X-ray-to-bolometric luminosity ratio of log 5.7 L L X bol » - . Joint analysis of the light
curves and RV measurements revealed that Gliese 12 b has a radius of 0.96 ± 0.05 R⊕,a3σ mass upper limit of
3.9 M⊕, and an equilibrium temperature of 315 ± 6 K assuming zero albedo. The transmission spectroscopy metric
(TSM) value of Gliese 12 b is close to the TSM values of the TRAPPIST-1 planets, adding Gliese 12 b to the small
list of potentially terrestrial, temperate planets amenable to atmospheric characterization with JWST.
Gliese 12 b, a temperate Earth-sized planet at 12 parsecs discovered with TES...Sérgio Sacani
We report on the discovery of Gliese 12 b, the nearest transiting temperate, Earth-sized planet found to date. Gliese 12 is a
bright (V = 12.6 mag, K = 7.8 mag) metal-poor M4V star only 12.162 ± 0.005 pc away from the Solar system with one of the
lowest stellar activity levels known for M-dwarfs. A planet candidate was detected by TESS based on only 3 transits in sectors
42, 43, and 57, with an ambiguity in the orbital period due to observational gaps. We performed follow-up transit observations
with CHEOPS and ground-based photometry with MINERVA-Australis, SPECULOOS, and Purple Mountain Observatory,
as well as further TESS observations in sector 70. We statistically validate Gliese 12 b as a planet with an orbital period of
12.76144 ± 0.00006 d and a radius of 1.0 ± 0.1 R⊕, resulting in an equilibrium temperature of ∼315 K. Gliese 12 b has excellent
future prospects for precise mass measurement, which may inform how planetary internal structure is affected by the stellar
compositional environment. Gliese 12 b also represents one of the best targets to study whether Earth-like planets orbiting cool
stars can retain their atmospheres, a crucial step to advance our understanding of habitability on Earth and across the galaxy.
The importance of continents, oceans and plate tectonics for the evolution of...Sérgio Sacani
Within the uncertainties of involved astronomical and biological parameters, the Drake Equation
typically predicts that there should be many exoplanets in our galaxy hosting active, communicative
civilizations (ACCs). These optimistic calculations are however not supported by evidence, which is
often referred to as the Fermi Paradox. Here, we elaborate on this long-standing enigma by showing
the importance of planetary tectonic style for biological evolution. We summarize growing evidence
that a prolonged transition from Mesoproterozoic active single lid tectonics (1.6 to 1.0 Ga) to modern
plate tectonics occurred in the Neoproterozoic Era (1.0 to 0.541 Ga), which dramatically accelerated
emergence and evolution of complex species. We further suggest that both continents and oceans
are required for ACCs because early evolution of simple life must happen in water but late evolution
of advanced life capable of creating technology must happen on land. We resolve the Fermi Paradox
(1) by adding two additional terms to the Drake Equation: foc
(the fraction of habitable exoplanets
with significant continents and oceans) and fpt
(the fraction of habitable exoplanets with significant
continents and oceans that have had plate tectonics operating for at least 0.5 Ga); and (2) by
demonstrating that the product of foc
and fpt
is very small (< 0.00003–0.002). We propose that the lack
of evidence for ACCs reflects the scarcity of long-lived plate tectonics and/or continents and oceans on
exoplanets with primitive life.
A Giant Impact Origin for the First Subduction on EarthSérgio Sacani
Hadean zircons provide a potential record of Earth's earliest subduction 4.3 billion years ago. Itremains enigmatic how subduction could be initiated so soon after the presumably Moon‐forming giant impact(MGI). Earlier studies found an increase in Earth's core‐mantle boundary (CMB) temperature due to theaccumulation of the impactor's core, and our recent work shows Earth's lower mantle remains largely solid, withsome of the impactor's mantle potentially surviving as the large low‐shear velocity provinces (LLSVPs). Here,we show that a hot post‐impact CMB drives the initiation of strong mantle plumes that can induce subductioninitiation ∼200 Myr after the MGI. 2D and 3D thermomechanical computations show that a high CMBtemperature is the primary factor triggering early subduction, with enrichment of heat‐producing elements inLLSVPs as another potential factor. The models link the earliest subduction to the MGI with implications forunderstanding the diverse tectonic regimes of rocky planets.
Climate extremes likely to drive land mammal extinction during next supercont...Sérgio Sacani
Mammals have dominated Earth for approximately 55 Myr thanks to their
adaptations and resilience to warming and cooling during the Cenozoic. All
life will eventually perish in a runaway greenhouse once absorbed solar
radiation exceeds the emission of thermal radiation in several billions of
years. However, conditions rendering the Earth naturally inhospitable to
mammals may develop sooner because of long-term processes linked to
plate tectonics (short-term perturbations are not considered here). In
~250 Myr, all continents will converge to form Earth’s next supercontinent,
Pangea Ultima. A natural consequence of the creation and decay of Pangea
Ultima will be extremes in pCO2 due to changes in volcanic rifting and
outgassing. Here we show that increased pCO2, solar energy (F⨀;
approximately +2.5% W m−2 greater than today) and continentality (larger
range in temperatures away from the ocean) lead to increasing warming
hostile to mammalian life. We assess their impact on mammalian
physiological limits (dry bulb, wet bulb and Humidex heat stress indicators)
as well as a planetary habitability index. Given mammals’ continued survival,
predicted background pCO2 levels of 410–816 ppm combined with increased
F⨀ will probably lead to a climate tipping point and their mass extinction.
The results also highlight how global landmass configuration, pCO2 and F⨀
play a critical role in planetary habitability.
Constraints on Neutrino Natal Kicks from Black-Hole Binary VFTS 243Sérgio Sacani
The recently reported observation of VFTS 243 is the first example of a massive black-hole binary
system with negligible binary interaction following black-hole formation. The black-hole mass (≈10M⊙)
and near-circular orbit (e ≈ 0.02) of VFTS 243 suggest that the progenitor star experienced complete
collapse, with energy-momentum being lost predominantly through neutrinos. VFTS 243 enables us to
constrain the natal kick and neutrino-emission asymmetry during black-hole formation. At 68% confidence
level, the natal kick velocity (mass decrement) is ≲10 km=s (≲1.0M⊙), with a full probability distribution
that peaks when ≈0.3M⊙ were ejected, presumably in neutrinos, and the black hole experienced a natal
kick of 4 km=s. The neutrino-emission asymmetry is ≲4%, with best fit values of ∼0–0.2%. Such a small
neutrino natal kick accompanying black-hole formation is in agreement with theoretical predictions.
