Aviation contributes to climate change through greenhouse gas emissions and other impacts on the atmosphere. Airplanes emit carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen oxides, and other gases. Some emissions like CO2 have a direct impact by trapping heat, while others like nitrogen oxides indirectly impact climate by forming ozone or contrails. The altitude of flight also influences impacts, as the stratosphere is affected differently than the troposphere. This report aims to study aviation's climate impacts and identify ways to reduce emissions through optimization of operations and alternative fuels.
1. The document describes HAZOP (Hazard and Operability) studies conducted on various units in a terephthalic acid production plant, including the reactor, crystallizer, scrubber, and dryer.
2. For each unit, potential deviations in parameters like flow, pressure, and temperature are identified along with their possible consequences and causes.
3. Safeguards and required actions are recommended to address the deviations, such as installing alarms, safety valves, temperature sensors, and implementing monitoring and inspection procedures.
The document contains details of a one day training session on health, safety and environment (HSE) legislations to be delivered by Pannalal Soni on February 26, 2018. The training will cover numerous Indian laws governing factory safety, hazardous chemicals, explosives, gas cylinders, boilers, electricity, and environmental protection. It will explain the objectives of safety legislation, responsibilities of employers and employees, and the authorities responsible for enforcement. An overview of key sections of the Factories Act of 1948 regarding occupational health, safety, welfare, working hours and penalties will also be provided.
This document is the 2018 ASHRAE Handbook: Refrigeration which contains chapters on refrigeration systems, components, equipment, applications, and related topics. It is compiled by volunteer members of ASHRAE technical committees and is generally reviewed and updated every four years. The handbook is published by ASHRAE to advance the refrigeration profession and allied industries.
This document provides an overview of Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies, which are a technique used to identify potential hazards and operability problems in processes. It describes the origins, purpose, methodology, and typical components of a HAZOP study. Key aspects covered include identifying potential deviations from normal operating conditions using guidewords, determining causes and consequences of deviations, evaluating existing safeguards, and developing recommendations to address identified hazards. The document also outlines the HAZOP process, including defining nodes to segment the system, assigning a team to conduct the study, and systematically analyzing each node using guidewords across parameters.
This document describes Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) which is a technique used to identify potential hazards and operability problems in processes and operations. A HAZOP is conducted by a multi-disciplinary team and involves systematically evaluating deviations from the design intent of a system using guide words. The team identifies potential causes of deviations and evaluates their consequences. The document outlines the HAZOP procedure, roles of team members, when HAZOPs should be conducted, and provides an example of a HAZOP worksheet. It also describes the What If analysis technique which involves a team brainstorming potential hazards by answering questions about failures and abnormal scenarios.
This document provides an overview of asset life cycles, cost estimating, and the Capital Cost Reporting Guide (CCRG) used in Alberta for property tax assessments. It discusses the CCRG background and basic principles, common areas of dispute, owners' costs, and issues around what constitutes construction costs. The document also covers asset life cycle phases and expenditures over time, the project management team, transitioning costs to assessments, and abnormal cost claims under the CCRG.
This document discusses the key elements of a hazard communication program required by OSHA, including:
1. Employer responsibilities such as maintaining safety data sheets and ensuring chemicals are properly labeled.
2. Components that must be included in a written hazard communication program such as lists of hazardous chemicals and procedures for labeling, SDSs, and training.
3. Labeling requirements for shipped containers and those used in the workplace, including required elements like pictograms, signal words, and hazard statements.
1. The document describes HAZOP (Hazard and Operability) studies conducted on various units in a terephthalic acid production plant, including the reactor, crystallizer, scrubber, and dryer.
2. For each unit, potential deviations in parameters like flow, pressure, and temperature are identified along with their possible consequences and causes.
3. Safeguards and required actions are recommended to address the deviations, such as installing alarms, safety valves, temperature sensors, and implementing monitoring and inspection procedures.
The document contains details of a one day training session on health, safety and environment (HSE) legislations to be delivered by Pannalal Soni on February 26, 2018. The training will cover numerous Indian laws governing factory safety, hazardous chemicals, explosives, gas cylinders, boilers, electricity, and environmental protection. It will explain the objectives of safety legislation, responsibilities of employers and employees, and the authorities responsible for enforcement. An overview of key sections of the Factories Act of 1948 regarding occupational health, safety, welfare, working hours and penalties will also be provided.
This document is the 2018 ASHRAE Handbook: Refrigeration which contains chapters on refrigeration systems, components, equipment, applications, and related topics. It is compiled by volunteer members of ASHRAE technical committees and is generally reviewed and updated every four years. The handbook is published by ASHRAE to advance the refrigeration profession and allied industries.
This document provides an overview of Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) studies, which are a technique used to identify potential hazards and operability problems in processes. It describes the origins, purpose, methodology, and typical components of a HAZOP study. Key aspects covered include identifying potential deviations from normal operating conditions using guidewords, determining causes and consequences of deviations, evaluating existing safeguards, and developing recommendations to address identified hazards. The document also outlines the HAZOP process, including defining nodes to segment the system, assigning a team to conduct the study, and systematically analyzing each node using guidewords across parameters.
This document describes Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) which is a technique used to identify potential hazards and operability problems in processes and operations. A HAZOP is conducted by a multi-disciplinary team and involves systematically evaluating deviations from the design intent of a system using guide words. The team identifies potential causes of deviations and evaluates their consequences. The document outlines the HAZOP procedure, roles of team members, when HAZOPs should be conducted, and provides an example of a HAZOP worksheet. It also describes the What If analysis technique which involves a team brainstorming potential hazards by answering questions about failures and abnormal scenarios.
This document provides an overview of asset life cycles, cost estimating, and the Capital Cost Reporting Guide (CCRG) used in Alberta for property tax assessments. It discusses the CCRG background and basic principles, common areas of dispute, owners' costs, and issues around what constitutes construction costs. The document also covers asset life cycle phases and expenditures over time, the project management team, transitioning costs to assessments, and abnormal cost claims under the CCRG.
This document discusses the key elements of a hazard communication program required by OSHA, including:
1. Employer responsibilities such as maintaining safety data sheets and ensuring chemicals are properly labeled.
2. Components that must be included in a written hazard communication program such as lists of hazardous chemicals and procedures for labeling, SDSs, and training.
3. Labeling requirements for shipped containers and those used in the workplace, including required elements like pictograms, signal words, and hazard statements.
Fault tree analysis (FTA) and event tree analysis (ETA) are probabilistic risk assessment techniques. [FTA] works backwards from an accident to identify causes, representing them in a logic diagram with gates and basic events. [ETA] works forwards from an initiating event through safety functions to outcomes. The document outlines the steps and uses of FTA and ETA, providing examples to illustrate fault tree and event tree construction and accident sequence description.
This document provides an overview of basic flow measurement. It discusses 23 types of flow meter technologies available since 1989. It also covers the basic requirements for flow measurement such as accuracy, integration with piping systems, and cost. Finally, it describes common flow meter types like orifice plates, electromagnetic meters, turbine meters, Coriolis meters and positive displacement meters; and the principles of operation for each.
