This document discusses criteria interaction modeling in life cycle assessment (LCA) analysis. It examines using multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methods to aggregate evaluation results in LCA in a more flexible way that accounts for interactions between criteria. Currently, LCA often just uses weighted sums, which cannot model criteria interactions and require preferences to be independent. The document reviews different MCDA methods and their ability to model criteria interactions to help enhance LCA evaluations. It focuses on methods that can better aggregate both qualitative and quantitative data typically present in environmental problems.
Sustainability of Solid Waste Management System in Urban Areas of Pakistan: S...IJERA Editor
This document discusses a study on stakeholders' perspectives on the sustainability of solid waste management systems in urban areas of Pakistan. Five components of sustainable solid waste management systems were identified: technical, environmental, economic, social, and institutional. Stakeholders were classified into technical and social groups and surveyed to determine the relative importance of the five components using analytical hierarchy process, a multi-criteria decision analysis tool. The study found that environmental components were the highest priority for technical stakeholders, while social components were the highest priority for social stakeholders. The results provide input to improve sustainability of solid waste management systems.
Life Cycle Assessment of Power Utility Poles – A Reviewinventionjournals
Worldwide, overhead electricity distribution is performed using poles made from various materials. The choice of the most efficient pole material is based on management strategies that integrate concerns for environmental sustainability. By quantifying environmental impacts of products, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool which can be very useful to decision-makers. But how, where and to which extent has it been applied to power utility poles until now, and which accomplishments and challenges can be pointed out from the findings of these LCA applications? To address these questions, a review of accessible published LCA studies of power utility poles has been carried out. By employing well established literature review methodologies, a computer search of journals, conference proceedings, and reports have been carried out and retrieved case studies have been analyzed according to the criteria derived from the four phases of LCA international standards. From a performed review process, it was realized that a total of 13 LCA case studies have been increasingly conducted during these last 26 years in only four countries around the world. The case studies included both comparative LCA of various pole materials and LCA of a single pole material. The main used utility pole materials, the main considered functional units, the main assessed impact categories, the most considered environmentally friendly pole material, and the main challenges in the field have been identified and documented. LCA constitute a useful research field when studying the sustainability of power utility poles. Although existing case studies are scarce, the review highlights several outstanding accomplishments which show what have been satisfactorily done and what needs to be done. Currently, the topic is mainly limited to USA and Swedish researchers; developing countries seem to have noting to do with and there is not yet a methodological consensus which could facilitate a deep comparison between published case studies.
This document summarizes a research paper that uses multiple criteria decision analysis to evaluate hazardous waste management in the United States. It applies a hybrid DEA-TOPSIS method, which uses data envelopment analysis and the technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution. The researchers collected data on hazardous waste generation, treatment, and facilities from the Environmental Protection Agency. They then analyzed the data using the DEA-TOPSIS method to determine which states manage hazardous waste most effectively and which need improvement, in order to help the EPA enhance hazardous waste management nationwide.
1. The document discusses several topics related to environmental training including life cycle assessment (LCA), ecological footprint, environmental impact assessment (EIA), strategic environmental assessment (SEA), multi-criteria analysis (MCA), climate resilient infrastructure development, and gender analysis matrix.
2. Multi-criteria analysis is introduced as a decision-making tool for complex problems that allows multiple criteria to be considered. It provides a structured way to incorporate expert judgement and stakeholder preferences.
3. Climate resilient infrastructure is defined as infrastructure planned and designed to withstand, respond to, and recover from impacts of climate change. Examples of structural and management adaptation measures are given.
This document proposes a conceptual framework to support open and participatory State of the Environment and Sustainability (SoES) reports. The framework aims to improve these reports by actively involving stakeholders throughout the reporting process, from design to production and review. Currently, stakeholder involvement in SoES reports is usually limited to consultation. The proposed framework structures the reporting process into phases, identifies methods for obtaining informal stakeholder data, and considers how to organize the internal structure and spatial scope of the report. It argues that an open participatory approach involving stakeholders as volunteer reporting staff could effectively contribute to assessments and produce a higher quality collaborative report.
This document analyzes the energy requirements for wheat production in the Kamore plateau and Satpura Hill regions of Madhya Pradesh, India. It finds that total energy input was 14,345 MJ/ha, with fertilizer (31.1%), diesel fuel (20.5%), and electricity (24.2%) accounting for the majority. Direct energy was 49.6% and indirect was 50.4%. Irrigation required the most energy at 3,670 MJ/ha. Commercial sources contributed 93.4% of total energy. The output to input energy ratio was 3.9 and productivity was 0.27 kg/MJ. While energy use is high, the authors conclude there is still potential to increase
This document summarizes a research paper that proposes a novel scheme for scalable coding of encrypted gray images. The key steps are:
1) In the encryption phase, pixel values are concealed using pseudorandom numbers to prevent statistical analysis of the original image.
2) The encrypted image is decomposed into multiple parts and each part is compressed into a bitstream.
3) At the receiver, higher resolution images can be reconstructed when more bitstreams are received, with the cryptographic key allowing decryption and principal content reconstruction.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Sustainability of Solid Waste Management System in Urban Areas of Pakistan: S...IJERA Editor
This document discusses a study on stakeholders' perspectives on the sustainability of solid waste management systems in urban areas of Pakistan. Five components of sustainable solid waste management systems were identified: technical, environmental, economic, social, and institutional. Stakeholders were classified into technical and social groups and surveyed to determine the relative importance of the five components using analytical hierarchy process, a multi-criteria decision analysis tool. The study found that environmental components were the highest priority for technical stakeholders, while social components were the highest priority for social stakeholders. The results provide input to improve sustainability of solid waste management systems.
Life Cycle Assessment of Power Utility Poles – A Reviewinventionjournals
Worldwide, overhead electricity distribution is performed using poles made from various materials. The choice of the most efficient pole material is based on management strategies that integrate concerns for environmental sustainability. By quantifying environmental impacts of products, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool which can be very useful to decision-makers. But how, where and to which extent has it been applied to power utility poles until now, and which accomplishments and challenges can be pointed out from the findings of these LCA applications? To address these questions, a review of accessible published LCA studies of power utility poles has been carried out. By employing well established literature review methodologies, a computer search of journals, conference proceedings, and reports have been carried out and retrieved case studies have been analyzed according to the criteria derived from the four phases of LCA international standards. From a performed review process, it was realized that a total of 13 LCA case studies have been increasingly conducted during these last 26 years in only four countries around the world. The case studies included both comparative LCA of various pole materials and LCA of a single pole material. The main used utility pole materials, the main considered functional units, the main assessed impact categories, the most considered environmentally friendly pole material, and the main challenges in the field have been identified and documented. LCA constitute a useful research field when studying the sustainability of power utility poles. Although existing case studies are scarce, the review highlights several outstanding accomplishments which show what have been satisfactorily done and what needs to be done. Currently, the topic is mainly limited to USA and Swedish researchers; developing countries seem to have noting to do with and there is not yet a methodological consensus which could facilitate a deep comparison between published case studies.
This document summarizes a research paper that uses multiple criteria decision analysis to evaluate hazardous waste management in the United States. It applies a hybrid DEA-TOPSIS method, which uses data envelopment analysis and the technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution. The researchers collected data on hazardous waste generation, treatment, and facilities from the Environmental Protection Agency. They then analyzed the data using the DEA-TOPSIS method to determine which states manage hazardous waste most effectively and which need improvement, in order to help the EPA enhance hazardous waste management nationwide.
1. The document discusses several topics related to environmental training including life cycle assessment (LCA), ecological footprint, environmental impact assessment (EIA), strategic environmental assessment (SEA), multi-criteria analysis (MCA), climate resilient infrastructure development, and gender analysis matrix.
2. Multi-criteria analysis is introduced as a decision-making tool for complex problems that allows multiple criteria to be considered. It provides a structured way to incorporate expert judgement and stakeholder preferences.
