Communication Ethics Midterm: Intellectual Biography Søren Kierkegaard Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) is considered by many to be the father of existentialism, but the central question behind most of his work is how to be an authentic Christian in Christendom. He wanted to show that it was possible to live a godly life even though the Christian Church of Denmark had turned religion into a type of club. Kierkegaard was a member of a very serious sect of Lutherans who were heavily stimulated by the values of guilt and individual responsibility—both concepts are frequently dealt with throughout his works. One of the most important aspects of Søren Kierkegaard’s thought to Communication Ethics is the type of rhetoric he sought to unravel—namely, to challenge people to go beyond the stereotyped identities inherent to their religious ideologies. It was an effort to get people to see that they were responsible for their own choices, and that they could in fact choose. For Kierkegaard the Christian faith was not mere words that one could recite in order to be saved, it went much deeper to the heart—the person reciting the words had to believe them wholeheartedly or it was all for naught. It was through authentic faith that the individual had a chance to become a true self. To be a true self meant that one was responsible for his or her choices, and these choices carried with them a sense of anxiety or dread. Kierkegaard owes much of his philosophical beliefs to the figure Socrates (to which his dissertation was also focused). The main ideas Kierkegaard takes from Socrates is the use of irony to elicit genuine responses from people, not to get what might be termed a “stump speech,” or to put it another way, unreflective memorization of church supported answers to difficult questions. One of the ironic methods employed throughout much of Kierkegaard’s work is the use of pseudonymous authorship. This method of indirect communication came to characterize much of his work, and the purpose behind its usage was to eliminate the reader’s reliance upon the authority of the author, and to come to one’s own conclusions. In one of his most notable works, Fear and Trembling, Kierkegaard provides a compelling ethical stance that is both Biblical and provocative to his audience. The story of Abraham and Isaac is the backdrop to the message he is trying to convey—the sacrifice of one’s own son may be breaking the law of societal norms, but the law that trumps all is obedience to God—it is a suspension of the ethical for the higher call. Kierkegaard is notable for constantly disregarding the work of Hegel and his conception of grand synthesis. Hegelianism had as its goal the pursuit of absolute knowledge. But Kierkegaard had an objection, i.e. original sin. Particularly, the idea that science could assist in any way for humanity to progress beyond original sin was ludicrous. In The Concept of Dread (1957), he states that “sin does not properly bel.

1. Communication Ethics
Midterm: Intellectual Biography
Søren Kierkegaard
Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) is considered by many to be the
father of existentialism, but the central question behind most of
his work is how to be an authentic Christian in Christendom.
He wanted to show that it was possible to live a godly life even
though the Christian Church of Denmark had turned religion
into a type of club. Kierkegaard was a member of a very
serious sect of Lutherans who were heavily stimulated by the
values of guilt and individual responsibility—both concepts are
frequently dealt with throughout his works.
One of the most important aspects of Søren Kierkegaard’s
thought to Communication Ethics is the type of rhetoric he
sought to unravel—namely, to challenge people to go beyond
the stereotyped identities inherent to their religious ideologies.
It was an effort to get people to see that they were responsible
for their own choices, and that they could in fact choose. For
Kierkegaard the Christian faith was not mere words that one
could recite in order to be saved, it went much deeper to the
heart—the person reciting the words had to believe them
wholeheartedly or it was all for naught. It was through
authentic faith that the individual had a chance to become a true
self. To be a true self meant that one was responsible for his or
her choices, and these choices carried with them a sense of
anxiety or dread.
Kierkegaard owes much of his philosophical beliefs to the
figure Socrates (to which his dissertation was also focused).
The main ideas Kierkegaard takes from Socrates is the use of
irony to elicit genuine responses from people, not to get what
might be termed a “stump speech,” or to put it another way,
unreflective memorization of church supported answers to
difficult questions. One of the ironic methods employed