The document provides an overview of process safety and barrier thinking. It discusses the differences between personal and process safety, with process safety having higher impacts. Barriers are measures to prevent hazards from being released or limit consequences, and must be effective, independent and auditable. There are equipment barriers like relief valves and human barriers like following procedures. Safety critical elements are equipment whose failure could cause a release, and have performance standards. Safety critical positions and activities help maintain barriers.
This document provides guidance on conducting a job hazard analysis (JHA). It outlines a 5-step process: 1) prepare and prioritize jobs, 2) break jobs into steps, 3) identify hazards in each step, 4) develop control strategies, and 5) write safe job procedures. Key points include prioritizing hazardous jobs, watching employees to identify steps, describing various types of hazards, and emphasizing engineering controls, PPE, and writing clear procedures using specific language. The overall goal is to recognize hazards, reduce risks, and develop safe work practices through a structured analysis of jobs and tasks.
The document provides information about chilled water air conditioning systems including:
- They use water as the secondary refrigerant which is chilled by a chiller and circulated through buildings to absorb heat.
- Common applications include large buildings like offices, factories, and some homes.
- The chiller cools water to 40-45°F which is then piped through the building to air handlers that act like evaporator coils.
- Key components of the system include the water chiller, cooling tower, air handlers, fan coil units, and expansion tank.
This document provides an overview and table of contents for guidelines on Process Safety Management (PSM) for ammonia refrigeration facilities. It covers 14 chapters that address the key elements of OSHA's PSM standard, including employee participation, process safety information, process hazard analysis, operating procedures, training, management of change, mechanical integrity, compliance audits, and more. Each chapter provides regulatory context, required elements, explanations, procedures, forms, and customization guidelines for a specific facility.
Hurricane Katrina - America's Most Destructive HurricanePeter Killcommons
Hurricane Katrina was the largest, most costly, and destructive hurricane to hit the United States, making landfall as a Category 5 storm along the Gulf Coast in August 2005. It caused catastrophic flooding as levees failed in New Orleans, submerging 80% of the city and displacing millions along the coasts of Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. Over 1,800 people lost their lives and property damage totaled an estimated $108 billion, rendering it the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history.
Michael D. Myers has over 20 years of experience in critical power systems including uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, variable frequency drives (VFDs), and static transfer switches. He has held several manager and engineering roles where he oversaw field service teams, maintained service contracts, met sales quotas, and performed preventative maintenance, start-up, and repairs. Myers has extensive factory and technical training on various UPS, VFD, and switchgear systems from manufacturers like Cyberex, Mitsubishi, Toshiba, and United Power. He also has a background working as an aviation electrician in the United States Navy.
Wales S.A.C. es una empresa peruana especializada en servicios de wire line como registros eléctricos, punzados y soluciones de recuperación de tuberías en el sector de hidrocarburos. Opera desde Talara, Piura desde 2004 y ha consolidado su liderazgo en el norte del Perú por su calidad. Cuenta con personal profesional y certificado que cumple estrictos procedimientos de seguridad, salud y medio ambiente. Ofrece una variedad de servicios de wire line y equipos para pozos ubicados en el norte del Per
Este documento presenta brevemente las biografías de nueve educadores sociales importantes a lo largo de la historia, desde el más antiguo (Philippe Pinel) hasta el más moderno. Explica que aunque no todos son diplomados en educación social, han contribuido significativamente al desarrollo de la pedagogía social.
Betty used to earn $45,000 per year in real estate but suffered setbacks including her husband's death, back injury requiring surgery, and lung disease, leaving her living on $900 per month in disability payments and $15 in food stamps. She relies on Second Harvest Food Bank for assistance and is grateful for the help since without it she fears she would starve. A single mother named Debbie with 4 children plus 3 additional children living with her also relies on Second Harvest after a car accident left her disabled and unable to work, with monthly disability payments of only $729 barely covering expenses. Both women express gratitude for Second Harvest without which they and their families would struggle to afford adequate nutrition.
Deudas o deudores josé rodríguez peláezJosé Peláez
Este documento trata sobre la diferencia entre provisión y salario y cómo orar por ellos. En tres oraciones resume que la provisión verdadera es espiritual y viene de Dios, no se puede orar por más provisión material sino por ser conscientes de la que ya se posee. También habla de la necesidad de perdonar a los deudores para ser perdonados de nuestras propias deudas y sentirse liberados espiritual y emocionalmente.
Guilbert Laguio Besa is seeking a position as a Medical Technologist/Clinical Laboratory Scientist in the US. He has over 6 years of experience working in medical technology in the Philippines. He is certified by the American Society for Clinical Pathology and licensed as a Registered Medical Technologist in the Philippines. He has a Bachelor of Science degree in Medical Technology from Velez College in the Philippines. His experience includes working in clinical chemistry, hematology, blood bank/serology, microbiology, and other areas of the clinical laboratory.
East Asia experienced extensive economic growth in the second half of the 20th century while Latin America saw stagnated growth and decline. This was largely due to differences in total factor productivity. Latin America adopted import substitution industrialization which led to inefficient state-owned enterprises, high inflation, and vulnerability to external shocks. In contrast, East Asian countries limited government intervention and inflation while promoting exports, education, savings, and sustainable growth through balanced budgets and market policies. As a result, East Asia saw investment exceed 20% of GDP annually and rapid growth, while Latin America suffered from low productivity following economic shocks.
The process of buying a home can be overwhelming at times, but you don't need to go through it alone.
You may be wondering if now is a good time to buy a home...or if interest rates are projected to rise or fall. The free eGuide below will answer many of your questions and likely bring up a few things you didn’t even know you should consider when buying a home.
Check it out, and feel free to get in touch if you have any questions.
Fault tree analysis (FTA) and event tree analysis (ETA) are probabilistic risk assessment techniques. [FTA] works backwards from an accident to identify causes, representing them in a logic diagram with gates and basic events. [ETA] works forwards from an initiating event through safety functions to outcomes. The document outlines the steps and uses of FTA and ETA, providing examples to illustrate fault tree and event tree construction and accident sequence description.
This document provides an overview of basic flow measurement. It discusses 23 types of flow meter technologies available since 1989. It also covers the basic requirements for flow measurement such as accuracy, integration with piping systems, and cost. Finally, it describes common flow meter types like orifice plates, electromagnetic meters, turbine meters, Coriolis meters and positive displacement meters; and the principles of operation for each.
The document provides an overview of process safety and barrier thinking. It discusses the differences between personal and process safety, with process safety having higher impacts. Barriers are measures to prevent hazards from being released or limit consequences, and must be effective, independent and auditable. There are equipment barriers like relief valves and human barriers like following procedures. Safety critical elements are equipment whose failure could cause a release, and have performance standards. Safety critical positions and activities help maintain barriers.