Detectability of Solar Panels as a TechnosignatureSérgio Sacani
In this work, we assess the potential detectability of solar panels made of silicon on an Earth-like
exoplanet as a potential technosignature. Silicon-based photovoltaic cells have high reflectance in the
UV-VIS and in the near-IR, within the wavelength range of a space-based flagship mission concept
like the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO). Assuming that only solar energy is used to provide
the 2022 human energy needs with a land cover of ∼ 2.4%, and projecting the future energy demand
assuming various growth-rate scenarios, we assess the detectability with an 8 m HWO-like telescope.
Assuming the most favorable viewing orientation, and focusing on the strong absorption edge in the
ultraviolet-to-visible (0.34 − 0.52 µm), we find that several 100s of hours of observation time is needed
to reach a SNR of 5 for an Earth-like planet around a Sun-like star at 10pc, even with a solar panel
coverage of ∼ 23% land coverage of a future Earth. We discuss the necessity of concepts like Kardeshev
Type I/II civilizations and Dyson spheres, which would aim to harness vast amounts of energy. Even
with much larger populations than today, the total energy use of human civilization would be orders of
magnitude below the threshold for causing direct thermal heating or reaching the scale of a Kardashev
Type I civilization. Any extraterrrestrial civilization that likewise achieves sustainable population
levels may also find a limit on its need to expand, which suggests that a galaxy-spanning civilization
as imagined in the Fermi paradox may not exist.
Jet reorientation in central galaxies of clusters and groups: insights from V...Sérgio Sacani
Recent observations of galaxy clusters and groups with misalignments between their central AGN jets
and X-ray cavities, or with multiple misaligned cavities, have raised concerns about the jet – bubble
connection in cooling cores, and the processes responsible for jet realignment. To investigate the
frequency and causes of such misalignments, we construct a sample of 16 cool core galaxy clusters and
groups. Using VLBA radio data we measure the parsec-scale position angle of the jets, and compare
it with the position angle of the X-ray cavities detected in Chandra data. Using the overall sample
and selected subsets, we consistently find that there is a 30% – 38% chance to find a misalignment
larger than ∆Ψ = 45◦ when observing a cluster/group with a detected jet and at least one cavity. We
determine that projection may account for an apparently large ∆Ψ only in a fraction of objects (∼35%),
and given that gas dynamical disturbances (as sloshing) are found in both aligned and misaligned
systems, we exclude environmental perturbation as the main driver of cavity – jet misalignment.
Moreover, we find that large misalignments (up to ∼ 90◦
) are favored over smaller ones (45◦ ≤ ∆Ψ ≤
70◦
), and that the change in jet direction can occur on timescales between one and a few tens of Myr.
We conclude that misalignments are more likely related to actual reorientation of the jet axis, and we
discuss several engine-based mechanisms that may cause these dramatic changes.
The solar dynamo begins near the surfaceSérgio Sacani
The magnetic dynamo cycle of the Sun features a distinct pattern: a propagating
region of sunspot emergence appears around 30° latitude and vanishes near the
equator every 11 years (ref. 1). Moreover, longitudinal flows called torsional oscillations
closely shadow sunspot migration, undoubtedly sharing a common cause2. Contrary
to theories suggesting deep origins of these phenomena, helioseismology pinpoints
low-latitude torsional oscillations to the outer 5–10% of the Sun, the near-surface
shear layer3,4. Within this zone, inwardly increasing differential rotation coupled with
a poloidal magnetic field strongly implicates the magneto-rotational instability5,6,
prominent in accretion-disk theory and observed in laboratory experiments7.
Together, these two facts prompt the general question: whether the solar dynamo is
possibly a near-surface instability. Here we report strong affirmative evidence in stark
contrast to traditional models8 focusing on the deeper tachocline. Simple analytic
estimates show that the near-surface magneto-rotational instability better explains
the spatiotemporal scales of the torsional oscillations and inferred subsurface
magnetic field amplitudes9. State-of-the-art numerical simulations corroborate these
estimates and reproduce hemispherical magnetic current helicity laws10. The dynamo
resulting from a well-understood near-surface phenomenon improves prospects
for accurate predictions of full magnetic cycles and space weather, affecting the
electromagnetic infrastructure of Earth.
Extensive Pollution of Uranus and Neptune’s Atmospheres by Upsweep of Icy Mat...Sérgio Sacani
In the Nice model of solar system formation, Uranus and Neptune undergo an orbital upheaval,
sweeping through a planetesimal disk. The region of the disk from which material is accreted by
the ice giants during this phase of their evolution has not previously been identified. We perform
direct N-body orbital simulations of the four giant planets to determine the amount and origin of solid
accretion during this orbital upheaval. We find that the ice giants undergo an extreme bombardment
event, with collision rates as much as ∼3 per hour assuming km-sized planetesimals, increasing the
total planet mass by up to ∼0.35%. In all cases, the initially outermost ice giant experiences the
largest total enhancement. We determine that for some plausible planetesimal properties, the resulting
atmospheric enrichment could potentially produce sufficient latent heat to alter the planetary cooling
timescale according to existing models. Our findings suggest that substantial accretion during this
phase of planetary evolution may have been sufficient to impact the atmospheric composition and
thermal evolution of the ice giants, motivating future work on the fate of deposited solid material.
Exomoons & Exorings with the Habitable Worlds Observatory I: On the Detection...Sérgio Sacani
The highest priority recommendation of the Astro2020 Decadal Survey for space-based astronomy
was the construction of an observatory capable of characterizing habitable worlds. In this paper series
we explore the detectability of and interference from exomoons and exorings serendipitously observed
with the proposed Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) as it seeks to characterize exoplanets, starting
in this manuscript with Earth-Moon analog mutual events. Unlike transits, which only occur in systems
viewed near edge-on, shadow (i.e., solar eclipse) and lunar eclipse mutual events occur in almost every
star-planet-moon system. The cadence of these events can vary widely from ∼yearly to multiple events
per day, as was the case in our younger Earth-Moon system. Leveraging previous space-based (EPOXI)
lightcurves of a Moon transit and performance predictions from the LUVOIR-B concept, we derive
the detectability of Moon analogs with HWO. We determine that Earth-Moon analogs are detectable
with observation of ∼2-20 mutual events for systems within 10 pc, and larger moons should remain
detectable out to 20 pc. We explore the extent to which exomoon mutual events can mimic planet
features and weather. We find that HWO wavelength coverage in the near-IR, specifically in the 1.4 µm
water band where large moons can outshine their host planet, will aid in differentiating exomoon signals
from exoplanet variability. Finally, we predict that exomoons formed through collision processes akin
to our Moon are more likely to be detected in younger systems, where shorter orbital periods and
favorable geometry enhance the probability and frequency of mutual events.