3. Climate resilient infrastructure is defined as infrastructure planned and designed to withstand, respond to, and recover from impacts of climate change. Examples of structural and management adaptation measures are given.
This document proposes a conceptual framework to support open and participatory State of the Environment and Sustainability (SoES) reports. The framework aims to improve these reports by actively involving stakeholders throughout the reporting process, from design to production and review. Currently, stakeholder involvement in SoES reports is usually limited to consultation. The proposed framework structures the reporting process into phases, identifies methods for obtaining informal stakeholder data, and considers how to organize the internal structure and spatial scope of the report. It argues that an open participatory approach involving stakeholders as volunteer reporting staff could effectively contribute to assessments and produce a higher quality collaborative report.
This document analyzes the energy requirements for wheat production in the Kamore plateau and Satpura Hill regions of Madhya Pradesh, India. It finds that total energy input was 14,345 MJ/ha, with fertilizer (31.1%), diesel fuel (20.5%), and electricity (24.2%) accounting for the majority. Direct energy was 49.6% and indirect was 50.4%. Irrigation required the most energy at 3,670 MJ/ha. Commercial sources contributed 93.4% of total energy. The output to input energy ratio was 3.9 and productivity was 0.27 kg/MJ. While energy use is high, the authors conclude there is still potential to increase
This document summarizes a research paper that proposes a novel scheme for scalable coding of encrypted gray images. The key steps are:
1) In the encryption phase, pixel values are concealed using pseudorandom numbers to prevent statistical analysis of the original image.
2) The encrypted image is decomposed into multiple parts and each part is compressed into a bitstream.
3) At the receiver, higher resolution images can be reconstructed when more bitstreams are received, with the cryptographic key allowing decryption and principal content reconstruction.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document presents space vector based generalized discontinuous pulse width modulation (GDPWM) algorithms for voltage source inverter (VSI) fed induction motor drives. The proposed algorithms aim to reduce the complexity of sector identification and angle calculation involved in conventional space vector PWM (CSVPWM). GDPWM uses the concept of imaginary switching times and variables like modulation phase angle δ and constant μ to generate modulation waveforms. Simulation results in MATLAB/Simulink show that the proposed GDPWM algorithms reduce current ripple compared to CSVPWM and different GDPWM sequences produce different total harmonic distortion levels in the motor current.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document presents a new algorithm called UDT-CDF for building decision trees to classify uncertain numerical data. It improves on previous algorithms like UDT that were based on probability density functions (PDFs). The key aspects of the new algorithm are:
1. It uses cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) rather than PDFs to represent uncertain numerical attributes, since CDFs provide more complete probability information.
2. It splits data at decision tree nodes based on the CDF, placing data with values covering the split point into both branches weighted by the CDF.
3. Experimental results show the new CDF-based algorithm achieves more accurate classifications and is more computationally efficient than the PDF-based UDT algorithm,
This document compares different multipliers based on the modified Booth algorithm. It first provides background on the general structure of multipliers, including Booth encoding to generate partial products, compression of partial products using adder arrays, and final addition. It then describes radix-2, radix-4, and radix-8 Booth encoding algorithms. Finally, it discusses using carry save adders and Kogge-Stone adders for efficiently compressing the partial products in parallel multipliers.
This document investigates electromagnetic interference from the power supply of a pulsed solid state laser. The power supply charges a 300 microfarad capacitor bank to 3 kilovolts then discharges the energy through a flash lamp. Measurements were taken of radiated electromagnetic noise using antennas up to 1 GHz as well as near field probes and conducted line noise. The results show that while a coaxial cable provides better shielding at some frequencies, it also has resonance points where interference increases compared to a single core cable. Overall, the coaxial cable achieved approximately 2-3 decibel reduction in electromagnetic emissions.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
El documento resume la historia de la comunicación desde la Edad Media hasta el Renacimiento. Durante la Edad Media, la iglesia controlaba la cultura y los libros eran manuscritos y religiosos, copiados a mano por monjes. Guttemberg inventó la imprenta con letras móviles e imprimió la primera Biblia en 1450-1455. La imprenta se expandió por Europa, permitiendo una mayor difusión de libros e ideas.
El documento describe tres deportes populares: fútbol, baloncesto y varios deportes. El fútbol es un deporte de equipo de 11 contra 11 cuyo objetivo es anotar goles. El baloncesto también es un deporte de equipo donde dos equipos de cinco jugadores intentan anotar canastas o dobles. Los deportes proporcionan diversión, salud y varias actividades.
Las tecnologías de la comunicación (TIC) se encargan del estudio, desarrollo, implementación, almacenamiento y distribución de la información mediante hardware y software. Las TIC son parte de las tecnologías emergentes que utilizan medios informáticos para almacenar, procesar y difundir información o procesos educativos.
Esta vereda está ubicada en la finca Nueva Granada y está conformada por 15 familias que viven de agricultura. La comunidad se enfoca en la capacitación agrícola y cuenta con recursos como un lago y una alberca comunitarios. La vereda no puede realizar fiestas patronales debido a que las casas están separadas y el acceso es irregular cuando llueve.
El documento habla sobre el liderazgo en la escuela de carreras industriales. Define el liderazgo como la capacidad de influir en un grupo para lograr metas y objetivos. Describe tres tipos de liderazgo: carismático, tradicional y legítimo. También discute las habilidades necesarias para el liderazgo como la planeación, el trabajo en equipo y la motivación. Concluye que el liderazgo se desarrolla y no es innato.
El documento resume el libro "La Paradoja" de James C. Hunter sobre el verdadero significado del liderazgo. El Hermano Simeón imparte lecciones a John Daily y otros sobre el liderazgo durante su estancia en un monasterio. Simeón explica que el liderazgo es influir sobre los demás para alcanzar objetivos comunes y que requiere servir a los demás y satisfacer sus necesidades. También destaca que el amor, la escucha y crear un buen entorno son claves para el liderazgo efectivo.
This document discusses eco-efficiency assessment models and presents a methodology for selecting the appropriate model. It begins with an introduction to eco-efficiency and a literature review that identified 40 articles describing eco-efficiency assessment models. The document then proposes an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)-based procedure for choosing the best model for a given application based on predefined criteria. It applies the AHP methodology to a numerical example to demonstrate how to implement the selection process.
The document discusses different types of matrices used in environmental impact assessments to identify interactions between project activities and environmental factors. It describes simple matrices, stepped matrices, and weighted matrices. Simple matrices cross-reference project phases with environmental elements and can use symbols to show impact scale. Stepped matrices consider how activities relate to resources and how one action's impacts can affect other resources. Weighted matrices allow ranking impacts by assigning weights to environmental components and scoring project impacts.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document presents space vector based generalized discontinuous pulse width modulation (GDPWM) algorithms for voltage source inverter (VSI) fed induction motor drives. The proposed algorithms aim to reduce the complexity of sector identification and angle calculation involved in conventional space vector PWM (CSVPWM). GDPWM uses the concept of imaginary switching times and variables like modulation phase angle δ and constant μ to generate modulation waveforms. Simulation results in MATLAB/Simulink show that the proposed GDPWM algorithms reduce current ripple compared to CSVPWM and different GDPWM sequences produce different total harmonic distortion levels in the motor current.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
This document presents a new algorithm called UDT-CDF for building decision trees to classify uncertain numerical data. It improves on previous algorithms like UDT that were based on probability density functions (PDFs). The key aspects of the new algorithm are:
1. It uses cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) rather than PDFs to represent uncertain numerical attributes, since CDFs provide more complete probability information.
2. It splits data at decision tree nodes based on the CDF, placing data with values covering the split point into both branches weighted by the CDF.