This document provides guidance on conducting a job hazard analysis (JHA). It outlines a 5-step process: 1) prepare and prioritize jobs, 2) break jobs into steps, 3) identify hazards in each step, 4) develop control strategies, and 5) write safe job procedures. Key points include prioritizing hazardous jobs, watching employees to identify steps, describing various types of hazards, and emphasizing engineering controls, PPE, and writing clear procedures using specific language. The overall goal is to recognize hazards, reduce risks, and develop safe work practices through a structured analysis of jobs and tasks.
The document provides information about chilled water air conditioning systems including:
- They use water as the secondary refrigerant which is chilled by a chiller and circulated through buildings to absorb heat.
- Common applications include large buildings like offices, factories, and some homes.
- The chiller cools water to 40-45°F which is then piped through the building to air handlers that act like evaporator coils.
- Key components of the system include the water chiller, cooling tower, air handlers, fan coil units, and expansion tank.
This document provides an overview and table of contents for guidelines on Process Safety Management (PSM) for ammonia refrigeration facilities. It covers 14 chapters that address the key elements of OSHA's PSM standard, including employee participation, process safety information, process hazard analysis, operating procedures, training, management of change, mechanical integrity, compliance audits, and more. Each chapter provides regulatory context, required elements, explanations, procedures, forms, and customization guidelines for a specific facility.
Hurricane Katrina - America's Most Destructive HurricanePeter Killcommons
Hurricane Katrina was the largest, most costly, and destructive hurricane to hit the United States, making landfall as a Category 5 storm along the Gulf Coast in August 2005. It caused catastrophic flooding as levees failed in New Orleans, submerging 80% of the city and displacing millions along the coasts of Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. Over 1,800 people lost their lives and property damage totaled an estimated $108 billion, rendering it the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history.
Michael D. Myers has over 20 years of experience in critical power systems including uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, variable frequency drives (VFDs), and static transfer switches. He has held several manager and engineering roles where he oversaw field service teams, maintained service contracts, met sales quotas, and performed preventative maintenance, start-up, and repairs. Myers has extensive factory and technical training on various UPS, VFD, and switchgear systems from manufacturers like Cyberex, Mitsubishi, Toshiba, and United Power. He also has a background working as an aviation electrician in the United States Navy.
Wales S.A.C. es una empresa peruana especializada en servicios de wire line como registros eléctricos, punzados y soluciones de recuperación de tuberías en el sector de hidrocarburos. Opera desde Talara, Piura desde 2004 y ha consolidado su liderazgo en el norte del Perú por su calidad. Cuenta con personal profesional y certificado que cumple estrictos procedimientos de seguridad, salud y medio ambiente. Ofrece una variedad de servicios de wire line y equipos para pozos ubicados en el norte del Per
Este documento presenta brevemente las biografías de nueve educadores sociales importantes a lo largo de la historia, desde el más antiguo (Philippe Pinel) hasta el más moderno. Explica que aunque no todos son diplomados en educación social, han contribuido significativamente al desarrollo de la pedagogía social.
Betty used to earn $45,000 per year in real estate but suffered setbacks including her husband's death, back injury requiring surgery, and lung disease, leaving her living on $900 per month in disability payments and $15 in food stamps. She relies on Second Harvest Food Bank for assistance and is grateful for the help since without it she fears she would starve. A single mother named Debbie with 4 children plus 3 additional children living with her also relies on Second Harvest after a car accident left her disabled and unable to work, with monthly disability payments of only $729 barely covering expenses. Both women express gratitude for Second Harvest without which they and their families would struggle to afford adequate nutrition.
Deudas o deudores josé rodríguez peláezJosé Peláez
Este documento trata sobre la diferencia entre provisión y salario y cómo orar por ellos. En tres oraciones resume que la provisión verdadera es espiritual y viene de Dios, no se puede orar por más provisión material sino por ser conscientes de la que ya se posee. También habla de la necesidad de perdonar a los deudores para ser perdonados de nuestras propias deudas y sentirse liberados espiritual y emocionalmente.
Guilbert Laguio Besa is seeking a position as a Medical Technologist/Clinical Laboratory Scientist in the US. He has over 6 years of experience working in medical technology in the Philippines. He is certified by the American Society for Clinical Pathology and licensed as a Registered Medical Technologist in the Philippines. He has a Bachelor of Science degree in Medical Technology from Velez College in the Philippines. His experience includes working in clinical chemistry, hematology, blood bank/serology, microbiology, and other areas of the clinical laboratory.
East Asia experienced extensive economic growth in the second half of the 20th century while Latin America saw stagnated growth and decline. This was largely due to differences in total factor productivity. Latin America adopted import substitution industrialization which led to inefficient state-owned enterprises, high inflation, and vulnerability to external shocks. In contrast, East Asian countries limited government intervention and inflation while promoting exports, education, savings, and sustainable growth through balanced budgets and market policies. As a result, East Asia saw investment exceed 20% of GDP annually and rapid growth, while Latin America suffered from low productivity following economic shocks.
The process of buying a home can be overwhelming at times, but you don't need to go through it alone.
You may be wondering if now is a good time to buy a home...or if interest rates are projected to rise or fall. The free eGuide below will answer many of your questions and likely bring up a few things you didn’t even know you should consider when buying a home.
Check it out, and feel free to get in touch if you have any questions.
O documento descreve a civilização grega no século V a.C., abordando aspectos como a localização e características geográficas da Grécia, as principais cidades-estado de Atenas e Esparta, e eventos históricos como as Guerras Médicas e a Guerra do Peloponeso.
Este documento describe cómo la musicoterapia puede ser beneficiosa para niños con Trastorno por Déficit de Atención e Hiperactividad (TDAH). Explica que la música puede ayudar a mejorar la autorregulación, la atención, la comunicación y la relación del cuerpo con el entorno. Además, detalla dos ejercicios de musicoterapia que trabajan la atención, la memoria y el trabajo en grupo a través del canto y el uso de instrumentos musicales.
The document discusses air pollution in ports and its effects on cargo operations, using Alexandria harbor as a case study. It finds that harbor labor health and effort rates, which impact cargo progress, can be negatively affected by air pollution. Certain air pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulate matter are monitored near Alexandria harbor. Higher levels of these pollutants are found to correlate with decreased daily cargo handling rates at both Alexandria and Dekhila ports within the harbor, as the pollutants can cause respiratory and heart issues in laborers. The document aims to help establish pollution monitoring systems and recommendations to mitigate these impacts on harbor operations and labor health.
The document discusses air pollution in ports and its effects on cargo operations, using Alexandria harbor as a case study. It finds that harbor labor health and effort rates, which impact cargo progress, can be negatively affected by air pollution. Certain air pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulate matter are monitored near Alexandria harbor. Higher levels of these pollutants are found to correlate with decreased daily cargo handling rates at both Alexandria and Dekhila ports within the harbor, as the pollutants can cause respiratory and heart issues in laborers. The document aims to help establish pollution monitoring systems and recommendations to mitigate these impacts on harbor operations and labor health.
