1. V.Mohan 1
Coastal Policy, Legislation, Targets and the future in
Sri Lanka.
V.Mohan, B.Sc (Eng), DIPPCA (SL), M.Sc (PPM for SD, Turin, Italy), Project Director,
RDA. Ministry of Ports and Highways, Sri Lanka.
Introduction
Sri Lanka, which is Formerly known as "Ceylon", is in the Indian Ocean separated from
the southeastern coast of peninsular India by the Palk Strait and is an island with coastline
areas, which are generally low-lying, and landscapes exhibit considerable variety
characterized by bays, lagoons, headlands, coastal marshes, peninsulas, spits, bars, and islets
and dunes, of 1,585 kilometers and a land area of 64,000 square kilometers (probably more
than 2,000 km if the coastlines of lagoons, bays, and inlets are added), situated between the
latitudes of 5°55' and 9°51' North and the longitudes of 79°41' and 81°54' East within the
tropic of Cancer lying off the southern tip of India. It encompasses a variety of tropical
habitats including wetlands (about 120,000 ha); lagoons and estuaries (45 estuaries and 40
lagoons totaling about 42,000 ha); mangroves, salt marshes and sea grass beds (the total
extent of mangrove coverage is between 6,000 and 10,000 ha); coral reefs (about 50 linear km
of major reefs); and coastal sand dunes, barrier beaches, and spits (sand dunes occur along
about 312 km of the coastline).
History
In 1948 Sri Lanka gained its independence after nearly 400 years of continuous colonial
rule. After independence, more and more people began to migrate to coastal areas to take
advantage of economic and educational opportunities. Today more than half (54.3%) of Sri
Lanka's population of 20 million live in coastal districts. Increasing population has led to
greater housing densities in coastal areas. The southwestern coastal districts stretching from
just north of Colombo to Galle constitute 15% of the total land area of the island, but more
than 40% of the island's total population lives in this area. Increasing population has led to
greater housing densities in coastal areas; so that temporary shelters are frequently
constructed in.
As a result the development of physical, economic and social infrastructure as well as the
resource use in the coastal zone has been rapidly increased causing severe environmental
degradation especially during the last 25 years. Coastal uses including urban expansion,
commercial and fisheries harbor development, river training and out fall schemes, transport
and communications, recreational and tourism development, sand and coral mining have all
had tremendous impact on the coastal environment. In 1992 tourism accounted for 8% of the
total foreign exchange earnings, third after industrial and "major" (agricultural products).
With population growth the pressure on the resource base of the coastal zone had also
proportionately increased creating new stresses on the coastal environment. Today, plans for
sustainable utilization of the island's coastal resources, whether for further settlement,
agricultural development, fisheries and aquaculture promotion, tourism or other purposes,
underline the need for a deeper awareness and appreciation of the character of this resource
base, its potentialities, problems and evolutionary tendencies.

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The question that launches this paper's analysis is whether Sri Lanka's new coastal
management strategy of Special Area Management Planning (SAMP) is progressive and
engaging of local-level participation in planning from beginning to end as suggested by the
project literature; or simply a revised discourse that continues to exclude community
participation at crucial points in the planning process and therefore continues to exacerbate
resource conflicts and ecological problems. These stresses have been further aggravated by
the ever present threat of coastal erosion especially occurred in the south and south western
part of the country. The policies and the procedures are being successfully implemented, and
they have brought credibility and attracted funding for the effort.
Coastal Policy
Coastal management is one of the greatest social, economic, political and environmental
challenges facing our generation. Being increasingly aware of global warming, climate
change and environmental challenges facing the region, which mainly include sea-level rise,
deforestation, soil erosion, siltation, droughts, storms, cyclones, floods, glacier melt and
resultant glacial lake outburst floods and urban pollution. Much degradation - coastal erosion,
pollution, and species loss-can be attributed to the national economic development strategies
pursued since liberalization in 1978, particularly an emphasis on coastal industry and tourism
development. The coastal management policy framework born in the late 1980s and early
1990s out of the joint US Agency for International Development (USAID)/Sri Lanka Coast
Conservation Department (CCD), Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP), engages
a discourse of sustainable development, particularly sustainable eco-tourism development,
that some critics suggest may be inherently unattainable . The idea of coastal management is
both beguiling and elusive. Surely, we think, coast should be managed, just as we seek to
manage some human activities to protect air and water quality, to promote human health, or to
insure the sustainability of renewable resources such as forests and fisheries.
