The document provides information for seed collection, propagation, and species profiles to support restoration efforts at Chollas Creek, including detailing two proposed methods for sowing seeds, listing potential suppliers, and outlining a budget-friendly approach of seeding dominant coastal sage scrub species to initiate restoration and discourage non-native plants. Species profiles provide details on seed collection and processing for over 20 plant species found at the restoration site.

1. Prepared by Sharon Muczynski SDSU Graduate Student
Seed Collection & Propagation Manual
Restoring Chollas Creek

3. 1 Map of Chollas Creek Site.........................1
2 Importance of Restoration.......................2
3 General Information for Seed Collect-
ing, Saving, and Sowing............................3
4 Propagation Step-by-Step.......................4
5 Possible Sources of Supplies...................6
6 Budget Restoration by Seeding
Dominant Species.......................................8
7 Chollas Creek Species Information.....10
8 Importance of Controlling Weeds......53
9 Weed Species at Chollas Creek............54
10 References....................................................65
Table of Contents
Cactus Wren Habitat photograph by William Cullen

4. 1
Site Context
Radio
Canyon
Encanto
Canyon
Encanto Canyon
Radio Canyon
Chollas Creek Restoration Site

5. 2
San Diego is home to an unmatched and exceedingly rich population of flora and fauna.
In fact, San Diego County is the most biodiverse county in the continental United States,
meaning that, in any equally sized geographic area there are more species of living things
here than anywhere in the country (Lightner 2006). Over 2,000 individual species of plants
are endemic to the area, and of those, plants occurring near the coast of San Diego are
unique to just a small geographic area (Holland 1986) (Lightner 2006). These plants and
animals only exist here, and have evolved to live in the specific microclimates of Southern
California and Northern Baja California (Bakker 1994). So special are the assemblage of spe-
cies in San Diego and the State of California, that this geographic region is listed in the Top
Ten Biodiversity Hot Spots in the world, as determined by Conservation International.
Amount of rainfall and climate determine what species of plants and animals can survive
in a community (Hatch 2007). Researchers have attempted to define these communities by
the dominant plant species found in each area. In Encanto and Radio Canyons the dominant
plant community is Coastal Sage Scrub (CSS), specifically Diegan Coastal Sage Scrub (DCSS)
(Kirkpatrick and Hutchinson 1977). Coastal Sage Scrub, the larger seaside community that
extends up to Monterey County, is broadly characterized as having significant populations
of shrubs less than five feet tall that are summer drought deciduous, such as: various sages,
buckwheats, coyote brush, and sumacs (Wasowski 1995). The DCSS portion of CSS is only
found in a thin coastal band extending from southern San Diego County down to Ensenada
in Baja California where the yearly rainfall is around 200 mm (Kirkpatrick and Hutchinson
1977). In the DCSS region of Coastal Sage Scrub the dominant plants found here are Artemis-
ia californica (Coastal Sagebrush), Salvia mellifera (Black Sage), Salvia apiana (White Sage),
Eriogonum fasciculatum (California Buckwheat), Rhus integrifolia (Lemonadeberry), Malosma
laurina (Laurel Sumac), Bahiopsis laciniata (San Diego Sunflower) Lotus scoparius (Desert Lo-
tus), and Mimulus aurantiacus (Bush Monkeyflower). The second community, Maritime Suc-
culent Scrub (MSS) is found in small sections of Encanto Canyon. MSS differs from DCSS
because this community contains succulents and cacti (Holland 1986).
Only a small portion of the original area of these two important plant communities still ex-
ists in Southern California, and the remaining area is rapidly being dismantled by encroach-
ing urban development and by the invasion of non-native plants. Restoration of Encanto
and Radio Canyons, then, becomes an important environmental objective to save the last
remaining stands of endemic plants and the animals associated with them.
Over 90% of original Coastal Sage Scrub has been destroyed and the remaining small frac-
tion is under constant threat as human populations expand (Bowler 1990). Because the
climate found in areas of DCSS is mild, rarely freezing and rarely uncomfortably warm, it
is pleasant for humans, as well as, the community of plants and animals living there. This
aspect makes this habitat desirable for development and threatens its continued existence.
Rarer still is the Maritime Succulent Scrub contained within the DCSS. The area of this plant
community was small to begin with and has experienced a precipitous decline in the last
few years. Protection and restoration of these canyons will foster populations of the Cactus
Wren and the threatened California Gnatcatcher, two bird species that depend on the con-
tinued existence and health of these two irreplaceable ecological communities.
Importance of Preservation and Restoration of
Encanto and Radio Canyons

6. General Information for
Seed Collecting, Saving, and Sowing
Use Local Seed:
It is important to collect local seed as it is adapted to the soil and conditions on the site, and there-
fore, genetically superior for the site compared to seed collected elsewhere, and genetically compat-
ible with local fauna.
Keep Seed Collection Dry:
Keeping seed dry is critical, moisture leads to rot and fungus problems which ruin the seed batch.
Collect in paper bags, dry the seed after collection and processing.
Do Not Harvest All the Seed Available:
According to sources, and based on the fact that most native plants bloom and form seed for a pro-
longed period of time (indeterminate), take no more than 50% of the seed from a healthy perennial
(10% from a rare or conservative species) or 10% of the seed from an annual.
Seeds Should Collected at the Right Stage of Ripeness:
This insures optimal germination rates. Collect when the weather is sunny and dry.
Method One: Sowing Seed for Germination:
1) Use 1020 flats for sowing seed.
2) Use a dampened mixture of 2 parts peat moss or fine screened soil, 2 parts damp perlite, and
1 part horticultural sand.
3) Press moist soil mix into flats, maintaining 1 inch space from the rim of the flat, tamp
down with a heavy piece of wood cut to fit the interior of the flat.
4) Sow seeds, and cover seeds requiring darkness with an amount of soil equal to the
size of the seed (See individual species for additional instructions.)
5) If sowing in a greenhouse, cover soil with a thin layer of poultry grit. Do not cover
seeds that require light to germinate (See appendix for supplies and ordering.)
6) Keep seed moist and out of direct sunlight. Maintain good air flow to minimize
disease.
7) Once germinated and with a pair of true leaves, prick out individual seedlings into
soil-filled 2” x 2” plant bands and pack individual plant bands into 12” x 12” plant
band trays. It would be a good idea to add mycorrhizae to the bands.
8) Mist to keep trays moist; do not allow the trays to dry out.
9) Sow seeds in fall to mimic natural processes.
10) Most of the seeds collected do not require pretreatment. See individual species.
Method Two: Sowing Seed for Germination:
1) Follow steps 1-6 & 8-10 above, but place groups of germinated plants in soil-filled gallon
pots to grow until planting size. The strongest plant will grow to maturity.
Minimizing Damping Off:
Damping off is a term used to describe various fungal diseases that kill seedling plants at the soil sur-
face. This can be minimized by maintaining air flow by propagating outside, by using fans, not allow-
ing the soil to get too wet, topping trays with poultry grit and using sterile soil and trays.
3

7. Propagation Step-by-Step
4
1) Moist seed starting
mix
2) Press soil into flats
and tamp down
3) Sprinkle seed unto
flats, and either cover
with soil or not, de-
pending on seed light
germination require-
ment.