Emergent ribozyme behaviors in oxychlorine brines indicate a unique niche for...Sérgio Sacani
Mars is a particularly attractive candidate among known astronomical objects
to potentially host life. Results from space exploration missions have provided
insights into Martian geochemistry that indicate oxychlorine species, particularly perchlorate, are ubiquitous features of the Martian geochemical landscape. Perchlorate presents potential obstacles for known forms of life due to
its toxicity. However, it can also provide potential benefits, such as producing
brines by deliquescence, like those thought to exist on present-day Mars. Here
we show perchlorate brines support folding and catalysis of functional RNAs,
while inactivating representative protein enzymes. Additionally, we show
perchlorate and other oxychlorine species enable ribozyme functions,
including homeostasis-like regulatory behavior and ribozyme-catalyzed
chlorination of organic molecules. We suggest nucleic acids are uniquely wellsuited to hypersaline Martian environments. Furthermore, Martian near- or
subsurface oxychlorine brines, and brines found in potential lifeforms, could
provide a unique niche for biomolecular evolution.
Continuum emission from within the plunging region of black hole discsSérgio Sacani
The thermal continuum emission observed from accreting black holes across X-ray bands has the potential to be leveraged as a
powerful probe of the mass and spin of the central black hole. The vast majority of existing ‘continuum fitting’ models neglect
emission sourced at and within the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) of the black hole. Numerical simulations, however,
find non-zero emission sourced from these regions. In this work, we extend existing techniques by including the emission
sourced from within the plunging region, utilizing new analytical models that reproduce the properties of numerical accretion
simulations. We show that in general the neglected intra-ISCO emission produces a hot-and-small quasi-blackbody component,
but can also produce a weak power-law tail for more extreme parameter regions. A similar hot-and-small blackbody component
has been added in by hand in an ad hoc manner to previous analyses of X-ray binary spectra. We show that the X-ray spectrum
of MAXI J1820+070 in a soft-state outburst is extremely well described by a full Kerr black hole disc, while conventional
models that neglect intra-ISCO emission are unable to reproduce the data. We believe this represents the first robust detection of
intra-ISCO emission in the literature, and allows additional constraints to be placed on the MAXI J1820 + 070 black hole spin
which must be low a• < 0.5 to allow a detectable intra-ISCO region. Emission from within the ISCO is the dominant emission
component in the MAXI J1820 + 070 spectrum between 6 and 10 keV, highlighting the necessity of including this region. Our
continuum fitting model is made publicly available.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
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Curiosity at gale_crater_characterization_and_analysis_of_the_rocknest_sand_shadow
1. DOI: 10.1126/science.1239505
, (2013);341Science
et al.D. F. Blake
Rocknest Sand Shadow
Curiosity at Gale Crater, Mars: Characterization and Analysis of the
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2. Curiosity at Gale Crater, Mars:
Characterization and Analysis
of the Rocknest Sand Shadow
D. F. Blake,1
* R. V. Morris,2
G. Kocurek,3
S. M. Morrison,4
R. T. Downs,4
D. Bish,5
D. W. Ming,2
K. S. Edgett,6
D. Rubin,7
† W. Goetz,8
M. B. Madsen,9
R. Sullivan,10
R. Gellert,11
I. Campbell,11
A. H. Treiman,12
S. M. McLennan,13
A. S. Yen,14
J. Grotzinger,15
D. T. Vaniman,16
S. J. Chipera,17
C. N. Achilles,2
E. B. Rampe,2
D. Sumner,18
P.-Y. Meslin,19
S. Maurice,19
O. Forni,19
O. Gasnault,19
M. Fisk,20
M. Schmidt,21
P. Mahaffy,22
L. A. Leshin,23
D. Glavin,22
A. Steele,24
C. Freissinet,22
R. Navarro-González,25
R. A. Yingst,16
L. C. Kah,26
N. Bridges,27
K. W. Lewis,28
T. F. Bristow,1
J. D. Farmer,29
J. A. Crisp,14
E. M. Stolper,15
D. J. Des Marais,1
P. Sarrazin,30
MSL Science Team‡
The Rocknest aeolian deposit is similar to aeolian features analyzed by the Mars Exploration
Rovers (MERs) Spirit and Opportunity. The fraction of sand <150 micrometers in size contains
~55% crystalline material consistent with a basaltic heritage and ~45% x-ray amorphous material.
The amorphous component of Rocknest is iron-rich and silicon-poor and is the host of the volatiles
(water, oxygen, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and chlorine) detected by the Sample Analysis at
Mars instrument and of the fine-grained nanophase oxide component first described from
basaltic soils analyzed by MERs. The similarity between soils and aeolian materials analyzed at
Gusev Crater, Meridiani Planum, and Gale Crater implies locally sourced, globally similar
basaltic materials or globally and regionally sourced basaltic components deposited locally at
all three locations.
T
he Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover
Curiosity began exploring the surface of
Mars on 6 August 2012 (universal time co-
ordinated); until 13 September 2012, it conducted
an initial engineering checkout of its mobility sys-
tem, arm, and science instruments. Curiosity spent
sols 57 to 100 (1) at a location named Rocknest,
collecting and processing five scoops of loose, un-
consolidated materials extracted from an aeolian
sand shadow (2).
Five scoops of material from the Rocknest
sand shadow were individually collected and
sieved (<150 mm) by the Sample Acquisition,
Sample Processing and Handling–Collection
and Handling for In situ Martian Rock Analysis
(SA/SPaH-CHIMRA) instrument (3). Scoops 1 and
2 were processed by CHIMRA and discarded
to reduce (by entrainment and dilution) any ter-
restrial organic contamination that may have
remained after a thorough cleaning on Earth (4)
and to coat and passivate the interior surfaces of
the collection device with Mars dust. Portions
(40 to 50 mg) of scoops 3 and 4 were delivered
to the Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) in-
strument (5) and the “observation tray,” a 7.5-cm-
diameter flat Ti-metal surface used for imaging
and analyzing scooped and sieved material with
Curiosity’s arm and mast instruments. Portions of
scoop 5 were delivered to both CheMin and the
Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) quadrupole mass
spectrometer/gas chromatograph/tunable laser
spectrometer suite of instruments (6).