3. Experimental results show the new CDF-based algorithm achieves more accurate classifications and is more computationally efficient than the PDF-based UDT algorithm,
This document compares different multipliers based on the modified Booth algorithm. It first provides background on the general structure of multipliers, including Booth encoding to generate partial products, compression of partial products using adder arrays, and final addition. It then describes radix-2, radix-4, and radix-8 Booth encoding algorithms. Finally, it discusses using carry save adders and Kogge-Stone adders for efficiently compressing the partial products in parallel multipliers.
This document investigates electromagnetic interference from the power supply of a pulsed solid state laser. The power supply charges a 300 microfarad capacitor bank to 3 kilovolts then discharges the energy through a flash lamp. Measurements were taken of radiated electromagnetic noise using antennas up to 1 GHz as well as near field probes and conducted line noise. The results show that while a coaxial cable provides better shielding at some frequencies, it also has resonance points where interference increases compared to a single core cable. Overall, the coaxial cable achieved approximately 2-3 decibel reduction in electromagnetic emissions.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
El documento resume la historia de la comunicación desde la Edad Media hasta el Renacimiento. Durante la Edad Media, la iglesia controlaba la cultura y los libros eran manuscritos y religiosos, copiados a mano por monjes. Guttemberg inventó la imprenta con letras móviles e imprimió la primera Biblia en 1450-1455. La imprenta se expandió por Europa, permitiendo una mayor difusión de libros e ideas.
El documento describe tres deportes populares: fútbol, baloncesto y varios deportes. El fútbol es un deporte de equipo de 11 contra 11 cuyo objetivo es anotar goles. El baloncesto también es un deporte de equipo donde dos equipos de cinco jugadores intentan anotar canastas o dobles. Los deportes proporcionan diversión, salud y varias actividades.
Las tecnologías de la comunicación (TIC) se encargan del estudio, desarrollo, implementación, almacenamiento y distribución de la información mediante hardware y software. Las TIC son parte de las tecnologías emergentes que utilizan medios informáticos para almacenar, procesar y difundir información o procesos educativos.
Esta vereda está ubicada en la finca Nueva Granada y está conformada por 15 familias que viven de agricultura. La comunidad se enfoca en la capacitación agrícola y cuenta con recursos como un lago y una alberca comunitarios. La vereda no puede realizar fiestas patronales debido a que las casas están separadas y el acceso es irregular cuando llueve.
El documento habla sobre el liderazgo en la escuela de carreras industriales. Define el liderazgo como la capacidad de influir en un grupo para lograr metas y objetivos. Describe tres tipos de liderazgo: carismático, tradicional y legítimo. También discute las habilidades necesarias para el liderazgo como la planeación, el trabajo en equipo y la motivación. Concluye que el liderazgo se desarrolla y no es innato.
El documento resume el libro "La Paradoja" de James C. Hunter sobre el verdadero significado del liderazgo. El Hermano Simeón imparte lecciones a John Daily y otros sobre el liderazgo durante su estancia en un monasterio. Simeón explica que el liderazgo es influir sobre los demás para alcanzar objetivos comunes y que requiere servir a los demás y satisfacer sus necesidades. También destaca que el amor, la escucha y crear un buen entorno son claves para el liderazgo efectivo.
This document discusses eco-efficiency assessment models and presents a methodology for selecting the appropriate model. It begins with an introduction to eco-efficiency and a literature review that identified 40 articles describing eco-efficiency assessment models. The document then proposes an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)-based procedure for choosing the best model for a given application based on predefined criteria. It applies the AHP methodology to a numerical example to demonstrate how to implement the selection process.
The document discusses different types of matrices used in environmental impact assessments to identify interactions between project activities and environmental factors. It describes simple matrices, stepped matrices, and weighted matrices. Simple matrices cross-reference project phases with environmental elements and can use symbols to show impact scale. Stepped matrices consider how activities relate to resources and how one action's impacts can affect other resources. Weighted matrices allow ranking impacts by assigning weights to environmental components and scoring project impacts.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardized method to track and report the environmental impacts of a product or process throughout its full life cycle. An LCA for construction includes four phases: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation. The goal and scope define the study parameters. Inventory analysis collects and calculates input/output data. Impact assessment relates emissions to environmental/health impacts. Interpretation critically evaluates strengths/weaknesses and identifies significant issues to draw conclusions. LCA provides a comprehensive way to understand and improve a building's environmental performance from cradle to grave.
This document discusses frameworks and indices for assessing sustainability. It begins by introducing common types of sustainability assessment tools, focusing on indicators and indices. It then outlines several widely-used sustainability frameworks, including the Triple Bottom Line framework and pressure-state-response model. Next, it describes the process for constructing sustainability indices, including selecting indicators, standardizing data, assigning weights, and aggregating the results. It notes that indicator selection and weighting are often inconsistent due to a lack of standardized requirements. Finally, it argues that sustainability frameworks can effectively guide indicator selection for both standalone indicators and composite indices.
An Optimization-LCA of a Prestressed Concrete Precast Bridge► Victor Yepes
The construction sector is one of the most active sectors, with a high economic,
environmental and social impact. For this reason, the sustainable design of structures and buildings
is a trend that must be followed. Bridges are one of the most important structures in the construction
sector, as their construction and maintenance are crucial to achieve and retain the best transport
between different places. Nowadays, the choice of bridge design depends on the initial economic
criterion but other criteria should be considered to assess the environmental and social aspects.
Furthermore, for a correct choice, the influence of these criteria during the bridge life-cycle must
be taken into account. This study aims to analyse the life-cycle environmental impact of efficient
structures from the economic point of view. Life-cycle assessment process is used to obtain all the
environmental information about bridges. In this paper, a prestressed concrete precast bridge is
cost-optimized and afterwards, the life-cycle assessment is carried out to achieve the environmental
information about the bridge.
The document discusses improving life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology by including spatial, dynamic, and place-based modeling. It summarizes limitations of current LCA approaches, such as their static and site-independent nature. The document proposes linking industrial models with spatially explicit, dynamic ecosystem models to better account for location-specific environmental impacts over time. This approach could help address current LCA limitations by simulating how placing industrial activities within actual ecosystems may affect environmental burdens.
This document discusses life cycle assessment (LCA), a tool used to evaluate the environmental impacts of products and processes across their entire life cycles. It describes how LCA involves compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases, then evaluating the potential human and ecological effects. The document provides background on the origins and development of LCA, outlines the typical phases of an LCA process, and discusses some limitations and challenges and how LCA can inform decision making.
Life Cycle Assessment of Power Utility Poles – A Reviewinventionjournals
The document reviews 13 published life cycle assessment studies on power utility poles conducted between 1990 and 2016. The studies were conducted in 4 countries - the United States, Sweden, Australia, and Switzerland. The majority of studies (10) were conducted by organizations in the United States, while the remaining 3 were conducted by individual researchers in Sweden. The studies included both comparative LCAs of various pole materials and LCAs of single pole materials. The review aims to identify important parameters, accomplishments, challenges in the field of utility pole LCA research.
State of the art on Life Cycle Assessment for Solid Waste ManagementYashpujara00955
Life Cycle Assessment for Solid Waste Management- A Peer Review. LCA tool can be used as a decision-making approach for the many companies and especially LCA tool can be employed for finding the Impact assessment on Environment, Human health and vegetations.
The Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAC) seeks to lead the apparel industry toward more sustainable practices through shared measurement tools and sustainability goals. The key tool is the Higg Index, which allows companies to measure their environmental and social impacts throughout the product lifecycle. The SAC includes many major apparel brands and retailers and represents over a third of global apparel production. Moving forward, the SAC faces opportunities and challenges in balancing growth with maintaining focus on sustainability as it works toward transforming the industry to eliminate unnecessary harm.
This chapter describes some of the simplest techniques and methods for EIA, and gives information to
help choose the most appropriate method for a given situation.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool used to systematically evaluate the environmental impacts of a product throughout its lifecycle from raw material extraction to disposal. An LCA study compares the environmental impacts of plastic (PET) bottles versus aluminum bottles. The LCA considers impacts like global warming potential and solid waste generated for each material from production to consumption to disposal in the US. While LCA provides useful information, results can lack reliability due to inaccurate or unavailable data and differing system boundaries and assumptions between studies.