STUDY AND CONTROL THE IMPACT OF AVIATION AND CLIMATIC CHANGES AND METRICSIAEME Publication
To measure all the global warming potentials and the constraints that are affecting the aviation, metrics like radiative forcing and ATMAP Algorithm considered to be one of the valuable metrics to bring out an accuracy. In considering the climatic policy related analysis, analysis integrated to the impact of the climate affecting the aircraft, to relate various emanations to each other so as to expand the use of aviation strategies and their In this way, the best metrics will be straightforward and will incorporate vulnerabilities that mirror the condition of information so as to give clients trust in their logical quality. The goal of this analysis is to look at the capacities and restrictions of aviation and flow atmosphere metrics with regards to the aeronautics sway on climatic change, to break down key vulnerabilities related with these metrics and, to the degree conceivable, to make proposals on future innovative work of metrics to check flight initiated to climatic change that might influence dynamic, including airplane structure and tasks. Rapid miner tool is utilised for the dataset collected and prediction is obtained to see the graph of arrival and departure delay. Leveraging ATMAP algorithm the classification of the weather and the degree of impact is deducted.
This document discusses carbon neutral growth from an aviation industry and government perspective. It establishes the concepts of carbon neutral growth, sectoral approaches, and the aviation industry's four pillar approach to achieving carbon neutral growth from 2020. The four pillars are technology, operations, infrastructure improvements, and economic measures. The aviation industry, through organizations like IATA and ICAO, have agreed to targets of carbon neutral growth from 2020, an average 1.5% annual fuel efficiency improvement, and a 50% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050 compared to 2005 levels. A global sectoral approach using economic measures is part of the fourth pillar to help close the emissions gap.
This document discusses regulation of greenhouse gas emissions from commercial aviation. It begins by providing background on the development of aviation technology over the past 110 years. While innovation has expanded scientific knowledge and travel, it has also contributed to the global warming problem through aircraft emissions. The document aims to analyze solutions to reduce emissions by first addressing the basics of aviation, including airspace classifications, weight and balance effects on fuel efficiency, and taxiing, takeoff and landing procedures. It explains that special consideration must be given to the physics of flight to determine if emissions regulation proposals are feasible for the aviation industry.
* Plant A emits 2000 tons of mixed gases annually
* Plant A emits 400 kg of CO annually
* RA 8749 emission standard is 0.3 kg CO/ton of mixed gases
* To calculate Plant A's emission rate:
** 400 kg CO / 2000 tons mixed gases = 0.2 kg CO/ton mixed gases
* Plant A's emission rate is below the standard of 0.3 kg CO/ton and is therefore compliant
* Plant B emits a quarter of what Plant A emits
** A quarter of 2000 tons is 2000 * 0.25 = 500 tons
* Plant B emits 250 kg of CO annually
* Plant B's emission rate is:
** 250 kg CO
Environmental issue in the business model of civil and defense aerospace indu...Georges Harari
The document discusses environmental issues facing the aerospace and defense industry by 2030. It notes that while aviation only contributes around 2% of global CO2 emissions, public concern over climate change is growing. The industry has committed to carbon-neutral growth from 2020 onward and reducing emissions 50% by 2050 compared to 2005 levels. The summary discusses four strategic pillars to address these challenges: 1) alternative fuels and fuel efficiency, 2) incremental technological advances, 3) infrastructure improvements, and 4) operational and economic measures. The industry must decouple market growth from emissions to achieve sustainability.
The environmental issue in the business model of the civil and defense aerosp...Hugo Wagner
Four-pillar strategy to build a greener future by looking at: alternative fuel, technological advancements, improved infrastructures, operational and economic measures and their consequences on the business model of the aerospace and defense industry.
An article written for those who want to know the dynamics of aviation; how it can transform the lives of people, bring about a positive cultural change and help nations grow and flourish, socially and economically. Enjoy!
Portable Small-Scale Vertical Axis Wind Turbine with Pitch Angle Control Syst...IRJET Journal
This document describes the design and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of a portable small-scale vertical axis wind turbine with variable pitch angle control. The turbine uses a novel four-bar linkage mechanism to vary the pitch angle of each blade independently using servos. This is intended to improve energy absorption and output power by varying the lift force on the blades. The design aims to make the turbine portable for use in remote locations. CFD simulations using Ansys Fluent were conducted to analyze turbine performance at different pitch angles and tip speed ratios. The results will help optimize the pitch angle control system to maximize power output.
This document summarizes the significant environmental impact of air travel and its contribution to climate change. It notes that a single long-haul return flight can represent an individual's largest carbon footprint for the year. While air travel accounts for a small percentage of reported emissions, the true impact is much larger once radiative forcing is accounted for, meaning air travel has two to three times the warming impact than carbon emissions alone. The document argues that most air travel is recreational rather than essential, and that the only way to meaningfully reduce aviation's climate impact is to fly less and embrace slower, more sustainable forms of transportation. It is critical to address the growing emissions of the aviation industry given its projected growth rates and impact on global warming.
Prediction of pollutants emissions dispersion of phosphate fertilizers produc...eSAT Journals
Abstract This study aims to the prediction of pollutants emissions dispersion of a 1 M·ton/year phosphate fertilizer facility, which is located at El-Menya Governorate, Egypt. ALOHA air dispersion software is used to predict the pollutant emissions dispersion from different stacks in the proposed project. The estimated total pollutant emissions from the proposed project are 3180 g/m3 of hydrogen fluoride (HF), 72000 g/m3 of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 14700 g/m3 of sulfur tri-oxide (SO3), 2700 g/m3 of ammonia (NH3), and 53550 g/m3 of particulates (PM). Based on the total pollutant emissions from the project, the concentrations of the investigated pollution emissions at 0.5 km, 1 km and 2 km downstream the source at the worst case scenario are obtained and compared with the allowed limits. It has been found that all the emissions resulted from different activities in the proposed project are much lower than the allowed limits specified by the Egyptian ministry of environment in Law 4/1994, and therefore the proposed project is not expected to cause any undesirable impacts on the surrounding environment. Index Terms: Air pollution; Air dispersion modeling; Environmental impact assessment; Phosphate fertilizer industry.
Thermal analysis of a gas turbine cycle for a turbojet engineIAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on the thermal analysis of a single spool turbojet engine cycle. It describes the modeling of key engine components like the atmospheric model, gas model, diffuser, compressor, combustion chamber, and gas turbine. Equations are provided for component mass and energy balances. The analysis considers turbine blade cooling using transpiration techniques. Software was developed in C++ to predict engine parameters at varying operating conditions. The goal of the study was to better understand turbojet engine performance through detailed thermodynamic modeling and analysis.
This document describes a CFD modeling project of flow over a flat plate. It includes an introduction, literature review, experimental setup, observations, results, and conclusions section. The project involves using FLUENT software to analyze parameters like velocity, pressure, and temperature of cold air flowing over a flat plate. Graphs of velocity and pressure variations obtained from the CFD simulations are presented.
POV - Climate change solution for the airline industrySonata Software
The document discusses how the global airline industry is exploring ways to reduce carbon emissions and is vulnerable to climate change regulations. While aviation only accounts for 2-3% of total greenhouse gas emissions, its impact is estimated to be 2-4 times greater due to emissions at high altitudes. The UN has urged international organizations to agree on managing airline emissions. The document outlines strategies airlines could adopt under four pillars: technology, infrastructure, operations, and carbon offset programs. It also discusses the EU's emissions trading scheme and how Sonata can provide IT solutions to help airlines track and report emission data needed to comply with regulations.
