The document discusses brining levels in chicken production in South Africa. It provides perspectives from experts on brining: - Brining chicken at levels above 10% adds mostly water weight and dilutes the nutritional value of the chicken. At very high levels (e.g. 30%), consumers are essentially paying for water, not chicken meat. - Sodium levels are elevated in brined chicken but usually not extremely high. Accurate labelling of sodium is important for health-conscious consumers. - While brining adds juiciness and tenderness to chicken, levels above 10% do not provide meaningful benefits and mislead consumers who think they are buying chicken meat but are in fact purchasing diluted chicken and water.

1. 14 | MAY 2014 | FOOD & BEVERAGE REPORTER www.fbreporter.com
poultry
Experts comment on
preferred levels of
chicken brining
S
cientifically, the salt in the brine
initially draws moisture from the
chicken. Then, through diffusion,
the salty juices penetrate deep into the
chicken. The salt causes the protein
molecules to unwind and move away
from each other, or denature. This
unravelling of the protein molecules
tenderises the meat so it stays juicier,
Christensen reported.
The liquid in the brine penetrates
the bird, slowly causing its membranes
to swell by up to 10% of their original
weight, compensating for weight lost
through cooking and helping to keep the
meat tender.
Sol Motsepe, senior executive at
the SA Poultry Association (SAPA )
said: “The poultry industry introduced
brine technology in the early 1990s in
order to address the negative impact
on organoleptic qualities of poultry
portions that were marketed as quick
frozen product. It was introduced to
improve tenderness and juiciness of the
meat which was directly affected by the
freezing process.”
In the past two years brining levels
in chicken in South Africa have caused
a furore among producers and other
stakeholders. The government is yet
to legislate an amount agreeable to all
parties concerned.
Much of the debate is in limbo, with
the Department of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries (DAFF) remaining mum on
any kind of commitment while the World
Health Organisation takes its time to
provide feedback on the draft regulations
document.
Meanwhile it’s important to
understand the nutritional compromise/
benefit that brining provides to
manufacturers and consumers alike.
Motsepe said brining was a benefit
to the consumer because “chicken in
marinade retains its chicken taste after
being frozen, and marinaded chicken is
cheaper than fresh”.
Current brine levels used by poultry
processors are being reported to be as
high as 30% in individually quick frozen
(IQF) chickens. The draft regulations
recommend 15%.
“This brining level has the potential
to cut the supply of affordable, healthy
sources of protein to consumers and
will impact on food security and
nutrition. We also fear that some
industry players may be forced out
of business,”said Motsepe.
Kevin Lovell, CEO of SAPA said:
“We fear that the brining regulations
as proposed by the department are
neither sufficiently comprehensive
nor technically correct. We want to
work with the department in a spirit of
mutual co-operation to get this resolved
as quickly as possible.”
David Wolpert, CEO of the
Association of Meat Importers and
Exporters of SA (AMIE), said: “AMIE is,
and always has been, totally opposed
to the blatant abuse of consumers by
excessive brining and welcomes the
new limits as set by DAFF. While we
would have preferred even lower limits,
which clearly would be in the interest of
consumers, we believe that the recent
decision by DAFF is very encouraging
and will certainly reduce the abuse of
consumers for commercial gain.”
He said that “total brining volumes
exceed 500 million litres per annum.
Wolpert’s opinion is that “the local
chicken fraternity seems to be divided
on this issue and AMIE supports the
view of those local producers in favour
of the new levels or even zero brining.
We urge the department to implement
its ruling as soon as possible in order to
restore some moral, ethical and safety
values in the market place – values that
have been missing for a number of years
while such abusive practices have been
in existence.“
He adds, ”Labelling is not a solution
to any excessive brining in SA as many
consumers are not literate”
Motsepe said the draft was
published and comment requested on 12
December 2013, with feedback invited
within 60 days. Subsequently member
states of the WHO have applied for
extensions which is delaying the process
even further.