We describe the physical sedimentology of
Rocknest and suggest possible sources for the
material making up the sand shadow. We use
Alpha-Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) and
CheMin data to determine the amounts and chem-
istry of the crystalline and amorphous components
of the sand shadow and compare these results with
global soil measurements from the Mars Explora-
tion Rovers (MERs) and to basaltic martian mete-
orites analyzed on Earth.
Results
Description and Interpretation of the
Rocknest Sand Shadow
The Rocknest sand shadow (7) is an accumula-
tion of wind-blown sediment deposited in the
lower-velocity lee of an obstacle in the path of
the wind. The orientation of the sand shadow in-
dicates that the constructive winds were from the
north. The surface is composed of dust-coated,
predominantly rounded, very coarse (1- to 2-mm)
sand grains (Fig. 1A). Trenches created during
the scooping show that these larger grains form
an armored surface ~2 to 3 mm in thickness (Fig.
1B). Beneath the armored surface, the bedform
interior consists of finer-grained material whose
size distribution extends through the resolution
limit of Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) im-
ages (~30 mm per pixel under the conditions of the
observation) (8). Because of CHIMRA’s 150-mm
sieve, the larger grains that armor the surface
could not be analyzed by CheMin.
Coarse sand grains that fell from the crust
into the scoop-troughs lost their dust coating
and show diversity in color, luster, and shape.
Among the grains are gray and red lithic frag-
ments, clear/translucent crystal fragments, and
spheroids with glassy luster (Fig. 1C). Some grains
showed bright glints in the martian sunlight,
suggesting specular reflections from mineral crys-
tal faces or cleavage surfaces [similar features
were observed by the optical microscope on board
the Mars Phoenix Lander (9)]. MAHLI images
of a sieved portion of material deposited on the
observation tray (3) showed a variety of particle
types from clear to colored to dark, angular to
spherical, and dull to glassy-lustered (Fig. 1D).
During the scooping process, fragments of the
armored surface were cohesive to the extent that
“rafts” of surface crust were laterally compressed
and displaced forward, and fragments of the crust
fell into the scoop hole as cohesive units (Fig. 1B).
The surface crust was also fractured and broken
into rafts during scuffing by rover wheels (a pro-
cess by which an excavation is made into the sub-
surface of unconsolidated regolith by rotating a
single rover wheel). Material beneath the crust
also had some cohesion, as shown by the over-
steep walls of the scoop scars (much greater than
the angle of repose and vertical in some cases).
The sand shadow has a discernible internal
structure. On the headwall and flanks of each
scoop trench, a lighter-tone layer is apparent
~1 cm beneath and parallel to the dune surface
(Fig. 1B). The origin of the layering is not un-
derstood, and three hypotheses are viable. First,
RESEARCH ARTICLE
1
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Ames
Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA. 2
NASA Johnson
Space Center, Houston, TX 77058, USA. 3
Department of Geolog-
ical Sciences, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA. 4
Depart-
ment of Geology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721,
USA. 5
Department of Geological Sciences, Indiana University,
Bloomington, IN 47405, USA. 6
Malin Space Science Systems,
San Diego, CA 92191, USA. 7
U.S. Geological Survey, Santa Cruz,
CA 95060, USA. 8
Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung,
37191 Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany. 9
Niels Bohr Institute,
University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. 10
Center
forRadiophysicsandSpaceResearch,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY
14850, USA. 11
University of Guelf, Guelph, Ontario, N1G2W1,
Canada.12
LunarandPlanetaryInstitute,Houston,TX77058,USA.
13
State University of New York–Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY
11790, USA. 14
Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of
Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA. 15
California Institute of
Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA. 16
Planetary Science
Institute,Tucson,AZ85719,USA.17
ChesapeakeEnergy,Oklahoma
City, OK 73102, USA. 18
University of California, Davis, CA 95616,
USA. 19
Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie
(IRAP), UPS-OMP-CNRS, 31028 Toulouse, France. 20
Oregon State
University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA. 21
Finnish Meteorological
Institute, Fl-00101 Helsinki, Finland. 22
NASA Goddard Space
Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA. 23
Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA. 24
Geophysical Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC 20015, USA.
25
University Nacional Autonóma de México, Ciudad Universitaria,
04510 México D.F. 04510, Mexico. 26
Department of Earth and
Planetary Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996,
USA. 27
The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Labora-
tory, Laurel, MD 20723, USA. 28
Princeton University, Princeton,
NJ 08544, USA. 29
Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004,
USA. 30
SETI Institute, Mountain View, CA 94043, USA.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: david.blake@nasa.gov
†Present address: Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
‡MSL Science Team authors and affiliations are listed in the
supplementary materials.
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 341 27 SEPTEMBER 2013 1239505-1
3. the layering may represent changes in bulk com-
position or grain size that occurred during dep-
osition. Second, the layering may be the result
of changes in oxidation state or other chemical
properties that occurred after deposition, in which
case the conformable nature of the banding and
the surface of the sand shadow reflect depth-
dependent postdepositional chemical processes.
Finally, the layering may represent zones richer
or poorer in light-toned dust, reflecting times of
lesser or greater sand accumulation relative to
the air-fall dust.
The aeolian bedform at Rocknest is quite sim-
ilar to coarse-grained ripples encountered at Gusev
by the MER Spirit (10, 11) and at Meridiani
Planum by the MER Opportunity (12, 13) in that
a coarse-grained, indurated, dust-coated surface
overlies an interior of markedly finer sediment.
Coarse-grained ripples on Earth typically consist
of a surface veneer of coarse grains and a finer-
grained interior (7, 14), and the martian bed-
forms have been considered analogous features
(13, 15). The spatial grain-size sorting within
coarse-grained ripples is thought to arise because
of the short grain excursion length of the coarse
grains traveling in creep and the much longer ex-
cursion length of finer saltating grains (16). With
ripple migration,coarse grains are recycled through
the bedform and become concentrated on the
ripple surface, where impacts from saltating grains
tend to buoy the grains upward.