This document discusses a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study of plastic packaging products. It begins by defining LCA as a technique for assessing the environmental impacts of a product over its entire lifecycle, from raw material extraction through production, use, and disposal. The document then outlines the need for conducting LCA studies, including for product development, strategic planning, policymaking, marketing, and improving environmental performance. It proceeds to describe the four phases of an LCA study according to ISO standards: goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation. The document concludes by presenting a case study comparing the energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions of producing one ton of glass bottles versus milk pouches.
Attribute prioritization in choice experiment pre designAlexander Decker
This document discusses a proposed method for prioritizing attributes in the design of choice experiments. The method involves calculating a Design Attribute Relative Importance Index (DARII) based on surveys of stakeholders to assess the relative importance of different attributes. This allows researchers to reach larger samples of stakeholders compared to traditional interview methods. The DARII is adapted from the Relative Importance Index approach used in engineering risk management. It transforms Likert scale responses into a continuum from 0 to 1 to indicate weak to strong preference for attributes. An application to solid waste management attributes demonstrated the method was simple and applicable to large samples, which could help reduce the risk of attribute non-attendance in choice experiments.
The International Journal of Engineering and Sciencetheijes
1. The document discusses environmental impact assessment and management strategies in India. It focuses on evaluating different types of alternatives that can be considered in environmental impact assessments, such as goal, process, abatement, and location alternatives.
2. Key areas discussed include frameworks for environmental impact assessment, monitoring and auditing, which are identified as weaknesses in the impact assessment process. Effectiveness of impact assessment is linked to monitoring and auditing.
3. Decision-making structures and goals/mandates of institutions are highlighted as important for ensuring effective follow up and indigenous participation in environmental management.
This document proposes a conceptual framework for organizing green practices in green supply chain management (GSCM). It begins with an introduction to GSCM and a literature review identifying existing GSCM models. It then describes a methodology for developing a new conceptual framework based on a systematic review of 43 academic articles. The review identifies 6 existing GSCM models and common dimensions and categories within these models. Based on the literature review, the document proposes a new conceptual framework with 3 environmental dimensions, 21 categories, and 64 specific green practices. The framework is intended to facilitate analysis and management of green practices across supply chains.
How to Interpret Trends in the Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart.pdfChart Kalyan
A Mix Chart displays historical data of numbers in a graphical or tabular form. The Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart specifically shows the results of a sequence of numbers over different periods.
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
- Key themes to consider in developing and maintaining your privacy program
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
Salesforce Integration for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions A...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on integration of Salesforce with Bonterra Impact Management.
Interested in deploying an integration with Salesforce for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Skybuffer AI: Advanced Conversational and Generative AI Solution on SAP Busin...Tatiana Kojar
Skybuffer AI, built on the robust SAP Business Technology Platform (SAP BTP), is the latest and most advanced version of our AI development, reaffirming our commitment to delivering top-tier AI solutions. Skybuffer AI harnesses all the innovative capabilities of the SAP BTP in the AI domain, from Conversational AI to cutting-edge Generative AI and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). It also helps SAP customers safeguard their investments into SAP Conversational AI and ensure a seamless, one-click transition to SAP Business AI.
With Skybuffer AI, various AI models can be integrated into a single communication channel such as Microsoft Teams. This integration empowers business users with insights drawn from SAP backend systems, enterprise documents, and the expansive knowledge of Generative AI. And the best part of it is that it is all managed through our intuitive no-code Action Server interface, requiring no extensive coding knowledge and making the advanced AI accessible to more users.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
Which one is cheapest? Which one is fastest? Which one will scale to meet our needs?
Join me in this session as we dive into each AWS hosting service to determine which one is best for your scenario and explain why!
Building Production Ready Search Pipelines with Spark and MilvusZilliz
Spark is the widely used ETL tool for processing, indexing and ingesting data to serving stack for search. Milvus is the production-ready open-source vector database. In this talk we will show how to use Spark to process unstructured data to extract vector representations, and push the vectors to Milvus vector database for search serving.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
Ocean lotus Threat actors project by John Sitima 2024 (1).pptxSitimaJohn
Ocean Lotus cyber threat actors represent a sophisticated, persistent, and politically motivated group that poses a significant risk to organizations and individuals in the Southeast Asian region. Their continuous evolution and adaptability underscore the need for robust cybersecurity measures and international cooperation to identify and mitigate the threats posed by such advanced persistent threat groups.
Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
Introduction of Cybersecurity with OSS at Code Europe 2024Hiroshi SHIBATA
I develop the Ruby programming language, RubyGems, and Bundler, which are package managers for Ruby. Today, I will introduce how to enhance the security of your application using open-source software (OSS) examples from Ruby and RubyGems.
The first topic is CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures). I have published CVEs many times. But what exactly is a CVE? I'll provide a basic understanding of CVEs and explain how to detect and handle vulnerabilities in OSS.
Next, let's discuss package managers. Package managers play a critical role in the OSS ecosystem. I'll explain how to manage library dependencies in your application.
I'll share insights into how the Ruby and RubyGems core team works to keep our ecosystem safe. By the end of this talk, you'll have a better understanding of how to safeguard your code.
leewayhertz.com-AI in predictive maintenance Use cases technologies benefits ...alexjohnson7307
Predictive maintenance is a proactive approach that anticipates equipment failures before they happen. At the forefront of this innovative strategy is Artificial Intelligence (AI), which brings unprecedented precision and efficiency. AI in predictive maintenance is transforming industries by reducing downtime, minimizing costs, and enhancing productivity.
Fueling AI with Great Data with Airbyte WebinarZilliz
This talk will focus on how to collect data from a variety of sources, leveraging this data for RAG and other GenAI use cases, and finally charting your course to productionalization.
1. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
523 | P a g e
Criteria Interaction Modelling In The Framework Of LCA
Analysis
Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo
Department of Economics and Business, University of Catania, Italy- Corso Italia, 55. 95129. Catania.
Abstract
In this paper, we emphasize the
possibility to aggregate evaluations by using
different multi-criteria approaches and
operators, actually more suitable for
environmental problems. More precisely, values
of different indicators, qualitative and
quantitative, can be aggregate in a more flexible
and efficient way, using operators not necessarily
compensatory, allowing partial compensation
and/or not transitive preferences, including also
the very important possibility to model
interactions among criteria.
A single descriptor of multiple attributes, known
as a composite indicator, can be used to reconcile
apparently incommensurable criteria into a
comparable basis, but the current aggregation
and weighting practices in LCA are not
sufficiently rigorous, because its methodological
simplicity, usually being just weighted sums that
implicitly require preference independence
hypothesis and totally compensatory nature. We
have explored different MCDA approaches in the
literature that may be suitably applied by LCA
practitioners to enhance the technical credibility
and also identify issues affecting the selection and
implementation of more appropriate aggregation
approach. In this direction, particularly attention
can be devoted to some methods allowing also the
modelling of interaction among criteria, where
suitable techniques can actually implemented in
order to improve the validity of the results or
dealing wit ordinal information, very often
present in environmental problems.
Keywords: Life Cycle Impact Assessment, impact
categories, MCDA, interactions, weighting.
Introduction
Production and consumption of goods and
services are primary factors causing harmful effects
on the environment. For this reason, the
management of production and consumption is a
key area in order to achieve sustainable
development in our society. There is therefore a
need for suitable decision-making tools to evaluate
environmental options in all the production
processes., In this field, Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) appears to be a valuable method for
assessing the environmental considerations of a
product or service throughout its entire Life Cycle,
including everything
from raw material extraction, processing,
transportation, manufacturing, distribution, use, re-
use, maintenance and recycling to final disposal
(Consoli et al. 1993). LCA is the term that is
currently widely accepted for environmental
assessment of products or processes on a holistic
cradle-to-grave basis (Kooijman 1993); the
International Standardization Organization is
currently working on LCA methodologies with the
aim of harmonising different methods and
promoting further establishment (Strazza C. et al.,
2010).