The Major Coastal Issues
The unsustainable manner of resource utilization, lack of planning and management
initiatives created serious environmental problems in the coastal zone. These issues are
discussed in the subsequent section, can be summarized as follows:
1. Coastal Erosion
2. Loss and degradation of coastal habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, sand dunes,
lagoons and marshes
3. Loss and degradation archaeological, cultural and scenic resources
4. Coastal Pollution
1. Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion is a process of change that occurs at the land sea interface and is a severe
problem in Sri Lanka that results in damage to or loss of houses, hotels and other coastal
structures and roads, contributes to the loss of land and disrupts fishing, navigation, recreation
and other activities. The impact of coastal erosion is most severe along Sri Lanka's western
and south western coasts. It has been estimated that 685 kilometers of coast line in the south,
south west and the west coast, about 175,000 - 285,000 square meters of coastal land are lost
each year. The principal causes of erosion includes - Natural process due to monsoon
generated wave attacks- Man-induced changes occur due to extraction of sand and corals from
the coastal zone and improperly cited buildings and maritime structures. While coastal erosion
is caused by natural process, human activities such as mining of beach and river sand, mining

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of corals and construction of ill-planned maritime structures are major factors contributing
significantly to coastal erosion.
2. Loss and Degradation of coastal habitats
2.1 Sand Mining
The major source of material supply for the nourishment of beaches in Sri Lanka is from
the network of rivers flowing to the sea. River sand is a prime material used in the building
industry while beach sand is used for filling purposes. These resources have been traditionally
considered as "free" resources and being utilized with no value added for the material itself.
In the recent past the rapid growth of the housing and building industry led to increased
amount of sand being removed from the rivers and beaches thus affecting the coastal stability
and creating environmental problems. Major impacts could be as follows;
a) Coastal erosion
b) Salt water intrusion into the upstream areas and intakes
c) Increase flooding originating from the sea.
d) Water quality problems
e) River bank erosion
2.2 Coral Mining
Mining of coral to obtain Calcium Oxide for building and for other industrial and
agricultural purposes. Until recent times it was done on a limited scale and was continued in
areas where dead coral deposits in coastal wetlands were found. Within the past three
decades, the use of lime has increased tremendously as a rapid growth rate of building
industry. A study conducted in 1984 revealed that a quantity in excess 18,000 tons per year of
coral is extracted in the coastal reach between Ambalandoga and Dickwella. Due to the
controlling measures taken by the Coast Conservation Department this amount has been
reduced by 48% just in 1994.
2.3 Construction of maritime structures
Construction of maritime structures such as sea walls, break waters, revetments and jetties
has long been undertaken on an ad-hoc basis to deal with the problem of a particular beach
stretch. The Master Plan for Coastal Erosion (1989) revealed that more than 49,000 meters of
revetment and 6,360 meters of grayness have been constructed. Most of these structures were
poorly designed and in some cases led to an increase of coastal erosion. Poorly designed
fishery harbours have not only created coast erosion problems but also induced wave
refraction and entry of sand bearing currents into the harbours causing siltation.
2.4 Loss and degradation of coastal habitats
The important coastal habitats of Sri Lanka are small and vulnerable to degradation. The
areal extent of biologically productive mangrove systems, estuaries, coral reefs, and sea
grasses is decreasing. In 1986, it was estimated that 12,000 ha of Mangroves, 23, 000 ha of
salt marshes, 7,000 ha of Sand dunes, 158,000 ha of lagoons located in the coastal region.
These habitats are being depleted in the recent past due to over exploitation. According to the
current information, current rate of depletion will reduce mangrove habitat by up to 50%.

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3. Loss and degradation of archaeological historic and scenic sites
Sri Lanka's coastal zone contains many and diverse sites of archaeological, historical and
scenic significance. These sites provide valuable evidence of the pattern and the progress of
Sri Lanka culture and represent part of Sri Lanka's common heritage. The inventory of places
of religious and cultural significance and areas of scenic and recreational value within the
coastal zone has been identified 91 sites as high priority for conservation. Today, many of
these important sites are threatened with inappropriate development. In some locations,
important scenic areas are being degraded and public access to the beach obstructed.