Aviation carbon footprint of global scheduled international passenger flights...Dave Southgate
This book describes the carbon footprint of global international aircraft operations in 2012. It contains a large number of graphics and tables which are designed to make the data readily accessible to the reader.
This document evaluates different aircraft options for airlines based on their requirements. It analyzes the Boeing 767-300 and Boeing 777-200 aircraft operated by American Airlines, Delta Airlines, United Airlines, and US Airways. It calculates the specific fuel consumption (SFC) of each aircraft and engine combination using data from the Bureau of Transportation Statistics to determine which options minimize fuel costs. The analysis finds that engine options significantly impact operating costs and the profit generated per flight for each airline. It recommends airlines carefully examine total costs of technological options to determine which provides the greatest return on investment and competitive advantage.
The document discusses improvements in dismantling and recycling of commercial aircraft. It provides background on the increasing number of aircraft reaching end-of-life and need for more sustainable management. It reviews factors that determine an aircraft's economic lifespan such as increasing maintenance costs and reduced market value over time. The literature also examines how changes in air travel trends and factors like economic recessions can force early retirement of aircraft. The document aims to address challenges in dismantling and recycling aircraft as their materials evolve and suggest ways to improve recovery of value from end-of-life aircraft.
This document contains a research report on axial compressor surge in gas turbine engines. It defines compressor surge as a breakdown in airflow through the compressor blades caused by stalling. When surge occurs, compressed air reverses direction and exits the front or back of the engine explosively. The report describes two methods engine manufacturers use to prevent surge: variable inlet guide vanes and blow-off valves. It also outlines the process for testing surge characteristics and calculating an engine's surge line on a performance map. The report provides examples to illustrate the concepts and concludes with references in the CUHarvard citation style.
Similar to CIVI 6691 GHG and Control Term Project (Ibrahim Jammal) (20)
CIVI 6691 GHG and Control Term Project (Ibrahim Jammal)
1. Submitted to Prof. Dr. Chen
CIVI 6691
Greenhouse Gases and Control
Ibrahim Jammal - ID# 27683642
Project Report
10/27/2016
Air Travel and Climate Change
3. Ibrahim Jammal
2 Air Travel and Climate Change
Contents
List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. 3
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 3
1. Objectives:.......................................................................................................................... 4
2. Introduction (Statement): .................................................................................................. 4
3. Methods to be used in this project.................................................................................... 5
4. Airplanes, emissions and optimization .............................................................................. 5
4.1 Flight altitudes and atmosphere ................................................................................ 5
4.2 Airplanes emissions and impacts............................................................................... 7
4.3 Model: ...................................................................................................................... 10
4.3.1 Jatropha Oil:...................................................................................................... 11
4.3.2 Waste cooking oil biofuel.................................................................................. 11
4.4 Optimization............................................................................................................. 12
4.4.1 Constraints:....................................................................................................... 15
4.5 Cases, Results and Discussions:................................................................................ 15
4.5.1 Minimizing cost 2013:....................................................................................... 15
4.5.2 Stabilization of emissions in 2020:.................................................................... 17
4.5.3 Decreasing the emissions in 2050:.................................................................... 20
5. Mitigation......................................................................................................................... 22
5.1 International Agreements: ....................................................................................... 22
5.2 Individual Initiative:.................................................................................................. 23
6. Future..................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
7. Conclusion...........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
8. References........................................................................................................................ 27
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3 Air Travel and Climate Change
List of Tables
Table 1 -Airplanes fuel combustion elements contributing to climate and ozone change. ..... 9
List of Figures
Figure 1 - Aviation impacts on the atmosphere........................................................................ 7
Figure 2 - Contrails left behind an airplane............................................................................... 8
Figure 3 - CO2 emissions/passenger calculated on ICAO website........................................... 14
Figure 4 - Ethanol and Biodiesel production increase ............................................................ 18
Figure 5 - Prototype model ..................................................................................................... 25
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1. Objectives:
This Study aims to recognize the impact of air travel on the climate change and its
contribution to the greenhouse gases levels. It also aims to study how to reduce its
impacts and identify the possible alternatives.
2. Introduction (Statement):
Aviation is the fastest and one of the most important mean of transport on earth.
Aircrafts can differ in size, shape and use; from the commercial, personal use to the
military use; from airplanes carrying four passengers, to airplanes carrying up to 853
passengersi.
The biggest part of the industry is made up by the commercial fleets (passenger and
cargo fleets, more than 80%). These airplanes use Jet fuel or aviation turbine
fuel (ATF) to run their gas turbine engines. Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of
different hydrocarbons (fossil fuel). The combustion of the jet fuel results in the
emission of different types of gases. Some of these gases are a part of the
greenhouse gases; hence they have impacts on the global warming.
These impacts can be negative or even positive. Hence these impacts on global
climate should be studied to minimize the negative impacts and find a way to
increase the positive impacts.
Even though the air travel industry is relatively small compared to other means of
transport, like automobiles, but it has a bigger impact per passenger kilometer on the
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earth climate compared to the other means. Moreover, this sector is growing rapidly,
“since 1990; CO2 emissions from international aviation have increased 83 per cent”ii.
3. Methods to be used in this project
Aviation GHG emission, effects, and management
In this case study, aviation emissions will enumerated, showing their impacts and
effects on climate change. Also how it is possible to manage and limit their impacts.
Moreover, the impacts of the endless increase of the aviation emissions hence the
related increase in the global temperature expected to be calculated.
Optimization
Optimization is used to determine the lowest cost, emissions for current years and to
predict the future scenarios, and it will allow us to determine which field can be
improved to reach emission goals.
4. Airplanes, emissions and optimization
4.1 Flight altitudes and atmosphere
The impacts of the aviation emissions depend mostly on the flight altitude and
whether aircraft fly in the troposphere or stratosphere. The impacts on the
atmosphere can be noticeably different from the effects of the same emissions at
ground level. Flight levels are used to safeguard safe vertical separation between
airplanes; they are defined by a number, which is this nominal altitude in hecto-feet,
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which is a multiple of 500 ft, hence it always ends with 0 or 5. Therefore, a pressure
altitude of, for example, 32,500 feet is referred to as "flight level 325". “Most
commercial airplanes have a service ceiling of about 42,000 feet (12,802 m)”iii and
some commercial jets can reach about 51,000 feet (15,545 m) in altitudeiv, knowing
that the stratosphere starts at 59,000 ft (18000 m); at mid latitudes, it starts at
33,000-43,000 ft (10,000 to 13,000 m) at the poles, it starts at about 26,000 ft (8,000
m). Within the stratosphere layer, temperature increases; as level increases, noting
that the top of the stratosphere has a temperature of about −3°Cv. The increase of
temperature within the stratosphere with altitude is due to the absorption of
the ultraviolet radiation from the sun and the breaking of ozone, noting that clouds
rarely form at this level.