So, LCA models are likely to become the
future decision support tools and they include an
inventory model and an assessment model (Del
Borghi 2013) . The Life-Cycle Inventory model
(LCI) provides a detailed account of all resource
consumptions and emissions for an environmental
system, as well as for any up-stream or down-stream
activities associated with the impacts. The Life-
Cycle Impact Assessment model (LCIA) translates
and aggregates, according to fairly standardized
methods, all of the detailed information provided by
the LCI into the main resource consumption of
concern and the main environmental impact
categories (global warming, acidification, etc.). The
significance of the aggregated data relative to each
other and to all combined activities in society can
usually be obtained by the weighted sum of
normalized impacts caused by one average person.
Weighting of normalized results can be made to
identify the importance of environmental impacts or
resource consumptions, but consensus on weighting
factors has not yet been reached (Kirkeby 2007).
During the 1990s detailed contents were
assigned to the steps of LCA on the basis of co-
operation between investigators in several countries,
especially in the Society of Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC 2008) and the
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO). Life cycle assessment is documented in the
form of ISO standards 14040-14044 (ISO 1997; ISO
2000a; ISO 2000b; ISO 2006a; ISO 2006b), giving
instructions for LCA practitioners to conduct LCA
applications according to “good practice”. Inventory
data, environmental interventions representing a
“cradle-to-grave” perspective, are the core of LCAs.
2. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
524 | P a g e
However, from the point of view of a decision
maker, the inventory results are usually not
sufficient for making better comparative decisions.
In comparative studies it may be found that
alternative A is better than alternative B with respect
to some points of view, but poorer in others. LCIA
enables us to interpret the results of the inventory,
but it is just the first step to draw the correct
conclusions concerning improvement approaches
(Saur et al. 1996). The consideration of
environmental effects as a consequence of
environmental interventions provides additional
information, which is not covered by the inventory
step. Several methods exist to establish weighting
factors, because weighting has always been a
controversial issue; it can be difficult, in the context
of developing an LCIA approach, to select one
method among others. A good weighting method
must include certain common features, including
transparency, simplicity in implementation,
communicability and magnitude or capacity to
assess environmental problems. Moreover, the
weighing procedures have to take into consideration
a certain number of issues including: the probability
of the attribute to cause an undesirable consequence
to the environment; the magnitude/severity of this
consequence, possibly not reversible; the temporal
aspect such as duration, time of occurrence, etc.
This results in a proliferation of data gathering,
storing and analysis techniques within the
environmental assessment tools and MCDA
methods are more relevant to these tasks. The use of
uncertainty modelling formalisms and the building
of decision support frameworks allowing the
efficient interpretation of the assessment results and
data in an uncertain environmental are greatly
needed.
In this paper, first we outline a
classification and assessment framework of the main
Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) methods
in the light of their ability to take into account the
peculiar needs of LCIA (Benetto 2000). We shortly
analyze different MCDA approaches to suggest the
most appropriate method for aggregating different
attributes values, underling the weighting issue of
each one. This paper therefore aims to indicate the
main guidelines representing a starting point in the
development of a robust weighting method, which
takes into consideration the importance of clearly
identifying what part of the responses deals with
subjectivity and objectivity in weighting assessment,
to provide the most relevant information during the
decision-making process. In absolute terms, there is
not recognized an ideal weighting method, so the
proposed approach combines different weighting
techniques and problems in a single weighting
framework.
1. The LCIA Analysis
The LCA provides accurate and robust
results by utilising the very detailed models
developed in the inventory stage and this phase
needs greater transparency and standardization of
methods and calculations (Garrett P., 2013). LCIA
is typically divided into five phases: selection of
impact categories, classification, characterisation,
normalisation and weighting. In the selection of
impact categories (e.g. climate change and
acidification), indicators for the categories and
models to quantify the contributions of different
environmental interventions to the impact categories
are selected. The second phase, classification, is an
assignment of the inventory data to some predefined
impact categories. In the characterisation phase, the
models make an aggregation of possible
interventions within each impact category. Values of
interventions are changed into impact category
indicators resulting from characterisation factors.
These factors measure the effect intensity of each
single emission on the environmental problem at
hand.
From a decision maker’s perspective,
impact category indicators are more manageable
than interventions, but due to their proxy
characteristics they are difficult to interpret. In order
to obtain a more comprehensive view of impact
category indicator results, some suitable
normalisation can be conducted to better assess their
overall environmental impact. Finally, the weighting
phase relates the normalised magnitude of the
indicator results with respect to the different impact
categories to reference values, calculated on the
basis of an inventory of a chosen reference system
(Consoli et al. 1993, Wenzel et al. 1997, Finnveden
et al. 1997).
Normalisation is needed in practice for
comparative evaluations but it requires trade-offs
between different category indicators, which are
very difficult to evaluate. These trade-offs are
determined as particular “weighting factors”
(weights) in the weighting phase; we observe that
these kind of weights depend also on the particular
measurement scale of each indicator and therefore
they are introduced in order to be able to obtain a
final unique aggregated value (for example, the
weighted sum) as an overall evaluation. As a
consequence, the trade-offs do not give us direct
information about the “intrinsic importance” of the
corresponding indicators, since their values depend
on the reference system actually chosen, including
the ranges of the measurement scales. This means
that if the trade -off between categories A and B is
equal to 3, the relative intrinsic importance of A is
not three times the importance of B, but only that
the “scale factor” to appropriately aggregate these
factors in an additive value function is 3. For this
reason, weighting is desirable or necessary in many
3. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
525 | P a g e
LCA applications (e.g. Hansen 1999, Bengtsson
2000), although determination of weights is based
on subjective value choices. Weights in fact are used
with different meanings of “trade- off “ in functional
approach or “coefficients of importance” in the case
of non-compensatory methods (Minciardi et al.
2007). In this case, the inter-criteria information
required is an evaluation of the relative importance
between coalitions of criteria; such a concept of
relative importance is often translated into numbers,
called weights (for example in ELECTRE methods).
In the case of totally compensatory methods
(weighted sum), on the contrary, the weights have to
be considered as scale factors and then their
meaning is that of a trade-off between each pair of
criteria (Minciardi et al. 2008).
In our opinion, the great attention devoted
in LCIA to the weighting problems is related to the
use of the weighted sum as usual, simple and
efficient aggregation operator, accepted by the
majority of authors, at least implicitly. But this
operator, that should be applied only when all the
data are homogeneous, although very easy to be
understood, suffers from a lot of drawbacks. First of
all, it is perfectly compensatory, that is a great
advantage with respect to some characteristics, and
can always compensate disadvantages, even if very
huge, with respect to other points of view. In our
opinion, this implicit hypothesis is very dangerous
in the framework of environmental analysis, where
it is often not possible to compensate (for example,
with high financial cash flows) some very dangerous
situations (concerning public health). Another weak
point of the weighted sum is that this kind of
aggregation operator can be applied only if there is
preference independence among the considered
impact indicators. This means that, if categories a
and c have the same evaluations with respect to a
subset of considered criteria, and categories b and d
also have the same evaluations – but different from
the evaluations of a and c - with respect the previous
considered subset of criteria, and category a is
preferred to category b, also c should be preferred to
d, independently of their common evaluations with
respect to the remaining criteria. This means that the
weighted sum approach is not able to model any
interaction among criteria, where this characteristic
affects a lot of real environmental situations and
should be taken into consideration (Matarazzo
2012).
Although there is an approximate
consensus on the procedural framework of LCIA,
the methods may vary in LCA applications.