4. Coastal Pollution
Coastal pollution is a direct result of population pressures and misuse of land and water
resources. The major sources of coastal water pollution along the south west and south coasts
are domestic sewage, industrial waste, solid waste and agricultural chemicals. Growing urban
population densities coupled with inadequate housing and lack of water and sewage disposal
facilities, has led to fecal contamination of surface and ground water. As a result of
contamination of ground water and surface water in the coastal zone major public health
problems such as typhoid and hepatitis can be found. About two thirds of Sri Lanka's
industrial plants are located in coastal regions, primarily in the Greater Colombo metropolitan
region. The main industries contributing to water pollution are textile, paper, tanning,
distilleries, paints and chemical production. A study conducted for the Central Environmental
Authority (1994) identified 336 industrial facilities in coastal areas as "medium" or "high"
pollution potential.
Legislations
The Sri Lanka enacted Coast Conservation Act No 57 in September’ 1981 and law went
to effect in October 1983 and its amendments, in 1988 provided the legal foundation for
activities within the coastal zone, which comprises mainly "the area lying within a limit of
three hundred meters landwards of the Mean High Water line and a limit of two kilometers
seawards” of the Mean Low Water line. The Act 1981 shifted the emphasis from coast
protection to coastal zone management (CZM). The Act decreed the appointment of a
Director of Coast Conservation with the following responsibilities:
1. Administration and implementation of the provisions of the Act.
2. Formulation and execution of schemes of work for coast conservation within the
coastal zone.
3. Conduct of research, in collaboration with other departments, agencies and institutions
for the purpose of coast conservation.
The Act states that the Minister in charge of the subject of Coast Conservation "may,
having regard to the effect of those development activities on the long term stability,
productivity and environmental quality of the Coastal Zone, prescribe the categories of
development activity, which may be engaged in within the Coastal Zone without a permit".
Such activity should not however include any development activity already prescribed under
the CCA. The CCA does not however specify how and when this discretion should be
exercised. The CCD interprets this provision as requiring an EIA when the impacts of the
project are likely to be significant. In the years since the law was enacted the CCD has
conducted a significant amount of research and has prepared a Master Plan for Coast Erosion
Management (MPCEM) and a Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP). It has also issued
764 permits for development activities, organized seminars and workshops on several aspects

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of coastal management, and developed effective relationships with several agencies which
have management responsibilities in coastal areas.
The Act requires the Director of Coast Conservation, on receiving an EIA Report, to make
it available for public inspection and to entertain comments on it. The Act also requires the
Director of Coast Conservation to refer the EIA report to the Coast Conservation Advisory
Council for comment. The Council is an inter-department, inter-disciplinary advisory body.
The Director of Coast Conservation may decide to.
1. Grant approval for the implementation of the proposed project subject to specified
conditions, or
2. Refuse approval for the implementation of the project, giving reasons for doing so.
The EIA process is part of the permit procedure mandated in Part II of the CCA for the
approval of prescribed development projects and undertakings within the Coastal Zone. The
Act has assigned the coast Conservation Department three primary following responsibilities
within the designated coastal zone
a) Policy formulation, planning and research
b) Administration of permit procedures regulating coastal development activities
c) Construction and maintenance of shoreline protection works
Coastal Management Targets
As mandated by the Act, The Coastal Conservation Department developed a Coastal
Zone Management Plan (CZMP) based on a number of specific studies set forth in the Act.
The Act mandates the establishment of an advisory council to assist the CCD in the process of
plan preparation. In the interim period while the plan is being prepared, the Act stipulates that
anyone proposing a development activity in the designated coastal zone must apply to the
CCD for a permit.
The landward jurisdiction is somewhat greater for rivers, streams, lagoons, or other bodies
of water connected to the sea. Sri Lanka has a strong and vigorous coastal management
program. A detailed examination of Sri Lanka's program suggests that its strength and vigor
are due in large part to:
1. The strong coastal orientation of the country;
2. The widely shared agreement about what the coastal problems are, what the
causes of the problems are, and to a lesser extent, what the appropriate roles of
government are in dealing with the problems;
3. A law that provides a strong legal basis for management;
4. Strong program leadership;
5. Adequate political support for planning and management; and
6. An adaptive, incremental approach to the development of the planning and
management program.