8. 4) Fill square flats
with plant bands
5) Fill bands with
moistened
soil.
6) Prick seedlings out
of flats and into
plant bands. Grow
to maturity and
plant whole band.
5

9. Possible Sources for Supplies
6

10. 7

11. Budget Restoration by Seeding Dominant Species
Seeding for Habitat Restoration:
Once Coastal Sage Scrub (CSS) habitat is invaded by annual grasses and converted to a grassland ecol-
ogy, it is difficult, if not improbable, that restoration efforts will be successful (Zink and Allen 1998). Consid-
ering that Ehrharta calycina, a non-native grass from South Africa, has both, rapidly expanded its range in
San Diego, and readily invades Maritime Succulent Scrub (MSS), and CSS areas, it seems especially critical to
restore areas that have some encroachment of non-native plants, but are still viable for restoration. Studies
have shown that a plant community with a 60-70% canopy cover of native plants is better able to withstand
invasion by non-native plants (Goodridge 2001).
The nearly 75 acres of the joined canyons is an important continuous acreage of coastal habitat that is
especially valuable when considering that 70-90% of CSS habitat is gone and most of the remaining habitat
is highly fragmented and of little ecological value for species that require connectivity (Taylor 2004). Keep-
ing this in mind, as well as, budgetary restrictions that so often accompany rehabilitation efforts, seeding
dominant species of CSS plants to initiate restoration may be an effective strategy.
In the book, Terrestrial Vegetation of California, a survey of patterns in sage scrub in Southern California
finds that this environment is dominated by two plants: Artemisia californica and Eriogonum fasciculatum.
In an overview of CSS communities Artemisia californica is the most abundant plant with a mean cover of
46% and Eriogonum fasciculatum is second in abundance with a cover of 24%. Other plants found in this
ecosystem are Salvia mellifera, Salvia apiana, Malosma laurina, and Lotus scoparius. In addition to these
dominant plants, observation of Radio and Encanto Canyons also finds Baccharis salicifolia, Bahiopsis la-
ciniata, and a few other plants in smaller numbers.
A. californica and E. fasciculatum are valuable in the native landscape by benefiting many organisms with
either nectar, forage, or nesting opportunities. Fortunately, seeds of both A. californica and E. fasciculatum
germinate more successfully with the inclusion of light (Keeley 1987). Because both of the species seed
germination requirements are similar, they can be seeded as a mix. The approach for restoration, then, is
seeding these two species that make up the majority of the CSS community, to get the canopy cover nec-
essary to discourage non-native plant recruitment. The steps for this process would include: 1) collecting
seed from CSS plants in the canyons the first year. 2) As winter rains start and annual weeds emerge, pull or
eradicate all non-native plants 3) Plant a seed mixture of the two species in ratios that reflect germination
rate and coverage desired, and use either seed imprinting or hydroseeding to allow light to reach seeds
(Montalvo et al. 2002). 4) Continue to pull weeds while desired seeded plants grow. 5) Infill with other CSS
species either by seeding, planting plants, and/or by scattering cacti segments.
Eriogonum fasciculatum has a low germination rate and it is also difficult to separate the seed from the
persistent calyx. To compensate for that, collect the dried flower heads and just sow the calyx right along
with the seeds. Figure the germination rate and adjust the ratio of seeds to reflect actual germination rate
plus extra weight of chaff. The goal is a mean cover of 46% for the Artemisia and 24% for the Eriogonum.
Work done by Dave Dyer and Reina O’Beck of the USDA NRCS found that there are 334,000 Eriogonum
seeds per pound of unresolved seed and calyx mixed with a germination rate of 25%. They figured nine
pounds of seed per acre to get good coverage. Germination rates for sown Artemisia seeds are also low at
10-30% (Young 2001). S & S Seeds figures there are 5,500,000 seeds per pound. Margot Griswold, a restora-
tionist from Earthworks, Inc. uses 1.5 pounds Artemisia seed per acre in CSS restoration. Germination tests
of local seed will guide final seeding rates.
Studies have shown benefits to adding native mycorrhizae such as discouraging non-native invasives
or assisting with establishment (Allen et al. 1989, Smith et al. 1998). Restoration groups and some native
plant nurseries are routinely adding an environmentally wide spread CSS Arbuscular Mycorrhizae, such as
Glomus intraradices, to the seed mixture. It is thought to help with native plant establishment (Smith et al.
1998).
8

12. 9

13. Chollas Creek Species Information
Cactus Wren Habitat photograph by William Cullen
10
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Adolphiacalifornica................................................
Artemisia californica...............................................
Baccharis salicifolia.................................................
Bahiopsis laciniata..................................................
Cylindropuntia cylindrica.....................................
Encelia californica.................................................
Eriogonum fasciculatum....................................
Ferocactus viridescens var. viridescens........
Heteromeles arbutifolia......................................
Isomeris arborea....................................................
Lotus scoparius......................................................
Lycium californicum.............................................
Malachothamnus fasciculatus.........................
Malosma laurina....................................................
Mimulus aurantiacus...........................................
Opuntia littoralis...................................................
Rhus integrifolia....................................................
Salvia apiana...........................................................
Salvia mellifera.......................................................
Sambucus mexicana............................................
Simmondsia chinensis........................................

14. Notes:
11

15. Adolphia californica Adolphia
COLLECTION
WHEN: July
WHERE: Usually near water
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Reddish fruit on ends of petioles
HOW TO COLLECT: Pick fruit which contains brown nut-like seeds.
PROCESSING: White
NOTES: Rare and endangered in California. Hybridizes easily.
HEIGHT: 4 feet
WIDTH: 8 feet
FLOWERS: Small greenish-
white from March-April, fra-
FRUIT: Red three-lobed
LEAVES: Small pale green
oval leaves thorny green
HABIT: Spiny upright
FAMILY: Rhamnaceae
12
grant, five-sepals
branches
shrub, profusely branched
fruit

16. Notes:
13

17. Artemisia californica California Sagebrush
COLLECTION
WHEN: November through February, mainly January
WHERE: Encanto and Radio Canyons
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Branches must be dry to release seeds.
HOW TO COLLECT: Gently shake or strip dry seed heads to collect ripe
seeds. Collect on warm sunny days when seed is more loosely held by the plant.
PROCESSING: White
NOTES: Important Coastal Sage Scrub plant. Germination enhanced by fire
and light. Do not cover seeds when sowing. Populations of Artemisia die when
invasive foreign grasses are allowed to compete for resources. Plants form as-
sociations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi when nitrogen is in short supply.
Nitrogen deposition from automobile exhaust is thought to be decreasing
populations. All chaff does not need to be removed in order to store seed. Seed
does not remain viable for longer than 3 years.
HEIGHT: 2-5 feet
WIDTH: 3-5 feet
FLOWERS: Bunches of
small pistillate flowers yel-
SEED: Extremely small and
wind-dispersed in late fall,
LEAVES: Aromatic, greyish,
drought deciduous, finely-
dissected and thread-like.
HABIT: Rounded
FAMILY: Asteraceae
14
yellowish brown 0.05 inches
Edges curl under in drought.
low-red in color along stem.