On an important side note, although the biggest time of the flight is spent on high
altitudes, but the part with the biggest impact on the environment is the takeoff and
the landing, hence as livesmartbc.ca advises us to book direct flight instead of
indirect trips, as they mention “direct flight produces less CO2 emissions that an
equivalent flight with many stops.”vi
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4.2 Airplanes emissions and impacts
Figure 1 - Aviation impacts on the atmospherevii
.
The emissions of airplanes can vary from gases of direct impact on climate, like
Carbone dioxide and water, and others with indirect impacts, like formation of
contrails and modified cirrus clouds, production of ozone in the troposphere and
alteration of methane lifetime. Also other emissions like nitrogen oxides, water vapor
and particulates affect stratospheric ozone indirectly by modifying the chemical
balance in the stratosphereviii.
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Figure 2 - Contrails left behind an airplane.
The Table 1, below, shows airplanes important emissions, that have a big impact on
the atmosphere, with summaries of their roles that they play. These emissions are
separated into two groups, depending on how they affect climate: Direct, like CO2,
where the emitted compound can change climate, and indirect, where the climate
species is not the same as the emitted species, like modified cirrus cloud coverage
resulting from particles and particle parent material.
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Noting that, the decrease in ozone, whether in the troposphere or stratosphere, will
augment UV-B radiation and cause a decrease in the Earth's temperature.
Contrariwise, the increase in ozone will cause the reduction of UV-B and cause the
increase in the Earth's surface temperature.
Also, the temperature increase at the Earth's surface caused by the increase of
atmospheric CO2 concentration levels will be followed by the cooling of the
stratosphereix.
This table showed us the importance of the emissions on altitude and the different
impacts of emissions on different altitudes.
Furthermore, the amount of CO2 produced in the combustion process of aviation oil
is determined by the total amount of carbon in the fuel, because CO2 and water are
an inevitable end product of this process. Keeping in mind, that the transport and
processing of the CO2 released by airplanes, into the atmosphere, follows the same
trails of the CO2 emitted by other source. Therefore, “CO2 emitted from aviation
becomes well mixed and indistinguishable from CO2 from other fossil fuel sources,
and has the same effects on climate”x.
4.3 Model:
After a several years of research from airplane engine manufacturers biofuels were
approved for commercial use in July 2011. Knowing that, using biofuel requires no
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modification for the jet enginesxi. Jet Biofuel performs as good as regular Jet A1 fuel,
it even gives better fuel economy than the engine running on traditional Jet A1.
4.3.1 Jatropha Oil:
A study conducted by the Yale School of Forestry on Jatropha Oil, which is a biofuel
that can be used as jet biofuel, estimated that using Jatropha Oil can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions up to 85%. Noting these biofuels do not contain sulfur
compounds, therefore they do not release sulfur dioxide.
Jatropha Oil oil is a bit cheaper than crude oil, costing an estimated $43 per barrel
with the current barrel price of $46 for a barrel of crude oilxii.
On October 28th, 2011 Air China was the first to complete successfully flight by a
Chinese airline that used Jatropha Oil biofuel. The mixture was a 50:50 mix of
conventional jet fuel mixed with Jatropha Oil oil produced by China National
Petroleum Corp. The 747-400 powered one of its four engines on the fuel mixture
during a one hour trip around Beijing international airportxiii.
4.3.2 Waste cooking oil biofuel
In March 2015, Hainan Airlines has completed China's first commercial flight using
biofuel, made from waste cooking oil. The Boeing 737 plane used a 50-50 mix of
conventional jet fuel and biofuel made from waste cooking oil gathered from
restaurants. It is estimated that waste oil in China could produce 500 million gallons
of biofuel annuallyxiv.
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Studies by the U.S. Department of Energy showed that waste cooking biofuel
decreases carbon emissions by 50-80% on a lifecycle basis compared to Kerosene
based jet fuel.xv But the biofuel produced by waste cooking oil is more expensive
than fossil fuel; its price is estimated to be 30% higher than the regular fuel; because
there is a challenge in the large number of pre-treatment procedures, such as
filtration and extraction to reach the level of purity, from used cooking to aviation bio-
kerosene. Noting that, this biofuel price is around 6% higher than regular jet fuelsxvi.
4.4 Optimization
The Numbers used in this case study were based on all US Airlinesxvii This
study was conducted in
Total fuel consumption by all US airlines in 2013: 13.2 billion US Gallons
Total fuel cost to all US airlines in 2013: $40.5 billion USD
Average price per gallon of jet fuel paid by US airlines in 2013: $3.07 USD
Percentage of total US airline costs attributed to fuel in 2013: 34%
Total number of airplanes operated by US airlines in 2013: 3,434
Total number of flights operated by US airlines in 2013: 4.7 million
Average amount of fuel used per flight by US airlines in 2013:
2,790 gallons, $8,575 dollars
f expected system cost ($) every year
ACf: available fossil jet fuel every year (106 Gallons/year)
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ACw : available waste vegetable oil Biofuel from households every year (106
Gallons/year)
ACj: available Jatropha Oil Biofuel every year (106 Gallons/year)
COTf GHG-emission rate for fossil fuel (lb. CO2 Eq. per Gallon)
COTw GHG-emission rate for waste vegetable oil Biofuel (lb. CO2 Eq. per Gallon)
COTw GHG-emission rate for Jatropha Oil Biofuel (lb. CO2 Eq. per Gallon)
DTF total fuel consumption/demand (Gallons/year) (US Airlines)
PTCf cost for purchasing targeted coal ($/Gallon)
PTCw cost for purchasing targeted waste vegetable oil Biofuel ($/Gallon)
PTCj cost for purchasing targeted Jatropha Oil Biofuel ($/Gallon)
TAC total amount of allowed GHG emissions every year (lb. CO2 per year)
TCf target use of jet fossil fuel per year (Gallons/year)
TCf target use of waste vegetable oil biofuel per year (Gallons/year)
TCf target use of Jatropha Oil Biofuel per year (Gallons/year)
Based on the above mentioned numbers:
DTF = 13.2 Billion US gal/year = 13200x106 Gal/year.
PTCf = 3.07$/gal
Waste Cooking oil has 6% higher price, as mentioned above, therefore:
PTCw = 3.25$/gal
While Jetropha oil
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PTCj = 2.86$/gal
TAC = 110 Mton
Figure 3 - CO2 emissions/passenger calculated on ICAO website
According to the above table emissions per passenger are equal to 583.5 Lb. of CO2
per passenger, assuming the plane is Boeing 333 (Capacity 228 passengers) with
occupancy of 200 passengers. Hence the total emissions of the trip is = 116700 lb.
CO2/40072.8 lb. fuel per flight hence equal to =2.91 lb. CO2/Lb. Fuel.
COTf = 19.78 Lb. CO2/gal.
As mentioned above, in the case study, the waste cooking oil biofuel has carbon 50
to 80% less CO2 emission. Assuming 60% less emission, hence:
COTw = 19.78*0.4 Lb. CO2/gal = 7.9 Lb CO2/gal.