CZMP set out in 2004, a comprehensive list of interactions required for the management
of the coastal zone in an integrated, holistic manner for the conservation and prudent use of its
resources while supporting sustainable development. The CZMP highlights the fact that the
future approaches for coastal habitat management should be geographically specific and based
on clearly understood links between human activities and changes in natural systems. It

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further states that care has to be taken to ensure that all policies and actions for conservation
of coastal habitats comply with the National Physical Development Plan (NPDP), the
National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), the National Biodiversity Conservation Action
Plan (NBCAP), and other national planning initiatives. The CZMP addresses key issues
related to managing coastal erosion, conserving coastal habitats, controlling coastal water
pollution, Special Area Management (SAM), managing sites of special significance and
public access, regulatory mechanisms, and integrating coastal fisheries aquaculture with
coastal zone management. What emerges from analyses of existing coastal area programs is
the recognition that the concept of coastal area management is somewhat elusive. There is no
widely accepted blueprint for how to plan a management program. There are no "off-the-
shelf" management program models that can be easily adapted and applied. Each country (or
other coastal jurisdiction) must carefully tailor its own program to include;
1. An identification of specific coastal problems to be addressed;
2. An identification of priorities among these problems;
3. An analysis of specific processes which cause these problems;
4. An identification of specific management techniques (such as zoning or a permit
system) designed to mitigate these problems;
5. A set of organizational arrangements and administrative processes for implementing a
management program; and
6. The designation of a geographic area within which management will occur.
As coastal area management program efforts proliferate around the world, these program
elements are being addressed in a variety of ways. Among developing countries, however,
few have gone as far as Sri Lanka in developing a coastal management program.
The coastal zone and management initiatives taken place in the recent past did not cover
every e planning coastal problem but focused upon a few well defined issues at a time and to
build the program incremental as experience is gained. The policies and the procedures are
being successfully implemented, and they have brought credibility and attracted funding for
the effort. The first three major coastal issues mentioned above have been tackled during the
first generation coastal zone management effort while coastal pollution problem being
focused in the second generation effort. Thus to manage the first three major coastal issues
two strategies have been adopted by the Coast Conservation Department;
1. Preparation of a National Coastal Zone Management Plan
2. Preparation of a Master Plan for Coastal Erosion
3. Coastal Zone Management Plan (1990)
The Coast Conservation Act also mandated the preparation and implementation of a
Coastal Zone Management Plan. Thus the plan was prepared with technical assistance of the
University of Rhode Island, USAID and has been implemented since 1990. The Coastal Zone
Management Plan (CZMP) 1990 cannot be conceived as a panacea for all the problems and
issues resulting from neglect and past mismanagement. The plan addresses only certain
critical coastal issues with initial emphasis on problems causing significant economic and
social losses which are more amenable to accepted management practices. In particular the
plan has attempted to address problems related to coastal erosion, coastal habitats and the loss
and degradation of historical and cultural sites and scenic and recreational areas. It has also
dealt with the regulatory system including the legal, administrative and fiscal functions of the
CCD, while paying some attention to research and education. It has been considered that the

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plan is an incremental one and coastal zone management planning is a continuing effort. Thus
the CZMP 1990 should be considered as a first generation plan and the policies and
management strategies outlined therein will have to be tested and their successes and failures
evaluated over time. Implementing actions in the coastal Zone Management Plan are of
several types: regulations, direct development, research, coordination, education and
awareness, plan and policy development. According to the Coast Conservation Act it is
mandatory to review the CZMP every four years. Thus the first generation CZMP is under
revision now, and the past experience reveals the necessity of inclusion of two new chapters,
namely; on Pollution and Special Area Management.