18. Notes:
15

19. Baccharis salicifolia Mule Fat
COLLECTION
WHEN: Summer to fall
WHERE: In riparian areas
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Ripe seed is in dried female flowers
HOW TO COLLECT: Break off dry seed heads
PROCESSING: Break up seed heads to separate tiny seeds
NOTES: Plants are dioecious, meaning that, male and female flowers occur on
separate plants. Seeds germinate easily without pretreatment. Dry newly col-
lected seed heads, and either leave them intact to sow, or rub between gloved
hands to separate seed. Excellent long-blooming butterfly and bee plant.
HEIGHT: Up to 10 feet
WIDTH: 1-5 feet
FLOWERS: White, small
rounded male staminate
flowers and female pistillate
flowers on separate plants.
SEED: Contained in ball-
shaped dark brown spheres
LEAVES: Alternate, sticky,
dark green lanceolate leaves,
sometimes toothd, 6 inches
long with 1-3 veins on short
petioles
HABIT: Erect, evergreen
woody shrub
FAMILY: Asteraceae
16
Blooms most of the year.
at ends of branches

20. Notes:
17

21. Bahiopsis laciniata San Diego Viqueria
COLLECTION
WHEN: Summer to fall
WHERE: Scattered throughout Encanto Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Ripe seed heads are dark brown balls
HOW TO COLLECT: Break off dry seed heads
PROCESSING: Break up seed heads to separate seeds
NOTES: Sow seeds in flats on tamped, moist, seed-starting soil mix. Barely
cover seeds with sieved compost, tamp, and mist with water. Plants in the
Asteraceae come up very easily.
HEIGHT: 1-3 feet
WIDTH: 1-5 feet
FLOWERS: 1.5 inch Soli-
tary, bright yellow. Blooming
most of the year
SEED: Contained in ball-
shaped dark brown spheres
LEAVES: Alternate dark
green lanceolate leaves 3-5
cm., hairy, resinous, leaves
are toothed, puckered, and
HABIT: Bushy to sprawling
FAMILY: Asteraceae
18
at ends of branches
margins are rolled under.

22. Notes:
19

23. Cylindropuntia prolifera Coast Cholla
COLLECTION
WHEN: Anytime of the year, but best when segments are mature and the
area is not drought stressed.
WHERE: Mainly in Encanto Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Segment is fully grown and mature but not
shriveled from water stress
HOW TO COLLECT: Use barbeque tongs or a pitch fork to break segments
off and throw into buckets to prevent accidental contact with spines. The seg-
ments have weak joints and break off cleanly and easily.
PROCESSING: Many restoration manuals list “callusing” as a necessary step,
that is, laying the harvested segments to dry for a couple of weeks. According
to Pete Famalaro of Sweetwater Reservoir callusing is not necessary; the seg-
ments just need to be scattered where they are to grow. Callusing occurs on
site - saving time.
NOTES: Important shrub for Cactus Wren. Studies have shown that the cac-
tus need to be at least 1 meter high before they are used as nesting sites by the
Cactus Wren. It takes up to eight years before the Coast Cholla is large enough
for use by nesting birds. A nest was observed in a cactus only a meter high.
HEIGHT: Up 6 feet
WIDTH: 3-4 feet
FLOWERS: Spring-summer
large magenta flowers, visited
by hummingbirds
FRUIT: Green, usually sterile
Plant propagates itself vegeta-
tively. Small terminal segments
break off easily when brushed,
and are carried by passing ani-
mals to new locations.
LEAVES: Spines are a mix
of longer stationary spines in
clumps called areoles mixed
with shorter glochids. Glochids
readily detach when brushed
and are small, barbed, and dif-
ficult to remove. Use caution.
HABIT: Upright to sprawling
cactus
FAMILY: Cactaceae
20

24. Notes:
21

25. Encelia californica California Brittlebush
COLLECTION
WHEN: Spring
WHERE: In riparian areas
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Ripe seed is in dried flowers
HOW TO COLLECT: Break off dry seed heads
PROCESSING: Break up seed heads to separate seeds
NOTES: Seeds germinate without pretreatment, but success rate may be
poor (Emery 1988).
HEIGHT: 3 feet
WIDTH: 4 feet
FLOWERS: Beautiful two
inch spring yellow daisies
SEED: Contained in ball-
shaped dark brown spheres
at ends of branches, after
flowers dry up
LEAVES: Diamond to nar-
rowly ovate leaves 2-3 inches
HABIT: Rounded perennial
FAMILY: Asteraceae
22

26. Notes:
23

27. Eriogonum fasciculatum California Buckwheat
COLLECTION
WHEN: June- October
WHERE: Throughout Encanto Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Flowers are dark rust color, darker is better
HOW TO COLLECT: Collect whole flower clusters.
PROCESSING: Separate seeds from chaff by pushing through a screen and
winnow with a fan, or just break up the clusters and sow thickly. Expect low
germination.
NOTES: Do not cover seeds with soil when germinating. Studies show that
germination is increased by exposing seeds to light, by increasing the perme-
ability of the seed coat to water, and, possibly by, leaching of germination in-
hibitors (Keeley 1987). Seeds germinate in two weeks in warm moist soil. The
long blooming season of this plant makes it highly beneficial for a wide range
of animals and insects. California gnatcatchers use California buckwheat, along
with, Artemisia californica, as forage and for nesting.
HEIGHT: 3 feet
WIDTH: 3-4 feet spreading
shrub
FLOWERS: White to pink
dense branched umbels of
flowers Long flowering pe-
riod: May-October.
SEED: Tiny, hard, light-
brown
LEAVES: 1-2 cm long and
clustered at nodes
HABIT: Rounded shrub
FAMILY: Polygonaceae
24

28. Notes:
25

29. Ferocactus viridescens var. viridescens S.D. Barrel Cactus
COLLECTION
WHEN: Late July/August
WHERE: Encanto Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Berries are breaking open
HOW TO COLLECT: Collect ripe berries or wait until they open and collect
black seed with tweezers
PROCESSING: Allow seeds to fully ripen and dry.
NOTES: Rare and endangered. Propagated by seed only. No pretreatment
necessary.
HEIGHT: Up to 1 foot
WIDTH: Up to 1 foot
FLOWERS: 1-1/2 to 2-1/2”
yellow to greenish-yellow
round flowers May-June.
Sometimes red mid-rib on
flowers
FRUIT: Bright yellow to red
1-2 inches long
LEAVES: 10-19 spines per
areole. The four central spines
per areole are longer and col-
ored pink or yellow
HABIT: Round cactus
FAMILY: Cactaceae
26

30. Notes:
27

31. Heteromeles arbutifolia Toyon
COLLECTION
WHEN: October-November
WHERE: Radio Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Berries are red in fall and can be picked
HOW TO COLLECT: Collect red berries
PROCESSING: Fresh seed readily germinates in flats. Stored seed needs to
be stratified.
NOTES: Valuable to many insect and bird species.
HEIGHT: Up to 15 feet
WIDTH: Up to 15 feet
FLOWERS: Bunches of
small white flowers at the
end of branches
FRUIT: Red berries
LEAVES: Variable, serrated
shiny, oblong to elliptic
HABIT: Impressive ever-
green shrub/tree
FAMILY: Rosaceae
28