Different methods can of course produce different
results. The results depend, among other things, on
the coverage of impact categories, the chosen
impact category indicators and the models chosen
for characterisation factors. Furthermore, as
observed before, a reference system used in
normalisation can dramatically affect the
interpretation and the results, also in the framework
of the weighted sum operator. In practical
application, in order to avoid some assessment
difficulties and to simplify the implementation of
well known approaches, “less is better” has been
often applied in LCIA (Lo Giudice 2011). This
approach assumes that all amounts of the same
kinds of interventions lumped together cause
harmful effects on the environment on the basis of
their intrinsic hazard characteristics, regardless of
where and when they take place, and only whether
the amounts are above or below certain thresholds
(White et al. 1995). Although the advantage of the
“only-above-threshold” approach is clear, its
implementation in practice has been developed only
slowly, due to the complexity of applying it on a life
cycle scale.
In LCIA the values of environmental
interventions assessed in the inventory analysis are
interpreted on the basis of their potential
contribution to the overall environmental impact.
The term “potential contribution” indicates that the
result of LCIA is not an absolute value, and that
LCIA is a relative approach, part of a more
complete analysis of environmental assessments.
The idea is that comparative studies need more
detailed data on temporal and spatial aspects than
that required by absolute methods, such as
environmental risk assessment. Weighting is a
process which can take place within the different
steps of LCIA and LCA interpretation to aggregate
the results into a single score; LCIA is used to
evaluate the significance of the environmental
interventions contained in a life cycle.
Determination of weights has been a
controversial issue in LCIA because of its
subjectivity. For this reason, for example, the ISO
provides no examples of weighting. Despite the
weight assessment being necessary in a lot of
aggregation operators, different approaches have
been proposed in the specific literature in order to
avoid excessive arbitrariness in this so difficult
issue, but also taking appropriately into account the
subjective preferences of the decision-maker. LCIA
results for each process of the life cycle have then to
be aggregated in order to get reliable conclusions
and this aggregation framework has to minimize the
information loss and the compensation between
impacts and to reduce the amount of data in order to
improve the intelligibility of results. The impact
results of each scenario cannot be easily compared
with each other and impacts cannot be aggregated as
they represent very different realities.
In the following, we shortly present the main
features of some well known MCDM methods,
classified – as usually- in Functional approaches;
relational approaches and interactive approaches
4. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
526 | P a g e
2. Functional approaches
This method selects a suitable aggregation
function, i.e. a real value function (utility or value
function) associating to each alternative a real
number, representing its degree of preference, that
allows us to directly make comparisons and obtain
the final recommendation for choice or ranking
problems.
The main features of this approach are the
following: inter-criteria information as trade-off
weights (substitution rates), usually constant;
compensatory logic (only sometimes not perfectly
compensatory). Formally, the utility function is
expressed as U(a) = U(g1(a), g2(a), ...,gm(a)), aA,
where U is a function of m variables, increasing in
all its argument (marginal utilities) A is the set of
feasible alternatives and G the set of considered
criteria.
4.1. Additive models
The simplest form of such a utility function
is the additive representation, that is
U(a) = Gj
jj
))a((gv ,
where, for each, jG, vj is a non decreasing
function and
))(( agv jj
is the marginal utility. But,
as we said before, this kind of representation is
based on the hypothesis of preference independence,
that is no interaction among criteria, usually non
realistic particularly in environmental impact
analysis.
Very often, a particular case of utility function
is considered, by the hypothesis
))(( agv jj
=jgj(a),
where j0, for each jG, is the (constant) trade off
weight, used also to normalize the evaluations on
different criteria. Therefore, we obtain the weighted
sum utility function,
U(a) = Gj
jj
)a(g ,
That is one of the most elementary aggregation
operators, as above recalled, that requires the
elicitation of a set of trade-off weights. This very
simple approach is used in a lot of real life
applications, such as in LCIA.
2.2. Non additive models
There are also some non additive utility
functions, for example in the form of multiplicative
or polynomial functions. Apart from them, one of
the most interesting approaches is given by the class
of non-additive integrals, also called fuzzy integrals.
In this approach, the main very interesting idea
concerning weighting is that the intrinsic importance
of criteria is represented giving a weight to each
subset of criteria from G. Then it is possible to
explicitly represent the importance of each coalition
of criteria, and therefore also their interactions.
3.3. The Analytic Hierarchy Process
The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
structures the decision problem into levels which
correspond to DM’s understanding of the situation:
objectives, criteria, sub-criteria and alternatives; by
breaking the problem at hand into different levels,
the DM can focus on smaller sets of decisions. This
method (Saaty 2008) is based on four main axioms:
given some alternatives, the DM is able to provide a
pairwise comparison of these alternatives with
respect to any criterion on a ratio scale, which is
reciprocal. One can formulate the decision problem
as a hierarchy; all criteria and alternatives which
impact one decision problem are represented in the
hierarchy. After estimating the weights, the DM is
also provided with a measure of the inconsistency of
the given pairwise comparisons. It is important to
note that the AHP does not require decision makers
to be consistent in giving preference information,
but rather provides a measure of inconsistency, as
well as a method to reduce this measure if it is
deemed to be too high. After generating a set of
weights for each alternative and for any criterion,
the overall priority of the alternative is computed by
means of a linear, additive function. The AHP is a
very widespread approach in many real-world
applications and it explicitly deals with the issue of
hierarchy in decision problems. AHP can be
considered a particular case of multi-attribute value
functions approach, thus being completely
compensatory in nature. This implies that the
weights derived in an AHP framework are always in
the form of trade-offs and never of importance
coefficients.
4. Relational approach
This approach is characterized by splitting
the decision analysis in two steps. In the first one,
we build up some outranking relations, making a
direct comparison between each pair of alternatives
with respect to each criterion, individually
considered. The global outranking relations aSb
means “a is as least as good as b with respect to all
criteria from G”. Therefore, in the second step, these
relations are exploited in order to obtain the final
recommendation. The main features of this approach
are the following: building of crisp or fuzzy
outranking relations and their exploitation; infra-
criteria information by the introduction of suitable
thresholds to take into consideration interval
indifference and preference, incomparability and
veto situations; inter-criteria information in the form
of importance weights; logic usually locally non-
compensatory. The outranking relation aSb holds if
and only if there are enough arguments to say that a
is at least as good as b, while no serious reason to
refute this statement exists (Roy 1985). The final
recommendation depends on the global outranking
5. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
527 | P a g e
relation, and not directly on the alternatives
evaluations with respect to each considered
criterion. The preference model of this approach is
very rich, but it requires the elicitation of a lot of
parameters, including importance weights, that
express the intrinsic relative importance of each
criterion or coalition of criteria and that then do not
depend on the different scales of measurement.
These weights have a crucial role in the building of
the outranking relations.
The most important outranking methods are the
following.
4.1 ELECTRE methods
The family of ELECTRE methods (Roy
1995., Figueira, et al. 2005), is based on the concept
of concordance and discordance analysis, and each
one is devoted to solving specific decisional
problems; ELECTRE I for choice problems,
ELECTRE II and III for ranking problems,
respectively building “nested” outranking (i.e. with
different strength) and fuzzy outranking relations;
ELECTRE IV that does not require elicitation of
importance weights; ELECTRE TRI for sorting
problems. The outranking relations are built taking
into consideration the importance of criteria
coalition (i.e. their weights) supporting the idea that
a is at least as good as b (concordance test) and that
there is no strong opposition to this sentence (non-
discordance test). A problem specifically connected
with the outranking approach is that it is necessary
to assess a large number of ad hoc parameters, i.e.
indifference and preference thresholds, concordance
threshold, discordance thresholds and weights and
this may cause loss of transparency and consistency
in the model (Norese M.F., 2006).
4.2 PROMETHEE
In the PROMETHEE methods (Brans
1982), for each criterion gjG and for each pair of
alternatives (a,b) a degree of preference
Pj(a,b)[0,1] is defined as a non decreasing function
of the difference of evaluations gj(a) - gj(b). The
shape of this function and the value of its parameters
are chosen by the DM among some predefined
types.