Coast Erosion Management Plan
The Coastal Erosion Management Plan is an integral part of the CZMP and it was
prepared in 1986 with assistance given by Danish International Development Agency
(DANIDA). It defines the problem of coastal erosion in Sri Lanka within the constraints of
available information at that time, and sets out the best possible technical approach towards
mitigation and capital investment needed for such action. The CEMP has categorized the
coastal erosion problem under "key areas" and "singular cases". The key areas refer to a
coastal stretch of several kilometers in length subject to erosion problem which predicts the
need for complex solution in view of its morphological complexity. The Singular cases are
those isolated problem cases covering limited stretches which would not interfere with the
coastal processes to an extent that would require extensive studies prior to litigator actions.
The Plan indicated project concepts for structural solutions in erosion areas and also identified
investigation needs where there is insufficient data available. Once the Master Plan for
Coastal Erosion Management was completed, DANIDA provided further assistance for two
stages of coastal protection structures and beach nourishment. Stage 1 (1987 -1989), for the
Negombo and Moratuwa coast protection schemes, cost an estimated Rs. 320 million ($US
6,660,000); and Stage 2 (1990 - 1992) for protection of the main road from Beruwela to
Weligama, cost approximately Rs. 500 million ($ US 10,400,000). In 1994 the Coastal
Erosion Master Plan was updated and presently further donor assistance is being sought for its
implementation.
Future Coastal Management
The existing management tools which are being used presently to minimize major coastal
issues could be categories as follows;
1. Regulations
2. Direct Development
3. Research
4. Education and Awareness
5. Plan and policy development
The regulatory program as administered by the coast conservation Department is
essentially reactive to face the future problems. The program responds to proposals made by
other governmental agencies and private developers for construction activities and alteration
of the coastline. The CCD attempts to minimize the environmental and social impacts of
development projects through its permit procedures, set-back standards, prohibitions and in
some cases subjects the development proposals to the Environmental Impact Assessment
requirements. It also ensures that environmentally and structurally appropriate decisions are
made. A second major type of management tool is being used in the process of coastal zone
management is direct development activities undertaken by government. With regard to
coastal erosion management the major type of direct development is the construction of shore

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protection works. A third type of management tool is to identify areas of research and
conduct research. Research is necessary because often good management is precluded due to
some coastal problems being inadequately understood. During the recent past CCD initiated
research on problems related to implementation of the CZM Plan. The CCD has sponsored
research on the social and economic aspects of coral mining and sand mining, on how to
improve permitting procedures, and how to better educate and involve coastal communities in
coastal zone management. Thus the coast conservation Department has implemented vigorous
public awareness and education program since 1992 to date. The German Technical
Assistance Agency (GTZ) has also been provided assistance for strengthening the coastal
Zone Management Program including the aspects of environmental education and awareness.
Under plan and policy development, CCD is enabling to focus on Special Are Management as
a subsequent planning effort to CZMP. Special Area Management (SAM) planning has
emerged as a successful method of managing development in complex coastal settings. It is
being tested in two coastal sites in Sri Lanka as an auxiliary coastal zone management tool.
Based on the outcome of the present experience of SAM process, an additional twenty one
sites have been identified by the coast Conservation Department for future implementation.
Also, 1997 revision of the CZM plan sets the strategy for coastal zone management in to
the next millennium. The objectives of the revised plan are to:
1. Identify coastal problems that will be the primary focus of the Coast Conservation
Department during the next four years.
2. Indicate why these problems are important.
3. Present the Coast Conservation Department's management
4. Identify what should be done by other Government and non-governmental
organizations to reduce the scope and magnitude of coastal problems.
5. Identify research activities to immediate importance to the management of coastal
resources.
The revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, like its predecessor of 1990, outlines the
interventions to reduce coastal erosion, to minimize degradation of coastal habitats, and to
minimize loss and degradation of archeological, cultural and scenic sites. A new focus is the
reduction of coastal pollution. A second new focus is Special Area Management, including
the recognition of the need for locally based collaborative management. Finally, the plan
summarizes the objectives, policies, and actions to be implemented by the Coast Conservation
Department and sets forth the priorities for action.