32. Notes:
29

33. Isomeris arborea Bladderpod
COLLECTION
WHEN: July-Oct
WHERE: Encanto Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Pod is brown and seeds rattle
HOW TO COLLECT: Collect ripe pods
PROCESSING: There will be both white and black seeds (polymorphic). The
black seeds have higher germination rates while the lighter-colored seeds are
less viable. The seeds do not require pretreatment. Some observations indicate
that the seeds germinate better with light, so surface sow and do not cover
with soil.
HEIGHT: 1-3 feet
WIDTH: 3-6 feet
FLOWERS: Golden yellow
SEED: Furry 2” pod con-
tains white and black seeds
LEAVES: Palmately com-
pound, grayish. Plant has a
distinctive odor.
HABIT: Erect, rounded
shrub
FAMILY: Capparaceae
30

34. Notes:
31

35. Lotus scoparius Deer Weed
COLLECTION
WHEN: July - October
WHERE: Encanto and Radio Canoyns
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Brown and dry seed pods. Collect over a pe-
riod of time as plants continuously flower.
HOW TO COLLECT: Break off ripe seed pods
PROCESSING: Strip seeds from pods
NOTES: Hot water soaking increases germination, but it is not necessary ac-
cording to Pete Famolaro, Biologist at Sweetwater Reservoir. The plant is a pio-
neer species and assist other plants in establishment because it fixes nitrogen.
Important larval food plant for several native butterflies, also good for native
bees. Consider planting in areas that are low in nutrients to make way for other
species in succession.
HEIGHT: 1-2 feet
WIDTH: 2-4 feet
FLOWERS: Yellow fading
to orange after pollination,
Tubular and tiny flowers,
blooming from February-
December
FRUIT: tiny pointy pods
containing 2-3 seeds
LEAVES: deciduous, tiny
bluish green oblanceolate
leaflets in sets of three
HABIT: low spreading and
twiggy
FAMILY: Fabaceae
32

36. 33
Notes:

37. Lycium californica California Desert Thorn
COLLECTION
WHEN: In the fall
WHERE: Haven’t observed this plant in either canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Fruit is bright red or shrivelling
HOW TO COLLECT: Pick ripe fruit
PROCESSING: Separate fruit pulp from seeds
NOTES: Rain determines germination. Cold stratification and water is
thought to increase germination. Edible fruit.
HEIGHT: 6-9 feet
WIDTH: 6 feet
FLOWERS: Clusters of tu-
bular white/lavender flowers
in leaf axils April- June
FRUIT: Red egg-shaped
drupes containing many
seeds
LEAVES: Leathery, small
linear fleshy, olive green,
drought deciduous
HABIT: Dense, thorny and
intricately branched
FAMILY: Solanaceae
34

38. Notes:
35

39. Malacothamnus fasciculatus Bush Mallow
COLLECTION
WHEN: In the fall
WHERE: Radio Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Dried flowers
HOW TO COLLECT: Pick off dried flowers
PROCESSING: Dry and sow
NOTES: Can be propagated from seed, or dig up volunteer root sprouts near
the parent plant. Can also be propagated easily from semi-hardwood cuttings.
One of the most beautiful Coastal Sage Scrub plants. Valuable plant for birds,
especially hummingbirds, butterflies, and bees. Shrubs quickly grow following
fires. Good for erosion control.
HEIGHT: Up to 12 feet
WIDTH: 4-6 feet
FLOWERS: Slender spikes
of pale pink/lavender
cupped, hibiscus-like flowers
April- July
Seed: Seed sometimes
forms
LEAVES: Greyish green
rounded hairy leaves
HABIT: Variable habit
Rounded, full large shrub,
colony-forming
FAMILY: Malvaceae
36

40. Notes:
37

41. Malosma laurina Laurel Sumac
COLLECTION
WHEN: July-October
WHERE: Radio Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Fruit turns brown enclosing seed
HOW TO COLLECT: Pick fruits
PROCESSING: Seeds must be soaked in hot water for 24-48 hours to pro-
mote germination. Germination takes 2-4 weeks.
NOTES: Like other members of the Anacardiaceae, seeds must be pretreated
with either sulfuric acid or hot water treatment. In the book, Growing California
Native Plants, by Marjorie Schmidt, the seeds are dropped into 180 degree F
water and allowed to cool for 12-24 hours. Seeds germinate well after the hot
water treatment.
HEIGHT: Up to 20 feet
WIDTH: 10-20 feet
FLOWERS: Tiny white
flowers form panicles at the
end of branches in the early
summer
FRUIT: Greenish fruit turns
brown
LEAVES: Leathery, fold-
ed upward along mid-rib,
roundish to ovate leaves.
HABIT: Dense rounded ev-
ergreen
FAMILY: Anacardiaceae
38

42. Notes:
39

43. Mimulus aurantiacus Sticky Monkey Flower
COLLECTION
WHEN: July-October
WHERE: Encanto Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Flowers are dried up and brown
HOW TO COLLECT: Pull off flowers, seeds are at the base of the flower
tube.
PROCESSING: Separate and dry seeds and sow. Light enhances germina-
tion. Seeds can also be broadcast on site.
NOTES: This plant is a hummingbird favorite! Principal food for Checkerspot
butterfly. Pollinated by bees in the genus Osmia and Ceratina.
HEIGHT: 2-5 feet
WIDTH: 2-5 feet
FLOWERS: Tubular flowers
ranging in color and size, yel-
low to red often with nectar
guides
SEED: Found at the base of
floral tube
LEAVES: Rolled narrow
leaves, sticky and opposite
HABIT: Erect to sprawling
FAMILY: Phrymaceae
40

44. Notes:
41

45. Opuntia littoralis Coast Prickly Pear
COLLECTION
WHEN: Anytime paddles are mature and not shriveled.
WHERE: Encanto and Radio Canyons
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Green paddles or cladodes are fully
grown and not drought-stressed.
HOW TO COLLECT: Use barbeque tongs, shovels, or some oth-
er method to separate paddles from plant without using hands.
Place paddles in buckets for collection
PROCESSING: Allow the paddles to dry in sun for a couple of
days. Bury paddles vertically on site or plant in pots to grow.
NOTES: Fruit is high in sugar, and Vitamin C. Glochids must be
rubbed off before consuming. The mucilaginous pulp of the fruits
help control blood sugar levels and prevent diabetes.
HEIGHT: 3-5 feet
WIDTH: Larger
FLOWERS: Large 2-3 inch yel-
low flowers from April - June
FRUIT: Red, egg-shaped fruit
called “tunas” or “nopales”on the
edges of pads containing many
hard, flat seeds
LEAVES: Spiny green paddles,
are technically termed “clad-
odes” Older cladodes have lon-
ger spines. Beware the glochids
on this species, these smaller
spines are barbed, painful, and
difficult to remove.
HABIT: Upright to sprawling
forming dense thickets
FAMILY: Cactaceae
42

46. Notes:
43

47. Rhus integrifolia Lemonadeberry
COLLECTION
WHEN: July-October
WHERE: Radio Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Fruit shrivels and turns red
HOW TO COLLECT: Pick fruits
PROCESSING: Seeds must be soaked in hot water for 24-48 hours to pro-
mote germination. Germination takes 2-4 weeks.
NOTES: Fruit only occurs when there are both male and female plants. The
shrub is dioecious. Native bees must pollinate female plants with male pollen
to get fruit. Seeds must be pretreated with either sulfuric acid or hot water
treatment. In the book, Growing California Native Plants, by Marjorie Schmidt,
the seeds are dropped into 180 degree F water and allowed to cool for 12-24
hours. Seeds germinate well after the hot water treatment.
HEIGHT: Up to 20 feet
WIDTH: 10-15 feet
FLOWERS: Spring white/
pink panicles of flowers
SEED: Sticky berries that
eventually turn red
LEAVES: Leathery, dark
green oblong- ovate with
a few teeth on the margins
occurring on red stems ap-
proximately 2 inches long
HABIT: Dense, rounded ev-
ergreen
FAMILY: Anacardiaceae
44