Using the notation kj for the weight of criterion
gj, the global preference degree (a,b) is defined as
(a,b) =
F
F
j
j
j
j
j
k
baPk ),(
.
The final recommendation (ranking) is based
on the concept of outgoing + flow and ingoing
flow -
, defined as following for each feasible
alternative a:
+(a) =
Ab
ba,
-(a) =
Ab
ab,
.
PROMETHEE I method gives us a partial
preorder of feasible alternatives, (that means that
incomparability between alternatives is allowed) as
the intersection between the complete ascending
preorder and complete descending preorder, built up
respectively using the values of +(a) and -(a)
(Brans and Vincke 1985).
PROMETHEE II method proposes the building
of a complete preorder of feasible alternatives,
taking into consideration the so called net flow
((Brans 1982, Oberschimidt J. et al., 2010):
(a) = +
(a)--
(a).
The PROMETHEE approach is based on a
simple mathematical structure and is easy to use. In
this model, preference intensity can be used, and the
degree of compensability allowed is high.
Moreover, weights cannot be considered as
importance coefficients, but they should be derived
as trade-offs. The possibility of rank reversals is
high (Munda G.2008).
4.3 REGIME
REGIME Analysis is a method that
considers pure ordinal information, and could be
considered as the ordinal generalization of the
concordance methods (Hinloopen and Nijkamp,
1986; Hinloopen, Nijkamp and Rietveld, 1983). The
main idea is the concordance index Cil concerning
the pair of feasible alternatives ai, al :
Cil =
ilj
jw
,
where wj is the importance weight of
criterion gj, j=1, 2,…,m, and il, is the subset of
criteria for which ai is at least as good as al., The
method considers only the sign of the difference Cil
– Cli for each pair of alternatives, and not its value,
since the data my be ordinal. In this method, the first
step is the construction of the so-called impact
matrix, composed of the pairwise comparisons of
alternatives, that is then suitably exploited. This
method presents the advantage of taking into
account ordinal information. It should be recalled
that weights can also be simply ordinal in nature,
and therefore from this point of view REGIME can
be considered entirely consistent in its use of
weights as importance coefficients. The only
assumption required is that of a uniform distribution
of the weights along the concordance region, that is
not restrictive. However, when mixed information
on criterion scores is present, the aggregation
procedure becomes cumbersome. To deal with both
qualitative and quantitative information, it is
assumed that qualitative information is the
representation of unknown quantitative information.
Building on this assumption, a cardinalization
scheme is applied and then all the ordinal
information is transformed into quantitative. Besides
6. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
528 | P a g e
considerations on the way, there is here a basic
methodological problem with weights. In fact, if
weights are connected to quantitative information
and the intensity of preference concept is used,
weights can only be trade-off and not importance
coefficients.
4.4 NAIADE
NAIADE (Novel Approach to Imprecise
Assessment and Decision Environments) (Munda
1995) is a discrete multi-criteria method whose
impact matrix may include crisp, stochastic or fuzzy
measurements of the performance of an alternative
with respect to an evaluation criterion, thus it is very
flexible for real world environmental applications. A
peculiarity of NAIADE is the use of conflict
analysis procedures to be integrated with the multi-
criteria results. This method can give the following
information: ranking of the alternative according to
the set of evaluation criteria; indications of the
distance of the positions of the various interest
groups; ranking of the alternatives according to
actors’ impacts or preferences. The whole NAIADE
procedure can be divided into four main steps:
pairwise comparison of alternatives according to
each criterion; aggregation of all criteria
evaluations; ranking of alternatives; social conflict
analysis. This method presents many advantages:
the possibility of taking into account various forms
of mixed information in an equivalent way; the
possibility of determining the degree of
compensability allowed in the aggregation
procedure; the explicit use of a conflict analysis
procedure, thus distinguishing clearly the technical
and social compromise solutions. However, this
method suffers also from some serious limitations:
the impossibility of using weights explicitly and, if
they are used, they could only be trade-offs and
never importance coefficients; the large number of
ad hoc parameters needed for the elaboration of the
multi-criteria impact matrix; the fact that qualitative
information can be used only in the form of
linguistic variables and can never be measured on a
purely ordinal scale.
5. Interactive approach
It consists of a systematic exchange of
information between DM and analyst about local
preference evaluations of alternatives and about the
consequent computation results, with the aim of
searching for a solution (descriptive logic: Multiple
Criteria Decision Making– MCDM), or for the
comprehension of a coherent evolution of the
decision process (constructive approach – MCDA).
In the first step, this approach requires a minimum
number of inter-criteria information, such as trade-
off weights, given by the DM.
The analyst provides a first alternative (or a
first set of alternatives) considered satisfactory to
propose to DM, who, during the discussion phase,
gives the analyst further information about his/her
preferences. Therefore there is a new computation
phase and so on. The procedure stops when the DM
is satisfied by the alternative proposed, which is not
always necessarily efficient.
A lot of interactive methods use the idea of
a reference point, defined in the criteria space, and
sometimes that of ideal point, whose coordinates are
usually the maximal values attainable by each
criterion considered as a single one. There are two
main categories of interactive methods: those that
are based on the hypothesis of the existence of a
utility function, implicit in the mind of DM, and
methods that try to minimize a particular distance
from a reference point. Among them we recall the
Goal Programming and the STEM method
(Benayoun, et al., 1971).Usually in this case some
information about trade-off weights are explicitly or
implicitly required, as well as the normalization of
alternatives evaluations. Recently, very interesting
approaches have been proposed in this framework,
combining the advantages of interactive methods
and genetic algorithms.
Conclusions
The interpretation of the LCA results in
environmental problems and analyses should be
actually aided by the application of MCDA
methods, appropriate from the methodological point
of view to the specific decision problem at hand.
Decision analysis is a set of methods of systems
analysis and operations research, going from the
classical mathematical programming to the new
MCDM and MCDA approaches, which should be
extensively applied in supporting real life decisions
in the presence of a number of conflicting points of
view. In the LCA literature, decision analysis
methods are often known and used, up to now, only
as tools for the weighting phase of LCIA, especially
in the context of panel methods in which opinions
about impact category weights are asked for from an
individual person or a group of persons. However,
the use of decision analysis tools has not been very
common in LCIA applications.
This is partly due to the fact that LCA
practitioners have been reluctant to use weightings,
as a consequence of their subjectivity and difficulty
in their assessment. But weighting is only an
optional phase in the ISO standards due to its
subjective results, and in the development of LCIA
methodology during the recent years researchers
have overall concentrated on the mandatory phases.
Only very few analyses have been conducted using
more sophisticated and efficient approaches, such as
MCDA methods. Possibly, one of the main reasons
for this behaviour is that only a few LCA
researchers have enough information to use these
7. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
529 | P a g e
kinds of decision analysis approaches in a context
different from assessment of trade-offs.
Therefore, our main attention should be
drawn not to the weighting problem in se, but to all
decisional processes, with a clear idea of the
different roles of all the actors (scientists, experts,
decision-makers, stakeholders) involved in the
process. Decision analysis is actually a process, with
its own dynamic evolution, that has to be coherent
with the preferences and the goals of the decision-
maker. In order to support the decision-maker in
his/her difficult activity, a multi-criteria approach
could be very useful, but the particular method to be
used must be correctly chosen and applied. This
means, in particular, that the method we like to
apply needs to be appropriate not only to the multi-
criteria decision problem at hand (choice, ranking,
classification, sorting), but also to the particular kind
of data and information we have (cardinal, ordinal,
qualitative, crisp, fuzzy, probabilistic,...).