“There are continuing discussions
with DAFF as this is a complex matter,”
“Brining, or wet-salting, is an age-old technique that uses salt and liquid to improve the flavour
and texture of meat and poultry. It works on basic scientific principles, but in this case, more is not
better. Using too much salt or brining the poultry for too long will lead to less-than-satisfactory
results,”according to “The Science Behind Brining Chicken”, an article by Julie Christensen
published in Everyday Life.

2. www.fbreporter.com FOOD & BEVERAGE REPORTER | MAY 2014 | 15
said Motsepe. “Hopefully we will reach
an amicable solution soon.”
A notification to stakeholders
stipulated the government expected the
proposed changes to be adopted by 1
September 2014 and enforced by March
2015, according to Motsepe.
Meanwhile the following questions
were put to experts to determine both
nutritional and commercial values
of chicken meat with brining and
without it.
Arno Hugo, associate professor:
Microbial Biochemical and Food
Biotechnology, University of the Free
State, and Guy Crosby, science editor,
America’s Test Kitchen and adjunct
associate professor, Department of
Nutrition, Harvard School of Public
Health, responded.
1. What is your concern
about “consumer abuse” –
how is the nutritional value
compromised?
Arno Hugo (AH): Brine injection will
result in a decline in the concentration of
nutrients like protein, fat, some minerals
and vitamins. Raw brine-injected chicken
will also demonstrate a reduced energy
value. I have analysed raw brine-injected
IQF chicken with a protein content
around 10%. The protein content of
normal uninjected chicken meat is
around 20%.
Guy Crosby (GP): According to the
US Department of Agriculture (USDA)
guidelines for meat, poultry and eggs,
water or salt solutions are not pumped
into whole poultry, but rather used for
soaking the chilled, eviscerated poultry
to reduce microbial contamination. It
states that water may be absorbed or
retained by this process. The guidelines
state that the “percentage retained
water”or “percentage absorbed water”
must be stated on the label. The USDA
allows up to 8-12% retained or absorbed
water in whole chickens. Furthermore,
the sodium content of a single serving
(usually 114g for chicken) must be
stated in the nutrition facts panel on the
label. So the information is there for the
consumer to determine both sodium
content and percentage of added water.
This information is not hidden from the
consumer. The liquids used for soaking
typically contain sodium hypochlorite
and/or trisodium phosphate, which is
Total broiler
production
Total production:
eviscerated chicken
Total production:
total edible offaL
Total production:
Total other offal
Unit: t t t t
2008 1 518 250 1 197 597 96 103 224 549
2009 1 530 361 1 207 150 96 870 226 341
2010 1 591 732 1 255 560 100 755 235 417
2011 1 608 288 1 268 619 101 803 237 866
2012 1 614 027 1 273 146 102 166 238 715
Total broiler
production
Total production:
eviscerated chicken
Total production:
total edible offaL
Total production:
Total other offal
Unit: t t t t
2008 1 518 250 1 197 597 96 103 224 549
2009 1 530 361 1 207 150 96 870 226 341
2010 1 591 732 1 255 560 100 755 235 417
2011 1 608 288 1 268 619 101 803 237 866
2012 1 614 027 1 273 146 102 166 238 715
Effect of brining on production volumes Broiler production
Edible offal - Consists of liver, heart, gizzard and neck
Other offal - Consists of feet, head, intestines and lungs
poultry

3. 16 | MAY 2014 | FOOD & BEVERAGE REPORTER www.fbreporter.com
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4. www.fbreporter.com FOOD & BEVERAGE REPORTER | MAY 2014 | 17
reflected in the sodium content of the chicken. The USDA also
allows “flavour solutions”to be used with whole chickens and
other meats like beef and pork. The USDA requires that all
ingredients used in the flavour solution be declared on the label.
2. From a value for money point of view, how is
the consumer being affected?