2. throughout much of Kierkegaard’s work is the use of
pseudonymous authorship. This method of indirect
communication came to characterize much of his work, and the
purpose behind its usage was to eliminate the reader’s reliance
upon the authority of the author, and to come to one’s own
conclusions.
In one of his most notable works, Fear and Trembling,
Kierkegaard provides a compelling ethical stance that is both
Biblical and provocative to his audience. The story of Abraham
and Isaac is the backdrop to the message he is trying to
convey—the sacrifice of one’s own son may be breaking the law
of societal norms, but the law that trumps all is obedience to
God—it is a suspension of the ethical for the higher call.
Kierkegaard is notable for constantly disregarding the work of
Hegel and his conception of grand synthesis. Hegelianism had
as its goal the pursuit of absolute knowledge. But Kierkegaard
had an objection, i.e. original sin. Particularly, the idea that
science could assist in any way for humanity to progress beyond
original sin was ludicrous. In The Concept of Dread (1957), he
states that “sin does not properly belong in any science” (p. 14).
For Kierkegaard, the concept of sin has no place in the sciences,
particularly that of Psychology, because it distorts its
significance. It alters the concept and causes one’s mood to be
false rather than genuine.
Original Sin is the biblical concept that man is inherently
sinful, but does not preclude responsibility before God and man.
Ethical action is still possible, and should be held up as an ideal
regardless of if it is within man’s natural capacity to perform
ethical actions.
Ethics assumes that man has possession of the necessary
conditions to be able to perform ethical actions and for
Kierkegaard “the more ideal ethics is the better” (p. 15). In
other words, a standard of perfection that is unattainable does
not presuppose that man is or should be able to reach it. Hence,
grace plays a large part in the thought of Kierkegaard, but it
does not mean that man is any less responsible for his actions.

3. The work selected for this project, The Anxieties of the
Heathen, contributes to the field of Communication Ethics in
that it depicts the Christian devoutness of Kierkegaard and his
overarching concern for his people through his progression from
indirect to direct communication as he uses his actual name
under the authorship title. Because it was written after he
experienced a metamorphosis this text represents the direct
communication style of Kierkegaard. He no longer thought that
indirect communication would suffice—he recognized the call
to be a personal witness, to make his own convictions as clear
and compelling as possible.
The selected text is written from a devout Christian perspective
that has repentance and authenticity as its goal. The major
metaphor of the text is anxiety, and the main purpose is to
systematically account for why and how it is that the heathen
has much of anxiety while the Christian does not.
Kierkegaard’s metaphors—selected throughout the text—
contribute to the discussion of Communication Ethics in several
ways, but the purpose of the entire text is in fact a depiction of
care—the willingness to attend to the other. In this case, the
others are his countrymen that are being led astray by wolves in
sheep’s clothing. Distance was a central tenet of Kierkegaard.
But his purpose behind masking his identity of authorship was
overcome by a definite sense that he must be authentic to the
other.
Kierkegaard’s historical moment called for responsiveness to
the inarticulate good of his countrymen. They were people
deeply grounded in the text of tradition, but far away from the
true meaning of their faith. The metaphors throughout his text
are grounded in Biblical narrative and have meaning to his
audience and the Communication Ethics audience because they
not only evoke interpersonal responsibility, but they are also a
call to repentance—the heart behind the faith they profess.
Kierkegaard, S. (1971). Christian discourses: The anxieties of
the heathen. (W. Lowrie, Trans.).

4. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work
published 1848).
Introduction
Thesis: “the fact is that neither the lilies nor the birds are
heathen, but neither are the lilies and birds Christians” (p.13)
Metaphors:
· Condemnation—in order to avoid a condemning tone, it is
argued that Christ uses the lilies and birds to depict a life that is
innocent—and neither the Christian nor heathen will fit this
type. For both have made choices, whereas the creatures not
made in the image of God just simply are. That is, they exist
within God’s will without choosing to be so. But the Christian
is blessed for choosing, and the heathen is condemned for
choosing.
Chapter 1: The Anxiety of Poverty
Thesis: Be not therefore anxious, saying, what shall we eat? Or,
What shall we d rink?—after all these thing do the heathen
seek.
Metaphors:
· Daily Bread—the allusion to manna, and is used to describe
the complete dependence upon God for sustenance. It is exactly
enough, but not a bit more. The Christian may be, in fact,
impoverished, but he is not poor—or at least should not have
anxiety over this. The Christian differs from the birds of the
air, in that the must pray for his daily bread. The bird does not
ask, but receives. However, it is through the praying that the
anxiety is relieved—and since it received through prayer, the
Christian knows it is from God. “To pray and give thanks is to
him more important than the food…” (p. 20).
· Poverty—to be poor or in poverty is to not be able to pray or
give thanks—the poor Christian does not wish to talk of his
earthly poverty, rather his riches in heaven. The Christian in
poverty who is without anxiety of poverty is dead to the
world—the Christian lives by dying.

5. · Riches—the man who prays and gives thanks is richer each
day because he realizes that he exists for God and God for him.
The earthly rich become poorer the more they forget to thank
God.
Chapter 2: The Anxiety of Abundance
Thesis: “the notion of possession is an illusion” (p. 31).
Metaphors:
· Abundance—is false security. Having more often equals
having more anxiety. God always supplies the bird with
enough—it never occurs to the bird to have more or to have
less—what is has it has. The bird does not require all that it
sees—just enough. If one has abundance but does not also have
anxiety associated with it, he is either a Christian or a bird. To
be rich I must be assured of tomorrow. Therefore, only the
Christian can be truly rich. In order to know that one has
abundance, one must be aware of where the abundance comes.
· Possession—the rich can only be rich if they actually have
possessions. And that which has been given him is only in the
form of a trust—the owner is God. Since God is the owner, and
man the steward, the dissemination of said riches must occur at
the right time and place leaving no though of the morrow. The
Christian seek the giver not the gift.
Chapter 3: The Anxiety of Lowliness
Thesis: “the lowly Christian does not walk into the snare of
optical illusion, he sees with the eyes of faith, and with the
swiftness of the faith which seeks God he is at the beginning, he
is himself before God, content with being himself” (p. 42).
Metaphors:
· Contentment—the lowly Christian walks by faith, and is
content with himself before God just as the bird is what it is.
The lowly Christian no only is what he is before God, but also
wills for this to be the case.
· The Pattern—Christ as the pattern of life for the lowly
Christian. The Pattern of the Lord’s life upon Earth as

6. expressly offered to the man seeking direction for this life. The
closer the Christian gets to resemble the Pattern—the closer his
kinship to God—Christ lived in actual outward lowliness.
· Despair—the heathen in despair has anxiety because he
worries about those which he is not.
Chapter 4: The Anxiety of Highness
Thesis: “the only way one who is on high can truly be without
anxiety is not to be higher than anyone else” (p. 53).
Metaphors:
· Highness—it does not occur to the bird that being on high he
should rule over others. The bird on high is a type of the
Christian’s existence in heaven—all are on high—and there is
plenty of room for all to soar in the sky of heaven. The
Christian of high position lays aside any false allusions when in
the prayer chamber. The heathen in high rank is actually in the
abyss, because he has yet to perceive Him who stands above.
Chapter 5: The Anxiety of Presumption
Thesis: “anxiety is to be regarded precisely as a curse upon
presumptuousness” (p. 63).
Metaphors:
· Anxiety of Presumption—occurs when one does not will the
same things that God wills. And the avoidance of the anxiety of
presumption occurs by both willing and doing what God wills.
· Presumption—is an affront against God whether it is large or
small. It is presumptuous to be ignorant of how much one
constantly needs God. “Presumption is dull ignorance of God”
(p. 69).
· Grace—the Christian only wants God’s grace to be and do that
which God wills for him to be and do. Nothing more and
nothing less. To be satisfied with God’s grace may at first
glance seem like a lowly thing, but it is, in fact, the most
blessed of all states.