Although the dynamics of sand shadows dif-
fer from those of coarse-grained ripples, and sand
shadows on Earth do not characteristically show
a coarse-grained surface, similar dynamics may
arise owing to the mix-load transport of grains in
creep and saltation. Alternate interpretations are
also possible. First, the coarse-grained surface
could represent a lag formed as winds deflated
finer grains. However, the paucity of coarse grains
within the interior indicates that an unreasonable
amount of deflation would have had to occur to
produce the veneer. Second, the coarse-grained
veneer could represent the terminal growth phase
of the bedform. Because the size of a sand shad-
ow is fixed by the upwind obstacle size (17),
once the terminal size is approached, the lower
wind speeds that characterize the wake and allow
for deposition of finer sediment are replaced by
wind speeds that approach the unmodified (pri-
mary) winds. At this point, there would be se-
lective deposition of coarse grains traveling in
creep, whereas finer saltating grains would by-
pass the bedform. Third, the sand shadow could
have formed largely by the more readily trans-
ported fine saltation load, but as the area became
depleted in finer grains, more of the residuum of
Fig. 1. The Rocknest sand shadow, where Cu-
riosity spent sols 57 to 100 conducting engi-
neering tests and science observations of the
material. (A) Mosaic of 55 MAHLI images show-
ing Curiosity parked on the east side of the Rocknest
sand shadow during the sampling campaign on sol
84. The location of each of the five scoops is indi-
cated. The inset is a portion of Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment
image ESP_028678_1755 showing the Rocknest
sand shadow as seen from about 282 km above
the ground. (B) MAHLI image of third scoop trench,
showing the dust-coated, indurated, armoring layer
of coarse and very coarse sand and underlying darker
finer sediment. (C) MAHLI image of Rocknest sand
shadow surface disrupted by the rover’s front left
wheel on sol 57. The larger grains came from the
armoring layer of coarse sand on the sand shadow
surface. (D) MAHLI image of a <150-mm sieved por-
tion from the third scoop; grains similar to those
delivered to the CheMin and SAM instruments, de-
livered to Curiosity’s Ti observation tray.
27 SEPTEMBER 2013 VOL 341 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org1239505-2
Curiosity at Gale Crater
4. coarser grains would be incorporated into trans-
port, with the coarse-grained surface arising through
subsequent deflation.
None of these interpretations explains the gen-
eral absence of observed coarse grains in the in-
terior; the contrast in grain size between the surface
and the interior is more marked in the Rocknest
sand shadow and in some of the coarse-grained
ripples observed by MERs than in many Earth
examples. This may reflect the greater impact en-
ergy of saltating grains on Mars compared with
Earth and their ability to transport dispropor-
tionally larger grains in creep (18). Regarding the
apparent absence of interior coarse grains, the small
scooped areas may not be representative of the en-
tire bedform, and interior horizons of coarse grains
could easily have been bypassed. In addition, as seen
with coarse-grained ripples on Earth, the amount of
coarse sediment occurring in the interior varies
and decreases with the supply of coarse grains.
Regardless of the origin of the coarse-grained
surface, this armored surface would stabilize
the bedform during all but the strongest wind
events. In turn, the armored surface would allow
time for surface induration to develop, further sta-
bilizing the sand shadow. The similarity of the
armoring and induration of the sand shadow at
Rocknest to coarse-grained ripples encountered
by Spirit and Opportunity suggests that the pro-
cesses of grain transport and stabilization are
similar across equatorial Mars and that Mars’
winds (in recent eras) rarely were strong enough
to transport sand grains of 1- to 3-mm diam-
eter. To move the grains at the current atmo-
spheric pressure of 0.02 kg/m3
, the wind velocities
would need to be ~36 m/s (80 mph) and ~52 m/s
(116 mph), with and without saltation, respec-
tively. Under conditions of high obliquity, dur-
ing which time the atmospheric pressure could
increase to 0.04 kg/m3
, these values would de-
crease to 26 m/s (58 mph) and ~37 m/s (83 mph),
respectively (see Materials and Methods). The
potential antiquity of the Rocknest sand shadow
is highlighted by comparing it with granule ripples
on Meridiani Planum, where cratering postdates a
field of pristine granule ripples and the crater count
suggests an age of 50,000 to 200,000 years (19).
Mineralogy of the Rocknest Sand Shadow
Analysis and interpretation of the mineralogy of
the Rocknest sand shadow is given in Bish et al.
(20). Rocknest consists of both crystalline and
x-ray amorphous components. The crystalline
component is basaltic, composed of plagioclase
feldspar, forsteritic olivine, and the pyroxenes
augite and pigeonite (20). All of the minor phases
are consistent with a basaltic heritage, with the
exception of anhydrite and hematite. By constrain-
ing the compositions of the individual crystalline
phases on the basis of their measured unit-cell
parameters, the chemical compositions of the
minerals of Rocknest were determined (21, 22).
The crystalline component of Rocknest is
chemically and mineralogically similar to that
inferred for martian basalts across the planet
and many of the basalts found in martian me-
teorites (Table 1) and, apart from somewhat
lower Fe and K, broadly similar to estimates of
the average martian crust (23). These basalts all
contain (or have chemical compositions consist-
ent with) the minerals olivine, augite, pigeonite,
and plagioclase feldspar. The mineral propor-
tions of the crystalline component of Rocknest
are virtually identical to those calculated for the
unaltered Adirondack class basalts from Gusev
Crater (CIPW normative mineralogy from their
APXS analyses) (Table 1) (24, 25). Chemically,
the mafic minerals of the Rocknest sediment (oli-
vine, augite, and pigeonite) are all consistent with
high-temperature chemical equilibria among Ca,
Fe, and Mg at 1050 T 75°C (Fig. 2). This con-
sistency with chemical equilibria suggests, but
does not prove, that these minerals and the plagio-
clase feldspar all derived from a common basaltic
source rock, which was broken down into indi-
vidual grains or lithic fragments and transported
to Rocknest from regional source areas.
Bulk Chemistry of the Rocknest
Sand Shadow
APXS provided an independent means of deter-
mining bulk chemistry of material in the Rock-
nest sand shadow. A measurement was made in
a wheel scuff named Portage, which was largely
devoid of surface crust (Fig. 1A). The chemical
composition (taking into account analytical un-
certainty) is within 2 SD of MER APXS analyses
of basaltic soils (Table 2). The APXS chem-
istry of basaltic soils analyzed by the MERs at
Gusev Crater and Meridiani Planum landing sites
(Table 2) are within 1 SD of each other except
for MgO and Na2O, which are the same within
2 SD (24–28). The MER compositional averages
exclude soils that contain a substantial local com-
ponent (high SO3 and high SiO2 for Gusev and
high Fe2O3 for Meridiani). The near identity of
compositions of the Rocknest, Gusev, and Merid-
ian basaltic soils implies either global-scale mix-
ing of basaltic material or similar regional-scale
basaltic source material or some combination
thereof.
Table 1. Mineralogy of Rocknest soil [CheMin x-ray diffraction (XRD)]
and normative mineralogies of basaltic materials from Gusev Crater
and of martian meteorites. (Rocknest data are amorphous-free values.)