48. Notes:
45

49. Salvia apiana White Salvia
COLLECTION
WHEN: Middle to late July
WHERE: Encanto and Radio Canyons
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: When flower stalks have turned brown and
seeds rattle
HOW TO COLLECT: Hand strip flowering stems into paper bags.
PROCESSING: Sow seed shallowly in very sandy soil, or surface sow, be-
cause light increases germination. Average germination time 14 days. Germi-
nation rate is usually low, around 10 percent.
NOTES: Special plant for native Indians who burned it in purification ceremo-
nies. Important nectar plant for bees and hummingbirds.
HEIGHT: 3 feet with flower
spikes reaching 8 feet
WIDTH: three to six feet across
FLOWERS: Long wands of
white, spidery flowers in clusters,
can reach five feet above the
plant in late spring or summer
SEED: spent flowering stalks
contain seeds in tiered whorls
along the stem
LEAVES: Striking white-col-
ored, oval, 4 inch long leaves
that are strongly scented or pun-
gent and clustered at stem ends
HABIT: Shrubby
FAMILY: Lamiaceae
46

50. Notes:
47

51. Salvia mellifera Black Sage
COLLECTION
WHEN: July-August
WHERE: Throughout Encanto and Radio Canyon
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Seed heads are dark, dusty brown and the
seeds are loose and rattle when the head is shaken
HOW TO COLLECT: the series of seed heads (persistant calyces) occur
along the ends of stems. Strip seed heads off the plant by running your fingers
along the stem. Collect the seeds as the capsules begin to dry but before they
have dropped the seeds.
PROCESSING: separate seed from calyx. Spread seeds in thin layers to dry a
few days before storing in sealed, refrigerated containers.
Notes: Light enhances germination. Sow and do not cover seeds. A study
by Baskin and Baskin found germination increased by 21% when exposed to
fire (Baskin and Baskin 1987). Seed can be treated with liquid smoke, or sown
thickly because of low germination rates. Exposing germinating seeds to al-
ternating temperatures of 55 and 73 degrees F increased germination rates
(Keeley 1986). Survival of the plant is compromised by air pollution. Good
plant for attracting native bees.
HEIGHT: 3-6 feet
WIDTH: 5-6 feet
FLOWERS: Pale blue/lavender
SEEDS: Brown in groups of four
LEAVES: Fragrant, dark green
and wrinkled with lighter-col-
ored undersides.
HABIT: Sprawling shrub
FAMILY: Lamiaceae
48

52. 49
Notes:

53. Sambucus mexicana Western Elderberry
COLLECTION
WHEN: July- September
WHERE: Both Encanto and Radio Canyons in low riparian areas
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Fruit is dark blue to black (if it hasn’t been
eaten by the birds).
HOW TO COLLECT: Strip berries
PROCESSING: Put fruit in food processor with water to break up fruit. Seeds
will separate from pulp. Dry seeds.
NOTES: Important shrub for wildlife. Studies have shown that the presence
of Sambucus is beneficial for the survival of juvenile Cactus Wrens. The shrub
blooms and sets fruit over a long period of time. Collection of ripe fruit should
be ongoing to take advantage of a long period of bloom and fruit set. Also,
birds relish the berries and quickly take ripe fruit. Sambucus pith is the only
food source for the endangered Elderberry Longhorn Beetle (Desmocerus cali-
fornicus dimorphus). Propagates somewhat from seed. Seed must be sown in
fall and germination happens after a period of warm soil temperatures, either
the following spring or a year later. Another source mentions a 10-15 minute
soak in sulfuric acid followed by cold treatment in the refrigerator for 90 days.
Additionally, cuttings are successful only 10% of the time. It may be advanta-
geous to sow the seeds and forget about them, and be pleased if any come up.
Since these are difficult to propagate it may be prudent to purchase the plants
for restoration.
HEIGHT: Up to 20 feet
WIDTH: 15 feet
FLOWERS: Spring-summer
flat-topped sprays of creamy
white flowers
FRUIT: Clusters of round
bluish drupes with a whitish
bloom
LEAVES: Deciduous, pinnate-
ly compound leaves composed
of 3, 5 or 9 leaflets on along
petiole
HABIT: Upright to sprawling
shrub.
FAMILY: Caprifoliceae
50

54. Notes:
51

55. Simmondsia chinensis Jojoba
COLLECTION
WHEN: July
WHERE: Encanto and Radio Canyons
HOW TO TELL IT’S READY: Seed husks open and spill brown
beans that look like coffee beans
HOW TO COLLECT: Gather ripe unopened pods or collect seed
off of the ground.
PROCESSING: Dry seed and sow; no pretreatment is necessary.
HEIGHT: 3-10 feet
WIDTH: Wider than tall
FLOWERS: Dioecious, male and
female flowers on separate plants
FRUIT: Hanging egg-shaped
pods containing one seed
LEAVES: Peculiar upward point-
ing “bunny ears”, bluish green dull
leaves
HABIT: Rigidly branching, round-
ed evergreen shrub
FAMILY: Simmondaceae
52

56. 53
Importance of Controlling Weeds
The biology of weeds makes them different than normal plants in a number of important ways.
Weeds have the ability to profoundly change the native ecosystems by negatively affecting hy-
drology, soil composition, nutrient availability, and biodiversity (Le Maitre 2011). Some weeds like
Brassica nigra even produce chemicals that interfere with, or kill, competing plants in a process
called allelopathy.
Weeds are invasive plants, not normally found in the environment, that have the potential to
dominate all other plants by shading and out-growing them. Ecosystem stability is further threat-
ened by the copious seeds produced by weeds, allowing rapid domination of the native plant
community (Bryson and Carter 2004). These seeds also outcompete native plants because they of-
ten have seed dormancy and the ability to wait to germinate until conditions are right for growth.
Another factor that makes weeds different from other plants is their ability to efficiently disperse
seed into new areas. Some weeds, like Arundo donax, have alternative reproductive strategies and
spread rapidly vegetatively with rhizomes, changing the hydrology, and raising the possibility of
catastrophic fire, and increasing fire frequency, because of its large flammable biomass. Addition-
ally, many invasive plants have been introduced from other countries, and as such, do not have the
naturally evolved set of predators and diseases that could moderate their populations. Invasive
plants have been shown to change the nutrient balance in soil to benefit their continued growth
and to discourage the reintroduction of native plants (Ehrenfeld 2003). For example, in the case
of two weeds: Chrysanthemum coronarium, and Ehrharta spp., increased biomass of these annual
weeds adds nitrogen to the soil. In the case of Acacia cyclops, a nitrogen-fixer, nitrogen levels in the
surrounding soil are increased, and promote the invasion of future weedy species (Le Maitre et al.
2011). Native Coastal Sage Scrub plants have evolved in a low nitrogen soil, so raising this nutrient
creates a soil environment that is inhospitable for CSS plants and favorable for invaders (Yelenick
et al. 2004). Finally, weeds are also generalists and can survive under a wide range of environmen-
tal conditions, something most native plants are not able to do.
While we call it habitat restoration, once the native plants are reintroduced, it is mainly invasive
control. If natives are planted and the weeds are not addressed expeditiously, the project will not
be successful. A goal of 60% native plant cover is necessary for the plants to have some ability
to compete with invasive plants. Invasive plants need to be removed expeditiously because the
negative changes they effect in the environment are compounded with time and cause enduring
alteration of ecosystem processes (Le Maitre et al. 2011). Furthermore, invasive plants, once estab-
lished, act as ecosystem engineers and are able to alter biotic and abiotic factors, making it more
difficult for native plants to become reestablished (Eviner et al. 2010).
Weed control strategies vary with the species of target weed because of differences in life cycle
and biology. The following list of weed species have all been found in either Radio Canyon or En-
canto Canyon, and their persistence has been deemed a problem for native plant reestablishment.
Suggestions on approaches for efficient eradication were researched and are offered as part of
this report.
Mulching areas of annual weed invasions can be a promising method for controlling weeds and
for encouraging native plant growth. A study by Zink and Allen (2002) found that the survival rate
of a dominant Coastal Sage Scrub (CSS) plant, Artemisia californica, doubles by the introduction of
mulch to newly planted areas.