7. Chapter 6: The Anxiety of Self-Torment
Thesis: “what is it to be a self-tormentor…it is to cause oneself
this worry” (p. 73).
Metaphors:
· Self-Torment—“anxiety for the next day is precisely what
self-torment is” (p. 73).
· The Next Day—all anxiety is at bottom the anxiety about the
next day—tomorrow. The only one who has lost obsession for
the next day is either the man who is dying or the man who is
truly alive.
· Today—“to cram today with eternity and not with the next
day” is the solution for tomorrow’s anxiety.
Chapter 7: The Anxiety of Irresolution, Fickleness and
Disconsolateness
Thesis: “God cannot even call to the heathen, for it is as if there
were no one to call upon” (p.93).
Metaphors:
· Superfluous—does more to honor one’s Creator than the self-
importance of bustle.
· Irresolution—the serving of two masters equals irresolution
and long deliberation over whom to serve is hesitation that does
not plan to serve one wholly.
-3-
Pabis 2

8. Ellul, J. (1964). The Technological Society. (J. Wilkinson,
Trans.) New York: Vintage Books.
Intellectual Bibliography
Situate in Scholarship:
Jacques Ellul was born in Bordeaux, France in 1912. His self-
professed cosmopolitan identity was the result of his mother’s
Protestant, French-Portugese background and his father’s Greek
Orthodox/Voltarian, Italo-Maltese and Serbian roots. Ellul
studied philosophy at the universities of Bordeaux and Paris,
where he met friend and colleague Bernard Charbonneau in
1929 who shared his interest in social philosophy and political
ecology. Ellul’s early work was influenced by Marx,
Kierkegaard, and Karl Barth. Barth’s writings inspired Ellul to
take an interest in theology and the Gospel, and in 1932 Ellul
converted to Christianity after having a vision of God which he
refused to discuss throughout his lifetime. Ellul concluded that
he was unable to synthesize Marxist doctrine with Christianity,
and many of his post-conversion writings emphasize the
dichotomy between these two philosophies.
Ellul obtained his doctorate in 1936 with a thesis entitled
The History and Legal Nature of the Mancipum. He began his
teaching career at the Faculty of Law in Montpelier (1937-38)
before moving on to posts in Strasbourg and Clermont-Ferrand.
During World War II, Ellul was a leader in the French
Resistance, and he was later honored for his efforts to save Jews
during this engagement. After the war, Ellul vowed to remain
absent from party politics, although he briefly held an
administrative position with the City of Bordeaux from 1944-
1945. He also worked as a lay pastor and began what was to
become a lifetime engagement with various theological
organizations.
Ellul’s academic career resumed when he was appointed
professor of social history at the University of Bordeaux in
1947. Here he began to seriously pursue publication on a wide

9. variety of specializations including Roman law, the history and
sociology of institutions, Marxism, propaganda, and technique
in society. By the time of his death in 1994, Ellul had produced
58 books and more than a thousand articles.
Major Question:
Although Ellul is well known for his philosophical
contributions to the subjects of religion, politics, justice,
humanism, and media ecology, Ellul is probably best known for
his writings on technology and the human environment. Ellul’s
philosophic approach toward technology revolves around the
question of technological determinism. In The Technological
Society (1954), Ellul explores the concept of modern technique
as an autonomous force which unconsciously compels man to
serve its purposes, creates a false reality, and eventually
replaces spirit as a locus of the sacred. In connection with this
notion, Ellul asks the question “Into what has technique
transformed man’s efforts into the spiritual?”
Book Metaphor:
The principle metaphor employed in The Technological
Society is “technical phenomenon,” a term used to describe the
social revolution in which political, social, and human
techniques became joined with the state. Ellul maintains that
the technical phenomenon is the most important in human
history (233) because it separates man from human motives and
renders him an unconscious participant in the autonomous
agenda of technique, eventually turning against the very spirit
of creativity which inspired it. The technical phenomenon leads
to technological civilization, a metaphor which implies a
construction by and for technique, whereby all social reality is
exclusively technique.
Significance to the Study of Philosophy of Communication:
The single most important concept identified by Ellul
relating to the philosophy of communication is Ellul’s
contention that technique constructs and shapes human
communication according to its demands because, by its nature,
technique possesses a monopoly of action. Toward this end