Rocknest soil by CheMin (20), average of scoop 5, proportions of crystalline
phases normalized to 100%; values in italics uncertain. CIPW norms (weight) for
Gusev basaltic materials from MER APXS chemical analyses (26), ignoring S and
Cl; Fe3+
/Fetot for Backstay and Irvine taken as 0.17, the value for an Adirondack
basalt surface ground flat with the MER Rotary Abrasion Tool (RAT) (26). CIPW
norms (wt %) of martian meteorites from bulk compositions; Fe3+
/Fetot as
analyzed for Shergotty and Elephant Moraine (EETA) 79001A, estimated at
0.1 for Northwest Africa (NWA) 6234 and 0 for Queen Alexandra Range (QUE)
94201. K-spar is sanidine for the Rocknest soil, and normative orthoclase for
others. Low-Ca Pyx is pigeonite for the soil and normative hypersthene for
others. High-Ca Pyx is augite for the soil and normative diopside for others.
Fe-Cr oxide includes magnetite, hematite, and chromite. All phosphorus in
analyses are calculated as normative apatite. Mg no. is the % magnesium
substituting for iron in the olivine structure, An refers to the % Ca substituting
for Na in the plagioclase structure.
Location Gale Gusev Meteorites
Sample
Rocknest
sand shadow
Adirondack Backstay Irvine Shergotty
NWA
6234
EETA
79001A
QUE 94210
Quartz 1.4 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 3
Plagioclase 40.8 39 49 32 23 19 19 32
K-spar 1.3 1 6 6 1 0.5 0 0
Low-Ca Pyx 13.9 15 14 21 46 30 47 15
High-Ca Pyx 14.6 15 5 13 25 16 16 38
Olivine 22.4 20 15 16 0 27 13 0
Fe-Cr oxides 3.2 6 4 6 3 4 2 0
Ilmenite 0.9 1 2 2 2 2 1 4
Apatite – 1 3 2 2 2 1 6
Anhydrite 1.5
Mg no. 61 T 3 57 62 55 51 63 63 40
An 57 T 3 42 29 19 51 50 60 62
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 341 27 SEPTEMBER 2013 1239505-3
RESEARCH ARTICLE
5. In contrast to the APXS measurement at
the Portage wheel scuff, both CheMin and SAM
measurements were carried out on the sieved,
<150-mm-size fraction of soil. To discriminate
potential differences between the fines deliv-
ered to CheMin and SAM and the bulk material
analyzed in the wheel scuff, APXS chemistry
was obtained from portions of sieved material
deposited on the observation tray. APXS spectra
from the bulk and sieved material are nearly iden-
tical, with the exception of a prominent Ti peak
and increased background from the observation
tray (reflecting Ti metal of the tray). Addition-
ally, Ca, Mn, and Fe signals in spectra from the
observation tray are lowered proportionally as
a function of their atomic number, which sug-
gests that a fraction of these grains is smaller
than the APXS sampling depth (29). Slightly ele-
vated S and Cl, with a S/Cl ratio similar to that
found in soils by MERs (30), suggest a potential
enrichment of these two elements in the <150-mm
fraction delivered to the observation tray.
To determine the amount and composition
of the amorphous component, mass balance cal-
culations were performed using the chemical
composition of the bulk sample, the chemical
compositions of the individual phases (e.g., pla-
gioclase, sanidine, and olivine) and the relative
proportions of those phases in the crystalline
component. The empirical formulas of the major
crystalline phases (Table 3) and their chemical
compositions (table S2) were calculated from
cell parameter data (20, 21) (table S1). The chem-
ical formulas and compositions of the minor
crystalline components were assigned by stoi-
chiometry (e.g., ilmenite as TiFeO3). The rela-
tive proportions of amorphous and crystalline
components and their respective bulk compo-
sitions are summarized in Table 4, with Rocknest
having ~45 weight percent (wt %) amorphous
and ~55 wt % crystalline components (31). The
chemical compositions and proportions of amor-
phous and crystalline components were calculated
on a light-element–free basis. The relative propor-
tion of the amorphous component will in reality
be greater than 45 wt % because the volatile in-
ventory is associated with that component (32).
Abundance estimates for the x-ray amorphous
component of a sample may vary considerably,
depending on the method used for their determi-
nation. Bish et al. (20), for example, used a full
pattern-fitting method together with known amor-
phous standard materials analyzed in the labo-
ratory to determine the amount of amorphous
or poorly crystalline material contained in the
CheMin x-ray diffraction pattern. Their reported
value of ~27 wt % T 50% (1 SD range of 13 to
40 wt %), as calculated from diffraction and
scattering data alone, is somewhat lower than
the ~45% calculated from mass balance consid-
erations, but both values are within the combined
analytical uncertainty of the two techniques.
The inferred chemical composition of the amor-
phous component (Table 4) contains ~23% FeO +
Fe2O3, suggesting that ferric nanophase oxide
[npOx (25, 26, 33)] is present in abundance.
Similarly, S (principally contained within the amor-
phous component) is closely associated with the
npOx in dunes at the MER sites (24, 27) as well.
Abundances of SO3 and Cl are correlated in soils
from Gusev and Meridiani, which implies that
both are associated with npOx in the amorphous
component because these elements are not asso-
ciated with Mg, Ca, or Fe in crystalline phases.
The elements Cr, Mn, and P were associated
with the amorphous component (Table 4), but
Table 2. Basaltic soil compositions from APXS analyses for Rocknest Portage, Gusev Crater,
and Meridiani Planum.
Rocknest Gusev Meridiani
Number 1* 48†
29†
SiO2 (wt %) 42.88 T 0.47 46.1 T 0.9 45.7 T 1.3
TiO2 1.19 T 0.03 0.88 T 0.19 1.03 T 0.12
Al2O3 9.43 T 0.14 10.19 T 0.69 9.25 T 0.50
Cr2O3 0.49 T 0.02 0.33 T 0.07 0.41 T 0.06
Fe2O3 + FeO 19.19 T 0.12 16.3 T 1.1 18.8 T 1.2
MnO 0.41 T 0.01 0.32 T 0.03 0.37 T 0.02
MgO 8.69 T 0.14 8.67 T 0.60 7.38 T 0.29
CaO 7.28 T 0.07 6.30 T 0.29 6.93 T 0.32
Na2O 2.72 T 0.10 3.01 T 0.30 2.21 T 0.18
K2O 0.49 T 0.01 0.44 T 0.07 0.48 T 0.05
P2O5 0.94 T 0.03 0.91 T 0.31 0.84 T 0.06
SO3 5.45 T 0.10 5.78 T 1.25 5.83 T 1.04
Cl 0.69 T 0.02 0.70 T 0.16 0.65 T 0.09
Br (mg/g) 26 T 6 53 T 46 100 T 111
Ni 446 T 29 476 T 142 457 T 97
Zn 337 T 17 270 T 90 309 T 87
Sum (wt %) 99.85 99.88 99.88
Cl/SO3 0.13 T 0.02 0.12 T 0.02 0.11 T 0.01
*Gellert et al., 2013 (35); analytical uncertainty. †T1SD of average.