57. Weed Species at Chollas Creek
Cactus Wren Habitat photograph by William Cullen
Acacia cyclops......................................................2
Arundodonax.......................................................3
Asphodelus fistulosus.......................................4
Brassica nigra........................................................5
Centurea melitensis...........................................6
Chrysanthemum coronarium........................7
Ehrharta spp.........................................................8
Foeniculum vulgare...........................................9
Nicotiana glauca...............................................10
Opuntia ficus indica.........................................11
Phoenix canariensis.........................................12
Ricinus communis............................................13
Schinus terebinthifolius.................................14
54

58. Acacia cyclops Western Coastal Wattle
55
DESCRIPTION: Perennial shrub or tree from SW Australia. Leaves are easily
recognized because the veins curve with the leaf edge and there is no middle
vein, unlike any other plant. The narrow long leaves (phyllodes) have a var-
nished appearance.
CONTROL: Acacia cyclops can be controlled by cutting the tree close to the
ground. Prior restoration work by Earthworks Restoration Inc. finds that trees
do not resprout after cutting close to the ground. Herbicide application to the
fresh cuts are not necessary. Tree material can be chipped and used as mulch
on site. Acacia cyclops seeds so prolifically that after a disturbance there is
always plenty of seed to allow new Acacia plants to dominate their environ-
ment. Because of the extensive seed bank of Acacia seed, every effort should
be made to locate these plants and remove them before they set seed. Unfor-
tunately, the plants are able to reproduce at a young age. The negative effects
of Acacia cyclops on a native habitat increase with time and impede future
restoration efforts (Earthworks Restoration Inc. 3/15/2010).
HEIGHT: 9 -24 feet
WIDTH: Often wider than tall
TYPE: Evergreen, woody, legu-
minous perennial shrub or tree
FAMILY: Fabaeae
LIFECYCLE: Spreads by sev-
eral methods: seed, vegetative-
ly, by root suckers, and stump
sprouts. Can form impenetrable
masses. Blooms in spring with
small yellow spheres. Produces
many seeds that form a recalci-
trant seed bank. Named for the
red aril that surrounds the black
seed, and resembles a blood-
shot eye.

59. Opuntia littoralis Coast Prickly Pear
56
Arundo donax Giant Cane
DESCRIPTION: Huge grass that forms a close knit mass that expands, tak-
ing over riparian areas, decreasing biodiversity, changing hydrologic regimes,
increasing fire frequency and heat, and altering riparian succession. The pres-
ence of Arundo increases water use by 10 billion gallons per 8,000 acres over
native habitat. The presence of Arundo along stream banks continues to serve
as the source for future invasions further downstream.
CONTROL: Typical herbicide application calls for first cutting the grass and
then applying the chemical form of glyphosate for use near water, called Ro-
deo. Further research from Pete Famolaro, the biologist at Sweetwater Reser-
voir, finds that first bending, but not cutting, the grass before spraying, results
in a better rate of control. It is believed that cutting the plant spurs a growing
response by the roots, saving the plant. The percentage of glyphosate for best
control is 5-7%. The best time for spraying is between October and November.
This is the time that the grass is actively growing and it is after breeding sea-
son, reducing any harm to nesting birds. Spray resprouts in February - March,
or just mow and cut at this time.
If the site is accessible to heavy equipment, excavators with grapple attach-
ment can be used to remove the whole plant, roots and all. Some rhizomes will
be left and those can be sprayed or pulled as they grow. A drum chipper can
dispose of dead biomass. Chipped grass can be used as mulch on the project
site (Stein and Vartanian 1997).
HEIGHT: 3-30 feet
WIDTH: Can take up large
amounts of riparian habitat,
choking out any other plant ma-
terial.
TYPE: Perennial grass
FAMILY: Poaceae
LIFECYCLE: Small sections
of grass rhizomes wash down
waterways and establish them-
selves along the stream bank.
This plant is mostly sterile and
does not produce viable seed. It
is able to reproduce vegetatively,
by sending out jointed rhizomes
that are able to form roots at ev-
ery joint. Actively growing be-
tween March and October.

60. Asphodelus fistulosus Onionweed
57
DESCRIPTION: The name Asphodelus means “head of a pike” in latin, and
fistulosus refers to the hollow onion-like leaves. Weed in disturbed habitats.
This herb grows fast into a bunch of hollow succulent leaves. In mid-summer
the round flowering stems are covered in many small, white, striped star-like
flowers. This generalist plant can survive in a variety of conditions, from full sun
to shade, and from extremely dry to average soil. Not eaten by livestock, so it
can thrive in pasture situations and ruin forage. Orignially from the Mediterra-
nean, and from southern Europe to India. Its generalist nature combined with
its facility for year around germination, and its preference for disturbed areas,
and long-term viability, make this an invasive plant. It can resprout from frag-
ments of leaves left after attempts at control. The plant also acts like a tumble-
weed, in that, dead plants will roll away and drop seed. Seeds are toxic to birds.
CONTROL: Usually germinates with winter rains. Hand weeding during this
time will keep this plant in check. Make sure to remove the roots to keep the
plant from resprouting. Glyphosate is not reliably deadly, atrazine or 2,4-D are
necessary for control. Increasing the density of native plants can reduce the
prevalence of this weed (Federal Noxious Weed Disseminules of the U.S.)
HEIGHT: 2 feet
WIDTH: 2 feet
TYPE: Annual, biennial,or
short-lived perennial depending
on when the seed germinates
and the growing conditions.
FAMILY: Lilaceae
LIFECYCLE: Vigorously grow-
ing in disturbed areas. Flowers
in July/August. Seeds are hard,
brown, three-sided and triangu-
larly shaped. Copius amounts of
seeds are produced, remaining
viable in the soil for years, and
germinating when conditions
are optimal for growth.