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Emissions by Jatropha can be less by up to 85% than the fossil fuel, assuming 65%
less emissions, hence:
COTj = 19.78*0.35 Lb. CO2/gal = 6.9 Lb. CO2/gal.
4.4.1 Constraints:
Availability:
Since the current demand in this case study is 13.2 billion gal., therefore, we
assume the availability of fossil fuel is higher than that, since it is abundant on the
US market, hence:
ACf <= 14000x106 gal./years
ACw <= 2000x106 gal./years
ACj <= 1000x106 gal./years
DTF = TCf + TCw + TCj
TAC<= 0.11 Mt
Hence 19.78xTCf + 7.9xTCw + 6.9xTCj <= 240x109 lb. CO2
Total Cost: 3.07xTCf + 3.25xTCw + 2.86xTCj
4.5 Cases, Results and Discussions:
Solving the above for the following cases:
4.5.1 Minimizing cost 2013:
Minimize the cost according to current demand of the year 2013, adding the use of
Biofuels compared to the original case, using only fossil fuel.
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minimize the costsubjecttoemmisionandresources
Objective function=PTCf*TCf+PTCw*TCw+PTCj*TCj
f= 40,438,484,848
11,508,417,508 691,582,492 1,000,000,000
TCf TCw TCj
st1 11,508,417,508 <= 13,600,000,000 Fossil Fuel availability
st2 691,582,492 <= 2,000,000,000 Waste cooking oil biofuel Availability
st3 1,000,000,000 <= 1,000,000,000 Jatropha oil biofuel Availability
st4 13,200,000,000 >= 13,200,000,000 Fuel Demand
st5 240,000,000,000 <= 240,000,000,000 emissioncap
st6 11,508,417,508 >= 0
st7 691,582,492 >= 0
st8 1,000,000,000 >= 0
Discussions:
To minimize the cost the whole available Jatropha oil biofuel was used, since it has
the lowest cost between the available fuels. The rest of the demand was covered by
Fossil fuel and the waste cooking oil biofuel. Although the waste cooking oil fuel is
more expensive, but has lower emission rates, this is why the rest of the demand
wasn’t covered by the fossil fuel only, so the emissions stay less or equal to the
emission cap. Comparing the total cost reached through the optimization and the
original cost, we notice that the cost reached is bit lower than the original one (40.43
Billions < 40.50 Billions), with lower emissions. Hence the use of biofuels doesn’t
only decrease the emissions; it might be able to decrease the costs too.
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4.5.2 Stabilization of emissions in 2020:
Aviation industry is committed to improve its fuel efficiency by an average of 1.5%
per year, between 2010 and 2020, to stabilize the CO2 emissions. The growth
expected of the aviation industry yearly is 5.3%, as it averaged globally, between
September 2014 compared and September 2013xviii. Also noting that the European
Union, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990
and 2006xix, this means an annual increase of 5.4%. Hence the growth rate can be
considered constant, using an annual growth of 5.3% the demand in the year 2020,
starting with the year 2013, will be higher by 37.1%, hence 13.2*109x1.371 = 18x109
gal.year.
Noting that the increase in global biodiesel production increased in 2010, a 12
percent increase from 2009xx, as shown in the figure 4 below. Consider the same
rate of increase annually for both waste cooking oil based biofuel and Jatropha
based biofuel. The total increase would be 84% by 2020.
Considering an increase in the budget of 38% from the initial budget/cost, hence it
would be = $55.89 Billion. (Similar to the increase in demand and the aviation sector
considered before for the year 2020).
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Figure 4 - Ethanol and Biodiesel production increase
Solving for the above numbers in excel, with the target is to minimize emissions we
get the following results:
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Stabilizingthe CO₂ emissionsin2020 with the increase of demandand production
minimize the emissiontoreachthe same level as
2013
Objective function=19.78xTCf + 7.9xTCw + 6.9xTCj
f= 290,545,016,000
12,577,200,000 3,680,000,000 1,840,000,000
TCf TCw TCj
st1 12,577,200,000 <= 13,600,000,000 Fossil Fuel availability
st2 3,680,000,000 <= 3,680,000,000 Waste cookingoil biofuel Availability
st3 1,840,000,000 <= 1,840,000,000 Jatrophaoil biofuel Availability
st4 18,097,200,000 >= 18,097,200,000 Fuel Demand
st5 55,834,404,000 <= 55,890,000,000 Budget
st6 12,577,200,000 >= 0
st7 3,680,000,000 >= 0
st8 1,840,000,000 >= 0
Discussions:
After the increase of demand in 2020, the aim was to the aviation industry was to fix
the emissions at the same level, but according to the calculations the goal won’t be
reached (240x109 lb. CO2 in 2013, while it’s 290 x109 lb. CO2 in 2020).
This shows that the production of Biodiesel is still not enough, since all the available
amounts were consumed, despite the big increase. Hence the companies should
use other alternative fuels in addition to the ones mentioned in this study.
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4.5.3 Decreasing the emissions in 2050:
The UNFCCC aims to turn the neutral growth of carbon (between 2010 & 2020) to a
decrease after 2020 to reach the half of the aviation emissions by 2050 compared to
2005 levels. The forecasts/plans are shown in the graph below:
Figure 5 –future aviation emission scenariosxxi
Considering the same demand and production rates, for both, aviation and biofuel
production for the year 2050. But considering the availably of fossil fuel is constant;
since the production of fossil fuel may slow down. The emission cap reduced to less
than 50% of its value in 2005.
Considering the emissions of this sector in 2005 was 144x109 lb. CO2.
Decreasingthe CO₂ emissionsin2050 with the increase of demand and production
minimize the emissiontoreachthe 50% of the 2005
level
Objective function=19.78xTCf + 7.9xTCw + 6.9xTCj
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f= 392,496,000,000
13,600,000,000 10,880,000,000 5,440,000,000
TCf TCw TCj
st1 13,600,000,000 <= 13,600,000,000 Fossil Fuel availability
st2 10,880,000,000 <= 10,880,000,000 Waste cookingoil biofuel Availability
st3 5,440,000,000 <= 5,440,000,000 Jatrophaoil biofuel Availability
st4 29,920,000,000 >= 39,072,000,000 Fuel Demand
st5 92,670,400,000 <= 167,670,000,000 Budget
st6 13,600,000,000 >= 0
st7 10,880,000,000 >= 0
st8 5,440,000,000 >= 0
Discussions:
In this model not all constraints were met, since the increase of biofuel production
wasn’t enough to cover the demand.
Nevertheless the emissions went even higher than the 2020 level by 35%, not
achieving the goal aimed for.
We can conclude that relying on biofuels only is not enough to decrease the
emissions; drastic changes should be done. Changes could be mainly design
changes that can make airplanes lighter and faster, and more fuel efficient.
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5. Mitigation
5.1 International Agreements:
Greenhouse gases from international aviation were not included in the scope of the
first period Kyoto Protocol; unlike domestic aviation and emissions by airports; which
were included in the protocol. As an alternative, nations agreed to work through
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to decrease emissions and to
find a solution to the distribution of emissions from global air before the start of the
second period of the Kyoto Protocol in 2009.