Table 3. Empirical chemical formulas of the four
major phases identified in the Rocknest soil
estimated by crystal-chemical techniques.
Phase Formula
Olivine (Mg0.62(3)Fe0.38)2SiO4
Plagioclase (Ca0.57(13)Na0.43)(Al1.57Si2.43)O8
Augite (Ca0.75(4)Mg0.88(10)Fe0.37)Si2O6
Pigeonite (Mg1.13(9)Fe0.68(10)Ca0.19)Si2O6
Fig. 2. Pyroxene compositional quadrilateral, showing the chemical and thermal relations be-
tween the major igneous minerals in the Rocknest sand shadow. Compositions of augite, pigeonite,
and olivine in the Rocknest dune material, plotted on the pyroxene quadrilateral. En, enstatite, Mg2Si2O6;
Di, diopside, CaMgSi2O6; Hd, hedenbergite, CaFeSi2O6; and Fs, ferrosilite, Fe2Si2O6. Pyroxenes are plotted
within the quadrangle, based on CheMin XRD unit-cell parameters; olivine is plotted below the quad-
rilateral at the appropriate molar Mg/Fe ratio (20). Ellipses for each mineral approximate the uncer-
tainties in mineral compositions from their unit-cell parameters. Gray background lines represent the
surface of the pyroxene solvus, with temperatures in °C (40). Red lines are approximate equilibrium tie
lines from the augite centroid composition to compositions of olivine and pigeonite, based on similar
tie lines in an equilibrated anorthosite in lunar sample 62236 (41).
27 SEPTEMBER 2013 VOL 341 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org1239505-4
Curiosity at Gale Crater
6. they could instead be present as crystalline phases
(e.g., Ca-phosphate and chromite) at abundances
below the CheMin detection limit and/or as sub-
stitutional impurities in the major crystalline phases
(e.g., Mn and Cr in pyroxene).
The SAM instrument analyzed Rocknest for
volatile species and organic molecules (32), and
it detected, in order of decreasing abundance,
H2O, SO2, CO2, and O2. The crystalline phases,
aside from a minor anhydrite component, do not
include these species as a part of their structure,
so they must either be present in the amorphous
component or be present in the crystalline com-
ponent at levels below the XRD detection limit,
or both.
ChemCam spot observations in the scoop
walls of Rocknest are characterized by the strong
emissions from elemental hydrogen, although
ChemCam is not sensitive to its bonding state (34).
Comparison of this result with those of CheMin
and SAM suggests that ChemCam detections
of hydrogen most likely correspond to the H2O
associated with the amorphous component de-
tected by CheMin.
Discussion
Global, Regional, and Local Sources
The crystalline phases in the Rocknest fines are
consistent with a basaltic source and fit well
within the measured qualitative mineralogy of
basaltic martian meteorites and the normative
mineralogy of Adirondack class olivine basalts
at Gusev Crater (25) (Table 1). If the Rocknest
assemblage of basaltic crystalline and amorphous
components is locally derived, it is distinct from
mafic float rocks analyzed to date by APXS and
ChemCam in Gale Crater (34, 35). This obser-
vation suggests that the similarity in the chem-
ical compositions of aeolian bedforms (basaltic
soil) at Gale, Gusev, and Meridiani (Table 2)
might result from global-scale aeolian mixing
of local-to-regional basaltic material that may
or may not have variable chemical composi-
tions. This process would require sufficiently
strong winds occurring with sufficient frequen-
cy over a long enough time to achieve global or
regional-scale transport of grains by saltation and
suspension.
An alternative explanation for the compara-
ble chemical compositions of aeolian bedforms
at Gale, Gusev, and Meridiani is that the chem-
ical compositions of martian basalts are similar
at regional scales everywhere on the planet. The
Rocknest sand shadow could reasonably have
locally sourced 1- to 2-mm particles, with finer-
grained regional basaltic material plus a contri-
bution from global dust. The similarity of soil
compositions (Table 2) suggests that the basaltic
fine-grained materials at Gusev, Meridiani, and
Gale Crater provide a reasonable approximation
to the bulk composition of the exposed martian
crust (36, 37).
It is tempting to suggest that the light-toned
martian dust is largely represented by the Rocknest
amorphous component. However, we have no
data to show that the <150-mm size fraction (clay
to fine-sand size fraction) of material analyzed
by CheMin has its finest material preferential-
ly enriched in amorphous material. The evi-
dence from MER for basaltic soils suggests that
the chemical composition of the fine-grained,
light-toned soil is approximately the same as the
coarser-grained, dark-toned soils [e.g., table 10
in (38)].
The central mound of Gale Crater (Mt. Sharp
or Aeolis Mons) exhibits reflectance spectra sug-
gesting the presence of crystalline hydrated sul-
fate minerals and phyllosilicates (39), but neither
was seen in Rocknest (above the 1 to 2% level).
The absence of material from Mt. Sharp could
arise from the wind pattern during formation
of the Rocknest sand shadow; it is oriented so
as to imply sediment transport from the north,
and Mt. Sharp is east and southeast of Rocknest.
Materials and Methods
Calculation of Wind Speeds Required
to Form the Rocknest Sand Shadow
The wind velocity required to move the coarse
grains of the sand shadow by creep can be cal-
culated. The critical shear velocity (u*c) of the
wind needed to transport 1-mm-diameter (d) grains
is given by (42) as
u*c ¼
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0:0123 sgd þ
0:0003 kg=s2
˜nf d
!v
u
u
t
where s ¼ ˜ns=˜nf , ˜ns is the density of the grains
using basalt (3000 kg/m3
), ˜nf is the density of
Table 4. Chemical composition and proportion of XRD amorphous component in Rocknest Portage from APXS and CheMin data.