AH: Brine-injected chicken is cheaper than its uninjected
counterpart. I am not sure if consumers are always able to
differentiate between fresh chicken portions and brine-injected
chicken portions and if they are aware of the fact that they
are buying the brine-injected IQF chicken at a reduced price
because it is diluted. It is not necessarily good value for money
to buy a diluted product at a reduced price. I am also concerned
that brine injection of chicken may create an uneven playing
field with competitive protein sources. If beef and pork are
injected with low levesl of brine, they are called pastrami or
bacon or ham. They are not sold as beef and pork. It is possible
that consumers may compare the price of fresh beef, pork and
lamb with that of brine-injected IQF chicken portions and base
his purchase decision on that unfair comparison.
GC: Of course, added water adds to the
weight of the chicken. Based on the stated
amount of percentage retained water or
percentage absorbed water on the label, the
consumer can compare different brands of
whole broiler and fryer chickens and determine
if one is a better buy than another. One can also
buy ‘air-chilled’chicken, which does not contain
added water. These brands are generally more
expensive. Again, the consumer can make the
choice which is better and which to buy.
3. What is the impact of the high
sodium level?
AH: Although the sodium levels of brine-
injected IQF portions are usually elevated, they
are not extremely high. This may however be
a problem for hypertension or kidney sufferer
since they may expect fresh chicken to have a
sodium content of around 70mg/100g and not
250mg/100g and higher as found in brine-
injected IQF portions. Accurate and visible
labelling of sodium levels is therefore critically
important.
GC: The sodium content of a variety of
poultry products ranges from 52-152mg per
serving, and 70-147mg per 100g of chicken.
At the FDA recommended limit of 2,300mg
of sodium per day this represents only 3-6.3%
of the daily recommended intake of sodium.
Not very high compared to many other foods,
especially snack foods and more highly
processed foods. It’s imperative to note that
sodium is only a part of salt, sodium chloride.
So 2.54g (2,540mg) of salt contains just 1g
(1,000mg) of sodium. Put another way, a person
would need to consume 5.842g (5,842mg,
which is about one teaspoon) of salt in order to
consume the recommended intake of 2,300mg of sodium per
day. The point is, adding a certain amount of salt to food does
not automatically add the same amount of sodium.
4. What is your view of the moral/ethical
implications of unnecessarily high brining
levels?
AH: In my opinion extraneous water up to 10 % will have
a beneficial effect on the chicken from an eating quality
(tenderness and succulence) point of view. I do not believe
that there is an advantage in extraneous water levels above
10 %. Consumers are misled at injection levels of as high as
50%, as previously reported in the media. They are then buying
expensive water at a reduced chicken price.
GC: I believe the moral and ethical issues are greatly
reduced both by the labelling requirements specified by the
USDA and the consumers responsibility to read the labels and
make informed choices. Unlike the FDA, the USDA conducts
extensive inspections of plants and products like meat, poultry,
and egg products. The major processing plants have full-time
inspectors on sight.
poultry

5. 18 | MAY 2014 | FOOD & BEVERAGE REPORTER www.fbreporter.com
poultry
5. What is the ideal meat-to-
brine ratio – is zero brining a
real possibility?
AH: Zero brining is possible, but zero
extraneous water is not possible since
the process of slaughtering chicken will
inevitably lead to the absorption of low
levels of water. Especially when spin
chilling is used, a significant amount
of water will be absorbed. Current
legislation allows 8% of water to be
absorbed by whole chicken carcasses
that are spin chilled. The best method to
monitor extraneous water in chicken is
to measure the moisture-to-protein ratio
of whole carcasses or portions. That is
the method used in the EU to monitor
the level of extraneous water in chicken.
A typically acceptable moisture-to-
protein ratio for chicken is in the region
of 3.5-3.8:1. In my opinion added water
levels of more than 10% do not offer any
real advantage.
GC: The ideal concentration of real
brining (as opposed to soaking for
removal of microorganisms), has been
shown to be 6% by weight of salt in
water. Zero percentage salt ‘brine’is
possible, but it takes a very long time for
water to be absorbed into whole chicken
with no salt in the brine.
6. In terms of best nutrition
for the consumer, what is their
best buy – that is, what are
your tips for the purchaser?