61. Brassica nigra Black Mustard
58
DESCRIPTION: Native to Europe and the Mediterranean. This upright win-
ter annual has numerous four-petalled flowers indicative of the Family Bras-
sicaceae. In the 1940s and 50s this plant was seeded for post fire erosion con-
trol. Brassica nigra readily invades disturbed habitats where it changes the
local fire regime by increasing the frequency and severity of fire events. Dead
annual plants in the summer increase the ignition potential of an area. This is
problematic because frequent fires can change the ecology of CSS to a grass-
land habitat. Moreover, fast germination after fires uses up soil moisture, so
native plants cannot reestablish. The increased biomass of the habitat can also
decrease nutrients in the soil, making it inhospitable for native plants. Since
members of the Brassicaceae do not form mycorrhizal associations, and be-
cause Brassica nigra produces allelochemicals that harm the existing mycor-
rhizae, this invasive plant harms the symbiotic soil organisms so important for
the CSS plant community and creates unfavorable conditions for their growth
(Orrock et al. 2008).
CONTROL: In the winter, pull young plants before they set seed. The plants
are easily pulled. Herbicide treatment with glyphosate, while the plants are
young, is also an effective control method (Bell, D.T., and C.H. Muller. 1973.
Dominance of California annual grasslands by Brassica nigra. Am. Midl. Nat.
90:277–299.)
HEIGHT: 2-8 feet tall
WIDTH: 2-3 feet
TYPE: Winter annual dicot
FAMILY: Brassicaceae
LIFECYCLE: Winter rains ger-
minate the seeds for this win-
ter-growing annual. Brassica
grows fast and sets seed before
the summer. The seeds grow in
pointed pods.

62. Centaurea melitensis Tocolote
59
DESCRIPTION: Winter rains germinate seeds and plants form deeply lobed,
basal foliage that bolts in the spring. Leaf bases lengthen along stems and give
the plant a wavy, winged appearance. In the spring, flowering stems elongate
and are tipped with spiny yellow, thistle-like flowers. Flowers can also develop
in leaf axils. The plant flowers from April to June. One plant can have up to
100 flower heads each containing up to 60 seeds. The seeds remain viable for
at least ten years. The plant was brought over from Southern Europe during
the Spanish conquest, probably inadvertently as a grain contaminant. It was
thought the plant produced allelopathic compounds, but studies have been
inconclusive. Large populations grow aggressively, reduce soil moisture, and
stress native plants. Seeds are effectively dispersed by the wind and by birds.
Spines on the seeds adhere and are carried by passing animals. Toxic to live-
stock (DiTomaso 2001).
CONTROL: A Mediterranean beetle, Lasioderma haemorrhoidale, is an effec-
tive biological control by consuming mature seeds. Like other winter annu-
als, this plant should be pulled while young. Control depends on reducing the
seed availability in the seed bank. Controlled burns of plants before they pro-
duce seed reduced the existing seed bank. Infestations are difficult to control
because of large viable seed banks, long seed dormancy, and fast growth of
germinating plants. Mowing is effective only if all foliage is cut. Grazing goats
have also been utilized in early spring to reduce reseeding (DiTomaso 2000).
HEIGHT: Up to 3 feet
WIDTH: 2 feet
TYPE: Winter annual or bien-
nial
FAMILY: Asteraceae
LIFECYCLE: Winter rains bring
about germination. A basal ro-
sette of leaves grows. In the
spring the plant sends up a flow-
ering stem. The stem has termi-
nal flowers, as well as, flowers in
the leaf axils. The plant flowers
continuously until soil moisture
becomes inadequate for growth.
Heavy seed production and high
germination rates ensure solid
stands in subsequent years.

63. Cylindropuntia prolifera Coast Cholla
60
Chrysanthemum coronarium Garland Chrysanthemum
DESCRIPTION: In disturbed areas this plant becomes a fast-growing mono-
crop and shades out any competition. It seeds prodigiously. Dead foliage in
the summer is a fire hazard. The presence of Chrysanthemum coronarium in an
ecosystem has been shown to lower biodiversity and change the insect com-
munity. The plant is edible and used in Asian cuisine. The leaves are used me-
dicinally for digestive disorders. The plant has ferny aromatic foliage and many
rayed flowers in various shades of white and yellow. It is attractive when in
flower, yet is considered one of San Diego’s most invasive plants. The name has
recently been changed from Chrysanthemum coronarium to Glebionis coro-
narium (California Native Plant Society).
CONTROL: Early detection and eradication of young seedlings is the most
cost effective method for controlling this pest. Restoration of a good percent-
age of native plants will be preventative for future reinvasions. Another pos-
sible method not yet tested is grazing by goats to control plant populations.
In areas where the Chrysanthemum has formed dense monotypic stands this
could be an option.
HEIGHT: 2-4 feet
WIDTH: 2 feet
TYPE: Winter annual
FAMILY: Asteraceae
LIFECYCLE: Winter rains ger-
minate seeds. Flowering occurs
from late spring until drought
kills the plant.

64. Ehrharta erecta and Ehrharta spp. Panic Veldt Grass
61
DESCRIPTION: Sprawling grass that reproduces both by seed and vegeta-
tively by rooting at nodes. All species of Ehrharta are from South Africa. Three
of the 35 species are problematic in San Diego: Ehrharta erecta, Ehrharta calyc-
ina, and Ehrharta longiflora. Ehrharta calycina was introduced in Davis, CA as a
drought resistant grass for grazing. The grass was ill-suited to withstand graz-
ing pressure, and failed in that capacity, but unfortunately it escaped and has
become a problem in many areas of California, including San Clemente Island.
This is an ideal weed species in that it tolerates a wide variety of soils, and light
levels. The copious tiny seeds are distributed easily by the wind and are able
to germinate at extremely low light levels. It outcompetes nearly every other
plant including other weeds. The grass has prostrate stems that avoid mowing,
and is able to germinate anytime that moisture is adequate. Fire increases the
invasion potential of this grass. Ehrharta calycina is especially destructive to
CSS and MSS areas by changing the ecology so native plants can no longer
grow. The plant does this by supplying increased biomass that changes nutri-
ent levels, altering the fire potential, and especially by shifting shrub commu-
nities to a grassland ecosystem by suppressing germination.
CONTROL: Because of the catastrophic effects this invader has on the land-
scape, observation and early detection combined with immediate elimination
of plants is of utmost importance with this plant. Pulling detected seedlings
is labor intensive, but effective. This plant can germinate anytime, so regular
monitoring of the restoration area is necessary. Herbicides are effective for
control using a 2% solution of Roundup Pro in early spring (Nature Conser-
vancy).
HEIGHT: 2 feet
WIDTH: 3-4 feet
TYPE: Perennial and annual-
grasses
FAMILY: Poaceae
LIFECYCLE: Winter rains spur
gemination, even in highly shad-
ed situations. Seedlings grow
fast, seed early, and germinate
anytime of the year, with a 99%
germination rate.