Origin Remove XRD crystalline component* Composition
APXS† APXS+
CheMin
Plagio-
clase
San-
idine
Olivine Augite
Pigeon-
ite
Ilmen-
ite
Hema-
tite
Mag-
netite
Anhy-
drite
Quartz
Amor-
phous‡
Crystal-
line
SiO2, wt % 42.88 42.88 30.88 30.42 25.95 21.63 17.51 17.51 17.51 17.51 17.51 16.76 37.20 47.59
TiO2 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 2.06 0.47
Al2O3 9.43 9.43 2.85 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 6.04 12.24
Cr2O3 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 1.09 0.00
FeO+Fe2O3
§
19.19 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 10.43 23.14 -0.10
FeO-Cryst||
— 7.37 7.37 7.37 3.31 2.29 0.59 0.35 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.01 13.48
Fe2O3-Cryst¶
— 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.39 0.79 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.01 2.55
MnO 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.91 0.00
MgO 8.69 8.69 8.69 8.69 4.97 3.72 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 2.19 4.86 11.86
CaO 7.28 7.28 4.65 4.65 4.65 3.19 2.87 2.87 2.87 2.87 2.53 2.53 5.61 8.67
Na2O 2.72 2.72 1.62 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 3.56 2.03
K2O 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.89 0.16
P2O5 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 2.09 -0.01
SO3 5.45 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 4.96 11.01 -0.05
SO3-Cryst#
— 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.00 0.00 -0.01 0.90
Cl 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 1.35 -0.01
Sum 99.77 99.77 77.47 76.77 64.52 56.47 48.80 48.30 47.70 46.55 45.71 44.96 99.77 99.77
∑(FeO+Fe2O3) 19.19 19.19 — — — — — — — — — — 23.14 16.03
∑(SO3) 5.54 5.54 — — — — — — — — — — 11.01 0.90
Relative to whole sample 22.3 0.7 12.3 8.0 7.6 0.5 0.6 1.2 0.8 0.8 45.3 54.7
Relative to XRD crystalline 40.8 1.3 22.4 14.6 13.9 0.9 1.1 2.1 1.5 1.4 — 100.0
*Plagioclase, An57; Olivine, Fo62; Augite, En44Fs20Wo36 (Mg/Fe, 2.2 atomic); Pigeonite, En56Fs35Wo8 (Fe/Mg, 1.6 atomic). †APXS chemistry from Gellert et al. (35). ‡Cr2O3 and
MnO calculated with the amorphous component. §Total Fe as FeO+Fe2O3 because APXS does not distinguish oxidation states. ||FeO required for Fe2+
crystalline phases (olivine,
augite, pigeonite, ilmenite, and magnetite). ¶Fe2O3 required for Fe3+
crystalline phases (hematite and magnetite). #SO3 required for crystalline SO3 crystalline phase (anhydrite).
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
7. martian air (0.02 kg/m3
), and g is the acceleration
due to gravity (3.71 m/s2
). The calculated u*c is
2.6 m/s, which represents the fluid shear veloc-
ity to initiate motion. Because grains in creep
derive a portion of their momentum from colli-
sions by saltating grains, on Earth once saltation
begins, creep can occur down to 0.7 u*c (1.8 m/s
as applied to the Rocknest grains), which repre-
sents the impact threshold for motion. Given a
boundary layer created by winds blowing over
the surface, shear velocities can then be related
to the wind speeds above the surface by the law
of the wall
uz ¼
u*
k
ln
z
z0
where uz is the wind speed at height z above the
surface (taken here as 1 m), k is a constant of
0.407, and z0 is the roughness height where the
idealized logarithmic wind profile is predicted to
be zero. Roughness height varies by grain size
and the height of surface features, such as wind
ripples (7), and also by the height and intensity
of the saltation cloud (43). Rocknest conditions
are unknown, but z0 is taken as 0.3 mm, which
would be the roughness height with wind rip-
ples 10 mm in height. Estimated wind speeds
at 1 m above the surface are ~52 m/s (116 mph)
and 36 m/s (80 mph), without and with saltation,
respectively. As a result of the lower gravity and
reduced atmospheric density on Mars, a greater
hysteresis exists than on Earth between the fluid
and impact thresholds, and saltation impacts upon
grains are more energetic (18, 44, 45). The com-
bined effects suggest that initial transport of the
coarse surface grains probably occurred at lower
wind speeds than those calculated. Conversely,
reactivation of the sand shadow would require
considerably higher wind speeds because of in-
duration of the surface.
Although observations from the Viking Lander
1 suggest that wind speeds of 30 m/s at a height
of 1.6 m occurred during its 2-year lifetime (46),
we do not known how often Mars winds can be
capable of transporting 1- to 2-mm grains. The
wind estimates above suggest that formation
of the Rocknest sand shadow has involved rare
strong winds and that reactivation of the sand
shadow from its currently indurated state would
require even stronger and rarer winds.
Given the possibility of considerable antiquity
of the Rocknest sand shadow and similar coarse-
grained bedforms on Mars, could their activa-
tion correspond to the martian obliquity cycle?
At low obliquities, the atmosphere collapses onto
the polar caps, but at high obliquity, CO2 is re-
leased to the atmosphere (47, 48). Taken as an
end member, atmospheric density may double at
high obliquity and thereby enhance aeolian ac-
tivity (48). As a comparison with the above val-
ues calculated for the present martian atmosphere,
using 0.04 kg/m3
for atmospheric density, the
calculated fluid u*c is 1.9 m/s and the impact u*c
is 1.3 m/s, which correspond to wind speeds at
the 1-m height of ~37 m/s (83 mph) and 26 m/s
(58 mph), respectively. Although considerably
lower than values calculated for present condi-
tions, rare strong wind events are still implied.
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Acknowledgments: Support from the NASA Mars Science
Laboratory Mission is gratefully acknowledged. The chemical
and mineralogical data presented here are derived from the
archived data sets in the NASA Planetary Data System (PDS)
http://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/msl, specifically
MSL-M-CHEMIN-2-EDR-V1.0 and MSL-M-APXS-2-EDR-V1.0.
M.B.M. was funded by the Danish Council for Independent
Research/Natural Sciences (Det Frie Forskningsråd Natur og
Univers FNU grants 12-127126 and 11-107019).
W.G. acknowledges partial funding by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG grant GO 2288/1-1).
Some of this research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a
contract with NASA.
Supplementary Materials
www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6153/1239505/suppl/DC1
Supplementary Text
Figs. S1 to S4
Tables S1 and S2
References
23 April 2013; accepted 31 July 2013
10.1126/science.1239505
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RESEARCH ARTICLE