Conclusions
It is too early to declare the Sri Lanka coastal management program a success, but there
are enough program and following achievements to make the program worthy of close
attention; 1. A strong permit system has been in place for 3 years and is functioning
reasonably well, 2.A plan has been produced that directs governmental and private
development activity in coastal areas, 3.A substantial investment plan for coastal erosion
protection structures has been developed, 4.Successful in shift the population to coastal areas,
5.Coastal Area Management in Sri Lanka in the last 5 decades, particularly in the south and
southwest, the awareness and attention directed toward coastal management by preventing
coastal erosion account for much of the initial interest and the increasing threats to life and
property, 6. The formation of a single government unit to deal with coastal management and
the vigorous, professional leadership the agency has received since its inception are important
factors in accounting for what has been accomplished, 7.The development of the MPCEP was
also based on more than 10 years experience in balancing political demands with engineering

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principles and budget realities, 8. Formal and informal coordination linkages have been
developed with some agencies, 9.Formal linkages are still maintained by means of permit
referrals, workshops and meetings and 10. Three factors, in particular, account for the
successes of the incremental learning approach to date. The first is the competence and
commitment of CCD's professional staff. CCD's highly energetic and motivated leadership
and staff are typical of new agencies with a mission. Second, the credibility of the agency
among the public and the political and bureaucratic elite makes it possible for CCD to engage
in more experimentation in program development than other agencies might be allowed.
CCD's strong record of professionalism in erosion management and its ability to attract
international grants and loans to support its projects contributes to that credibility. Finally, the
CCD's long record of being able to cope with crises and adjust to changing circumstances
gives the staff confidence that they can meet the challenges.
Recommendations
For the successful integrated coastal management;
 The need for environmental awareness and education in support of Sri Lanka's Coastal
Zone Management Program was clearly recognized in the Coastal Zone Management
Plan.
 The implementation is depending on both understanding and support of the people of
Sri Lanka.
 A common framework across coastal planning sectors is essential whereby
administrative fragmentation is reduced while inter-departmental and inter-agency
cooperation is increased.
 A collaborative effort on the part of several governmental agencies, nongovernmental
organizations, and local communities is required and that the geographic area and
issues addressed must be expanded.
 The adaptive, learning approach had several features. First, CCD staff chose to focus
on a relatively small number of coastal problems rather than the full range of potential
concerns. Second, they engaged in an explicit learning-by-doing approach to the
implementation of the coastal permit system. They developed an explicit strategy for
dealing cooperatively if possible with small landowners and hotel developers and,
when cooperation was not possible, they identified minimum conditions that had to be
met.
 Major planning events, such as the habitat workshop, help provide the context within
which specific interagency agreements and understandings can be developed.
CCD has to cope with the following three very important primary tasks;
1. Phase of program development: the decentralization of the permit system; the
development of special area management plans; and the development of specific
interagency programs for habitat management.
2. Special area management plans are being considered for some natural habitats.

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3. Finally, interagency programs for habitat management, in particular, are beginning to
be developed. At present CCD issues permits for activities that affect habitats, but
CCD officials hope to work with other agencies to develop a more coordinated effort
to conserve mangroves, sea-grass beds, reefs, lagoons, and other habitats.
Reference
Government of Sri Lanka. 1981, Coast Conservation Act No.57
Kem Lowry, University of Hawaii, H.J.M.Wickremaratne Lanka Hydraulic Institute and
Coast Conservation Department, Sri lanka "Coastal Area management in Sri lanka"
White, A. (Ed) 1993, Are Coastal Zone Management and Economic Development
Complementary in Sri Lanka.
CCD 1997. Revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka, 1997,
CCD 1990. Coastal Zone Management Plan, Coast Conservation Department, 1990.
CCD 1997. Revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka, Coast Conservation
Olsen, S.D.Sadacharan, J.I.Samarakoon, A.T. White, H.J.M. Wickremaratne, and M.S.
Wijeratne, editors. 1992. Coastal 2000: Recommendations for A Resource Management
Strategy for Sri Lanka's Coastal Region, Volumes I and II. CRC Technical Report No.
2033, Coast Conservation Department, Coastal Resources Management Project, Sri Lanka
And Coastal Resources Center, the University of Rhode Island.
Richardson P, 2001. “Care for the Wild in Sri Lanka". Marine Turtle Newsletter 67:16-19.
Samaranayake, R.A.D.B., 2000, Sri Lanka's Agenda for Coastal Zone Management. EEZ
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Strategies. http:www.rabbiteraph.de/edg/p_senev.htm accessed July 20 2002