65. Foeniculum vulgare Fennel
62
DESCRIPTION: Strongly upright perennial with bluish, fern-like delicate
leaves. The plant is strongly licorice scented. Golden yellow umbels of flowers
cover the plant from spring to summer. A stout taproot grows deeply giving
the plant drought tolerance. Fennel is native to the Mediterranean and south-
ern Europe. It is found in disturbed areas. It outcompetes other plants using al-
lelopathy, prolific seed production, and high seed viability. It can quickly grow
into an area, become dense and choke out other plants. Once it reaches this
stage it is challenging to remove. Every effort should be made to keep this
plant from establishing itself in a restoration area.
CONTROL: Plants can be dug out, but it is difficult to dig the large root mass
plus the plant grows an above ground bulb. Triclopyr applied in early spring is
effective at rates of 6lbs per 100 gallons of water. Cutting the plants does not
increase effectiveness. Glyphosate was less effective at killing this plant (Cali-
fornia Invasive Plant Council).
HEIGHT: 4-10 feet tall
WIDTH: larger
TYPE: Perennial grass
FAMILY: Apiaceae
LIFECYCLE: Evergreen plants
produce many flowers from
April until late summer. The
plant reproduces from seed and
also vegetatively. Seeds remain
viable for a long time, and may
germinate anytime conditions
are favorable.

66. Nicotiana glauca Tree Tobacco
63
DESCRIPTION: Vigorous upright plant with bluish, alternate, egg-shaped,
leathery leaves, up to seven inches long. The leaves are at the ends of long peti-
oles, so when there is a breeze the leaves visibly twist in the wind. The whole
plant feels gummy and is highly toxic from alkaloids. While it is originally from
South America, it has established a presence in the American Southwest. The
tubular yellow flowers occur at terminal ends of branches. It flowers most of
the year, and is pollinated by hummingbirds. It produces lots of seeds because
it never stops flowering and setting seed. Each ripe fruit contains 150-200 eas-
ily germinating seeds.
CONTROL: Young seedlings can be pulled. Older plants can be dug out or
cut at the base and a herbicide like glyphosate can be applied. Control can be
achieved with frequent observation and removal of germinating plants (Oneto
et al. 2004).
HEIGHT: Up to 25 feet
WIDTH: 5 feet
TYPE: An opportunistic plant
that alters its lifecycle to fit cond-
tions. It can be an annual, bienni-
al, or short-lived perennial shrub
or tree.
FAMILY: Solanaceae
LIFECYCLE: The hermaph-
rodite flowers containing both
male and female parts are pol-
linated by seed capsules contain
many small brown seeds.

67. Opuntia ficus-indica Spineless Prickly Pear
64
DESCRIPTION: This succulent is made of paddle-shaped large heavy flat
segments. It is largely spineless. It is a problem since it hybridizes easily with
the native spiny Opuntia littoralis. The spined Opuntia is used for nesting
cactus wrens, and spineless hybrids do not offer any predator protection for
the wren. Yellow to orange flowers along the edges of the pads give way to
purple fruits. The seeds are eaten and dispersed by birds, lizards, and other
vertebrates. Vegetative reproduction from fallen segments (cladodes) also in-
creases populations of this plant. Seeds remain viable in seed banks for years.
it is native to tropical areas of Mexico to Colombia. The popularity of red dye
made from an insect that feeds on it, prompted Spanish conquerors to estab-
lish populations in America. The fruit and cladodes are edible. New plants can
sprout from any vegetative part. Ingestion of the plant stabilizes blood sugar
and may help diabetes.
CONTROL: Cut the plant at the base and apply glyphosate. Remove all parts
of the cut plant to prevent regrowth (Agroforestry Tree Database).
HEIGHT: 3-6 feet
WIDTH: Can form large colo-
nies
TYPE: Long- lived, Perennial
Succulent
FAMILY: Cactaceae
LIFECYCLE: Spiny green
paddles with older paddles hav-
ing longer spines. Beware the
glochids on this species, these
smaller spines are barbed, pain-
ful, and difficult to remove.

68. Phoenix canariensis Date Palm
65
DESCRIPTION: Non-native palm that has escaped cultivation. Shades out
native plants. Seeds are spread by birds and other wildlife. Waterborne seeds
travel to new areas of invasion. Especially troublesome in wetlands.
CONTROL: Cut them down when they are present. Recent discovery of a
new pest, the imported Red Palm Weavil may eliminate many Date Palms. In
some habitat restorations palms are drilled with holes and herbicide is injected
(Kelly 2001).
HEIGHT: Up to 75 feet
WIDTH: 25 feet
TYPE: Perennial palm tree
FAMILY: Arecaceae
LIFECYCLE: Date fruit is eaten
by many birds and other ani-
mals. Seeds are dropped in res-
toration areas and germinate
and grow into trees.

69. Ricinus communis Castor Bean
66
DESCRIPTION: Large upright perennial with large, star-shaped, reddish
leaves. Seeds are contained in round, red, spiny fruit. Originally an herbaceous
plant, stems harden and become woody. All parts of the plant are poisonous.
The plant is native to northeastern Africa and the Middle East. Plant seeds are
the source of castor oil.
CONTROL: Pull young plants. Cut older plants at the ground and paint with
glyposate (Global Invasive Species Database).
HEIGHT: 9 - 15 feet
WIDTH: 8 feet
TYPE: Perennial Shrub
FAMILY: Euphorbiaceae
LIFECYCLE: Fruit containing
seeds bursts open when seeds
are ripe, and the force of explo-
sion propels the seeds some
distance away from the mother
plant. Seeds germinate and
quickly grow and shade out un-
derstory. It colonizes disturbed
areas in full sun and replaces
native vegetation. Plants flower
and set fruit all year long.

70. Schinus terebinthifolius Brazilian Pepper Tree
67
DESCRIPTION: Difficult to remove and kill. Weak-wooded tree, eventually
forms a dense thicket choking out all other plant life. Female trees bear fruit.
Trees are dioecious. Self-sows readily or new plants come up from root sprouts.
Berries are edible, but only in small quantities. Limbs grow into a twisted mess.
Sap and pollen are irritants. Eating large quantities of the fruit sometimes is
lethal to birds. The plant is toxic and can be lethal for grazing animals. This
tree is an invasive plant in 20 countries and has invaded many natural areas in
Hawaii and Florida. In Florida it covers more area than any other invasive plant,
consuming over 700,000 acres. Leaves are pinnately compound with a reddish
mid rib. Crushing the foliage yields a distinctive peppery odor. Tolerant of a
wide range of growing conditions, it is even salt tolerant up to 5ppm.
CONTROL: Difficult to completely kill. Trees must be cut at ground level and
herbicide applied to cut. Even so, roots will sprout vigorously sending up hun-
dreds of replacement trees. Every root sprout must be killed. Better success
using a stump grinder to eliminate most of the roots. In spite of that, the tiniest
roots will send up sprouts and eliminating this tree is a chore. Another species,
Schinus molle is equally problematic and hard to kill. A herbicide which is a
formulation of Triclopyr ester (called, Garlon 4, used as a stump treatment has
been the most effective at eliminating this tree (Larouche and Baker 1994).
Care must be taken using this chemical as it has a long half life, the chemical
binds strongly to the organic components in soil, and its toxic effects are per-
sistent. Residual herbicide may adversely affect subsequent vegetation. (OSU
Extension Service).
HEIGHT: 30 feet
WIDTH: 30 feet
TYPE: Shrubby Tree
FAMILY: Anacardiaceae
LIFECYCLE: Seeds relished
and spread by birds. Aggressive
growth with multiple trunks aris-
ing from root sprouts. Prolific
seed production.

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