10. Ellul maintains that “no human action is possible except as it is
mediated and censored by the technical medium” (418).
Therefore, “every human initiative must use technique in order
to express itself” (420).
Chapter I – Techniques
Key Metaphors: organization, technical phenomenon,
universalism, progress, invention, social plasticity
Chapter Thesis: The term technique should not be confused
with or limited to machines. Technique is autonomous
phenomenon which represents an end to itself. Its goal is to
control results of future events in advance. The development of
a proper understanding of technique requires an understanding
of the historical circumstances which surround its emergence
and propagation.
Significance of Each Metaphor to Communication Ethics:
Technique must be defined by the duality of rational judgment
with conscious behavior, i.e., the technical phenomenon. The
way a civilization views its spiritual and intellectual
relationship with the world determines its acceptance of
technique. Technique represents pure externality and does not
thrive in the presence of a universalizing philosophy. When
individual possibility is applied to the external or material
world, man employs method to organize, invent, and progress
for the purpose of ensuring technical control.
Chapter II – The Characterology of Technique
Key Metaphors: Rationality, artificiality, automatism, technical
slavery, self-augmentation, technological civilization
Chapter III – Technique and Economy
Key Metaphors: Technical progress, economic technique,
political economy, statistical atmosphere, norms and plans,
liberal interventionism, macroeconomy
Chapter Thesis: “Technique always creates a kind of secret
society, a closed fraternity of its practioners” (162).
Comprehension of economic theory now requires one to be both

11. a specialist and a technician. The common man and his needs
are left out of the conversation. As natural law concedes to
technical law, humans are absorbed into the processes until
technique is no longer conscious or obtrusive.
Significance of Each Metaphor to Communication Ethics: The
merging of science with economics, methodology and
technique, urges us to “stick to the facts” (160). Political
economy becomes technique, loses its moral dimension, and
develops its own ethical framework (161). Human necessity
thus becomes defined by economic necessity.
Chapter IV – Technique and the State
Key Metaphors: technical organism, motive force of the state,
propaganda, public and private morality, totalitarianism,
zweckwissenschaft
Chapter Thesis: Ellul maintains that the “technical
phenomenon” which joins political, social, and human views
with that of the state is the most important in human history
(233) because it separates man from human motives and renders
him an unconscious participant in the autonomous agenda of
technique, eventually turning against the very human creativity
which inspired it.
Significance of Each Metaphor to Communication Ethics: The
“technical organism” which the state becomes as it co-opts
traditional and private techniques into its system fails to
consider man as the motive. Thus, politicians become
subordinate to the technical phenomenon. “Theoretically, our
politicians are at the center of the machinery, but actually they
are being progressively eliminated by it” (254). Political
doctrine becomes a “rationalizing mechanism” for the actions of
state (282). Example: wars of “necessity” (286). Public and
private conceptions of morality no longer have force or reality
in the fantasy constructed by a political technique that has
become totalitarian (288). Man becomes restrained in both
thought and action by an external reality which he has self-
imposed (303).

12. Chapter V – Human Techniques
Key Metaphors: Human milieu, humanizing technique,
psychological technique
Chapter Thesis: In order to effectively question what form of
humanity is under attack at the hands of technique, we must
agree on a conception of man that is “a priori and non-
scientific” (392).
Significance of Each Metaphor to Communication Ethics:
Humanism is a term that has developed in response to
technique. The argument that moral development will follow
material development is part of the false technical reality. Ellul
argues that humanism is “a conception that involves contempt
for man’s inner life to the advantage of his sociological life,
contempt of his moral and intellectual life to the advantage of
his material life” (338). Human techniques such as propaganda
are designed to manipulate the passions and “a good social
conscience appears with the suppression of the critical faculty”
(369) creating a new sphere of the “sacred” (370) and a
complete reconstruction of reality (371).