On October the 6th 2016, in the city of Montreal, Government, industry and civil
society delegates agreed on a new global market-based measure (GMBM) to
regulate CO2 emissions released by global aviation.xxii Sixty six states representing
more than 85% of the global aviation activity had vowed to take part in a global
market-based measure to reduce aviation emissions; having a main aim 50%
reduction of emissions by 2050, compared to 2005 emissions.
5.2 The use of biofuel and airplane upgrades:
As mentioned before in this report, Biofuels can be used to decrease the emissions
up to 85%. Different types of biofuels have been used in commercial flights, such as
Jatropha Oil, Ethanol and others, and those fuels proved that they are efficient and
they produce less GHGs emissions.
Upgrades to the airplane aerodynamics can also help improve the fuel efficiency,
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and therefore reducing emissions.
Figure 6 - An example of an upgrade - The wingletxxiii
5.3 Individual Initiatives:
Mitigation can be also done on the individual level to limit the flying unless absolutely
necessary. Step taken could be:
Taking closer vacations, therefore shorter trips and less GHG would be
emitted.
Use other means of transportation when possible, especially public transport.
Trains and buses, for example, are much more energy efficient than
airplanes.
Use video-conferences for meetings, when possible, to reduce business air
travel. Corporations profit from reduced costs at the same time reducing
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emissions.
When it is necessary to travel:
Reduce the number of flights taken by combining trips, like visiting
friends/family and business travels.
Take direct flights when possible, since take-offs and landings consume the
most fuel.
Travel during the day, because flights taken at night have a greater impact on
the climate, since the contrails during the daytime have a bigger positive
impact than night, since during the day they reflect sunrays, but during the
night they absorb infrared radiations.
Travel in the economy section, because this yields in less missions per
passenger.
Take lighter luggage, because this contributes in lowering the airplane weight
as well, hence less fuel is consumed by the airplane.
6. Conclusion
Since this sector is always growing, the future effects of the aviation emissions on
the environment are questionable. What measures are going to be taken to reduce
those emissions? What special effects might there be, is there any ecofriendly
alternatives?
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As a result of this report, it can be concluded that the use if biofuels for airplanes is
not enough to reach the desired levels of GHGs emissions, although they might
have a notable impact in the near future, and they don’t require any modification on
airplanes’ design, and they can even perform better than fossil jet fuel.
Also, Environmental organizations consider that using biofuel is not the answer to
reduce airplane emissions, since as some biofuels compete with food crops, causing
deforestation and other harmful land use.
Hence radical modifications should be done to reach the emission goals, such
modifications has been subject of studies.
One of these studies is a study conducted by NASA and MIT engineers. This study
focused on the wing design. The “Digital Morphing Wing” could greatly improve an
aircraft's fuel-efficiency, reduce its emissions and make it fly more smoothly than the
conventional planesxxiv. Such modifications allow a 70 percent reduction in fuel use.
Figure 7 - Prototype model
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26 Air Travel and Climate Change
At the end, Aviation is like any other GHG emitting sector of transportation,
improvements and solutions are highly needed to reduce its emissions to save our
planet. Although it currently contributes to around 3% our global emissions only, but
every decrease counts. And also noting that it is a hard sector to evolve, especially
in design and safety, this is why more research is needed in this field.
7. Plagiarism Test
Please find my Plagiarism test on the below hyperlink:
https://www.thepensters.com/free-plagiarism-checker-
report.html?id=12d3d40a8602ee5e863515d1484b8ee8_1480652929:9353420
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8. References
i
"A380 - A380 Photos, Pictures, A380 Videos, A380 3D View | Airbus | Airbus, A Leading Aircraft
Manufacturer". airbus. N.p., 2016. Web. 25 Sept. 2016.
ii
"Air Travel And Climate Change". David Suzuki Foundation. N.p., 2016. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
iii
page 10-7 / FAA "Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge" (FAA-H-8083-25A)
iv
"Bombardier | Aerospace | Business Aircraft | Bombardier Global XRS Performances".
Www2.bombardier.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 11 Oct. 2016.
v
Seinfeld,J.H.,andS. N.(2006), Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate
Change 2nd ed, Wiley, New Jersey
vi
http://www.livesmartbc.ca/homes/h_calc.html
vii
"IPCC Special Reports On Climate Change". Grida.no. N.p., 2016. Web. 18 Oct. 2016.
viii
Penner, Joyce E. Aviation And The Global Atmosphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1999. Print.
ix
"IPCC Special Reports On Climate Change". Grida.no. N.p., 1.3. Emissions and the Environment”
x
"IPCC Special Reports On Climate Change". Grida.no. N.p., 1.3. Emissions and the Environment”
xi Coburn, Davin. "The Next Biofuel Frontier: Jet Engines". Popular Mechanics. N.p., 2016. Web. 30 Nov. 2016.
xii
"NZ Airline FliesJetlinerPartlyRun On Veg Oil - Indian Express". Archive.indianexpress.com. N.p.,
2016. Web. 30 Nov. 2016.
xiii "Air China Conducts First Biofuel Test Flight|Sci-Tech|Chinadaily.Com.Cn". Chinadaily.com.cn. N.p., 2016.
Web. 30 Nov. 2016.
xiv "Air China Conducts First Biofuel Test Flight|Sci-Tech|Chinadaily.Com.Cn". Chinadaily.com.cn. N.p., 2016.
Web. 30 Nov. 2016.
xv "Cooking Oil’S Use In Aviation Set To ‘Grow And Become Bigger’". EurActiv.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 30 Nov.
2016.
xvi "Clean Cities Alternative Fuel Price Report". http://www.afdc.energy.gov/. N.p., 2009. Web. 30 Nov. 2016.
xvii Jensen, Luke. "Fuel Burn Reduction: How Airlines Can Shave Costs". apex.aero. N.p., 2016. Web. 30 Nov.
2016.
xviii Larkin, Alice. "Aviation And Climate Change–The Continuing Challenge". N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Dec. 2016.
xix "European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - Press Release - Climate Change: Commission Proposes
Bringingair Transport Into EU Emissions Trading Scheme". Europa.eu. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Dec. 2016.
xx "Biofuels Regain Momentum | Vital Signs Online". Vitalsigns.worldwatch.org. N.p., 2016. Web. 1 Dec. 2016.
xxi "The Right Flightpath To Reduce Aviation Emissions". www.atag.org/. N.p., 2016. Print.
xxii
"HistoricAgreementReached To Mitigate International Aviation Emissions". Icao.int. N.p., 2016.
Web. 26 Nov. 2016.
xxiii "Beginner’S Guide To Aviation Efficiency". http://www.atag.org/. N.p., 2010. Print.
xxiv Staedter, Tracy. "Airplane Wing Actively Morphs For More Agile, Efficient Flying". Seeker - Science. World.
Exploration. Seek for yourself.. N.p., 2016. Web. 2 Dec. 2016.