AH: At the moment I advise the
consumer to buy fresh (not frozen)
chicken since it is difficult to inject high
levels of brine into fresh chicken. Once
the new brining regulations are in place
and properly monitored, the consumer
may again buy South African IQF chicken
again with confidence.
GC: Read the labels! And learn
what information is on the label and
what it means. This includes knowing
something about the protein and fat
contents, and other nutrients declared
on the label. Chicken has a healthier ratio
of saturated to unsaturated fats than red
meat (including pork). Buying free-range
poultry is even more expensive, but
worth it for some consumers.
7. Do you have any
recommendations?
AH: I think that there is a market for
brine-injected chicken. I also have no
objection to it, but the product must be
clearly labelled, presented and marketed
as a processed product. In my opinion it
must not be named chicken or chicken
breasts or chicken thighs. A specific
name must be given to these products
that makes the consumer understand
that it is not fresh chicken. Pork is also
injected with brine but it is sold as bacon
or ham or kassler rib. Consumers of these
products are well aware of the fact that
they are buying processed products and
not fresh pork cuts.
GC: Yes. Eating whole chickens, even
with known amounts of added water,
and relatively low levels of sodium, is
still healthier than eating the same
amount of red meat. And it is much
less expensive than red meat. But
consumers must be careful of bacterial
contamination of chicken. It can be
contaminated inside the flesh, unlike
whole cuts of red meat, so it must be
cooked to 165°F (74°C) to be safe. This is
far more important for chicken than the
level of sodium and added water. And at
least a whole roasting chicken, or even
chicken parts, are far better than buying
further processed chicken products, such
as fried chicken nuggets and chicken
pieces.
Guy Crosby: www.cookingscienceguy.com
Arno Hugo: www.ufs.ac.za
SAPA: www.sapoultry.co.za
AMIE: www.amiesa.co.za
CURRENT ADVERTISED
VALUE PROPOSITION
70/30
frozen
brined
iqf
IMPORTED
LEG
QUARTERS
FRESH
WHOLE
CHICKEN
FRESH
BRAAI
PACK
FRESH
SKINLESS
FILLETS
Meat/fat & skin Grams 489,7 703,7 703,7 703,7 1000,0
Bones Grams 214,3 296,3 296,3 296,3 -
Brine Grams 296,0 - - - -
Total content Grams 1000,0 1000,0 1000,0 1000,0 1000,0
RSP kg 17,0 29,99 29,99 29,99 46,99
Excluding brine &
bones
RSP kg 34,70 42,62 42,62 42,62 46,99
IQF/2kg 33,99
Protein content Grams 91,08 130,89 130,89 130,89 186,00
% 13,94% 18,60% 18,60% 18,60% 21,39%
R/kg 186,59 229,13 229,13 29,13 252,63
CURRENT ADVERTISED
VALUE PROPOSITION
70/30
frozen
brined
iqf
IMPORTED
LEG
QUARTERS
FRESH
WHOLE
CHICKEN
FRESH
BRAAI
PACK
FRESH
SKINLESS
FILLETS
Meat/fat & skin Grams 489,7 703,7 703,7 703,7 1000,0
Bones Grams 214,3 296,3 296,3 296,3 -
Brine Grams 296,0 - - - -
Total content Grams 1000,0 1000,0 1000,0 1000,0 1000,0
RSP kg 17,0 29,99 29,99 29,99 46,99
Excluding brine &
bones
RSP kg 34,70 42,62 42,62 42,62 46,99
IQF/2kg 33,99
Protein content Grams 91,08 130,89 130,89 130,89 186,00
% 13,94% 18,60% 18,60% 18,60% 21,39%
R/kg 186,59 229,13 229,13 29,13 252,63
Practical effect of brining
Mean Sensory Score: Thighs
Slides courtesy of SANCU
Visual Smell Taste Juciness Total
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
Brazilian Product
SA Product 1
European Product
SA Product 2
Local chicken comes out tops
Results of restaurant survey