Any MCDA method, on the other hand, as
observed before, requires some peculiar preference
information and technical parameters, among those
very often weighting, in the form of trade-offs or
importance coefficients. Only few, but very
interesting approaches, do not require a priori this
kind of information, that sometimes is given
implicitly by the decision-maker, as in interactive
approaches, or is obtained as output when we use
preference information in the form of examples of
decision, like in the dominance-based rough set
approach. In any case, the choice of an MCDA
method has to take into serious consideration the
actual information DM can, wants and is able to
give, avoiding forcing him/her to provide technical
information required by the method, but that DM
does not know or cannot give, often also too
difficult or not understandable. It is the method that
must be suitable and appropriate to the available
information, not the information that has to be
adapted or forced in order to be used in any case in
an approach chosen a priori.
The interpretation of LCA results could be
greatly improved by the use of suitable aggregation
approaches based on MCDA proper methods, based
on a functional or relational approach or on
interaction between scientist and DM.
As a more general conclusion, we would
suggest that uncertainty management and
quantitative analysis has to be further addressed in
the development and application of MCDA
methods, because uncertainty is also a primordial
factor in decision making, and not only in the
environmental field.
Alternatives approaches to LCA modelling
may also be useful, as well as some additional areas
where further sensitivity and robustness analysis
could improve presentation of results; MCDA
methods allow very well for sensitivity analysis, a
technique in which a variable is systematically
modified to determine the impact on the outcome. In
this case, we are particularly interested in modifying
the weights assigned to various criteria. Of course,
other standardisation of LCA studied should be
improved, from a perspective of both transparency
as well as comprehensiveness of LCA modelling.
References
[1]. Benayoun, R., J., de Montgolfier, J.,
Tergny, and O.I., Larichev, 1971.”Linear
Programming with Multiple Objective
Functions: STEP Method (STEM)”. Math
Program 1 (3):366-375
[2]. Bengtsson, M., 2000. “Weighting in
practice”. J Ind Eco 4 (4): 47-60
[3]. Benetto E., Rousseaux P., “Dealing with
the uncertainties of decision making in Life
Cycle Assessment”. In Proceedings of the
2nd International Conference on Decision
Making in Urban and Civil Engineering
Lyon, 20-22 November 2000: 765-776
[4]. Brans P., 1982, "L’ingénierie de la
décision: élaboration d’instruments d’aide
à la décision. La méthode PROMETHEE.".
Presses de l’Université Laval
[5]. Brans P. and Vincke P.,1985. "A
preference ranking organization method:
The PROMETHEE method for MCDM".
Management Science
[6]. Consoli, F., D., Allen, I., Boustead, J.,
Fava, W., Franklin, A.A., Jensen, N., de
Oude, R., Parrish, R., Perriman, D.,
Postlethwaite, B., Quay, J. Séguin, and B.
Vigon, 1993. “Guidelines for Lifecycle
assessment: A ’Code of Practice’”. Society
of Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry (SETAC), Brussels
[7]. Del Borghi A., 2013. LCA and
communication: Environmental Product
Declaration. Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:
293-295
[8]. Figueira, J., S., Greco and M., Ehrgott,
2005. Multiple-criteria decision analysis.
State of the art surveys. Springer
International Series in Operations Research
and Management Science, New York
[9]. Finnveden, G., 1999 “A critical rewiew of
operational valuation/weighting methods
for life cycle assessment. AFR-REPORT
253 AFN, Naturvardsverket Swedish
Environmental Protection ASgency 106 48
Stockolm, Sweden
[10]. Garrett P, Ronde K., 2013, “Life cycle
assessment of wind power: comprehensive
results from a state –of-the art approach”,
Int J Life Cycle Assess 18: 37-48
8. Agata Matarazzo, Maria Teresa Clasadonte, Carlo Ingrao, Antonio Zerbo / International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.523-530
530 | P a g e
[11]. Hansen, O.J. 1999, “Status of Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) activities in the Nordic
region”. Int J Life Cycle Assess 4: 315-320
[12]. Hinloopen, E., and P. Nijkamp, 1990.
“Qualitative multiple criteria choice
analysis, the dominant regime method”.
Qua Quant 24: 37-56
[13]. Hinloopen, E., P., Nijkamp and P. Rietveld,
1983. “Qualitative discrete multiple criteria
choise models in regional planning”. Reg
Sci Urban Econ, 13: 77-102
[14]. ISO (1997) “ISO 14040: Environmental
management - Life cycle assessment -
Principles and framework. International
Organization for Standardization”
[15]. ISO (2000a) “ISO 14042: Environmental
management - Life cycle assessment - Life
cycle impact assessment. International
Organization for Standardization”
[16]. ISO (2000b) “ISO 14043: Environmental
management - Life cycle assessment - Life
cycle impact interpretation. International
Organization for Standardization”
[17]. ISO (2006a) Environmental management -
Life cycle assessment - Principles and
framework. European Standard EN ISO
14040. International Organization for
Standardization
[18]. ISO (2006b) Environmental management -
Life cycle assessment – requirements and
guidelines. European Standard EN ISO
14044. International Organization for
Standardization
[19]. Kooijman J. 1993. “Environmental
assessment of packaging: sense and
sensibility”, J Environ Manage 17: 575-586
[20]. Kyrkeby T. J., Birgisdottir H., Singh
Bhander G., Hauschild M., Christensen
T.H., 2007. “Modelling of environmental
impacts of solid waste landfilling within
the life-cycle analysis program
EASEWASTE”. Waste Manage 27:961-
970
[21]. Lo Giudice A., Clasadonte M.T.,
Matarazzo A. 2011. LCI Preliminary
Results in the Sicilian durum wheat pasta
chain production. J Comm S Technol Qual.
50 (1): 65-79
[22]. Matarazzo A., Clasadonte M.T., 2012.
Using Multi-Criteria Decision making
models in the framework of LCIA
Analysis. 18th IGWT Symposium
Technology and Innovation
for a Sustainable Future: a Commodity
Science Perspective. Roma
[23]. Minciardi R., Robba M., Sacile R. 2007.
Decision models for sustainable
groundwater planning and control. Control
Eng Pract 8:1013-1029
[24]. Munda G. 1995, “Multicriteria evaluation
in a fuzzy environment”. Physica-Verlag,
Contributions to Economics Series,
Heidelberg.
[25]. Norese M.F., 2006. “ELECTRE III as a
support for participatory decision-making
on the localization of waste –treatment
plants. Land Use policy”, Land Use Policy.
23: 76-85
[26]. Oberschimidt J., Geldermenn J., Ludwing
J., Schmehl M., 2010. “Modified
PROMETHEE approach for assessing
energy tecnologies”. Int J Ener Sector
Manage, 4, 2: 183-212
[27]. Roy, B. .1985, “Méthodologie Multicritère
d’Aide à la Décision“, Economica, Paris.
[28]. Roy, B. and D. Bouyssou, 1993. “Aide
Multicritère à la Décision: Méthodes et
Cas“ Economica, Paris.
[29]. Saaty T. L., 2008, “Decision making with
the analytic hierarchy process”. Int J
Service Science, 1, No. 1: 83 -97
[30]. Saur, K., J., Gediga, J., Hesselbach, M.,
Schuckert, and P., Eyerer, 1996. „Life
cycle assessment as an engineering tool in
the automotive industry”. Int J Life Cycle
Assess 1(1): 15-21
[31]. SETAC Europe LCA Steering Committee
(2008) Standardisation efforts to measure
greenhouse gases and carbon foorprinting“
for products (editorial). Int J Life Cycle
Assess 13(2): 87-88
[32]. Strazza C., Del Borghi A., Costamagna P.,
Traverso A., Santin M. (2010).
Comparative LCA of methanol-fuelled
SOFCs as auxiliary power systems on
board ships. Applied Energy 87:1670-1678
[33]. Wenzel, H., M. Hauschild, and L. Alting,
1997. “Environmental assessment of
products”, Chapman & Hall, London
[34]. White, P., B., De Smet, H. Udo de Haes,
and R. Heijungs, 1995. “LCA back on
track - but is it on track or two ?” LCA
News 5 (3): 1-3