Chapter One: Media/Society in a Digital World
Note: Read the summary below and click on all supplemental links as part of this lecture;the videos and articles provided will assist with your understanding of this chapter.
Key Questions:
1. How can we understand the importance of media in relationship to socialization, structure and agency?
2. How can a sociological lens help us understand the relationship between media and social context?
3. What roles do structure and agency play in our understanding of media culture?
Themes:
1.1 Definitions: Media vs. Medium & Interpersonal vs. Mass Media
1.2 Technology, Interactivity & Consumption
1.3 Cultural Experience & Socialization
1.4 Sociology: Social Relations, Structure & Agency
1.5 Model of Media
1.1 Definitions: Media vs. Medium & Interpersonal vs. Mass Media
Before we examine and critique the role(s) of media in our social world(s), it is essential to identify and narrow our scope by defining terms; after all, "media" is a term used very loosely in contemporary culture. As Croteau & Hoynes (2019) explain in your textbook , the term "media" is the PLURAL of medium and is derived from medius,which is the Latin term for "middle."
A helpful way to think about these concepts is that mediumsfacilitate communication between (are in the middle of) a sender and receiver; for example, television is a medium that facilitates programming from producers/creators/networks to audiences. Other mediums include radio, print, film, and the internet, and notices that they are both digital and non-digital (print).
The term "media" is the plural of these mediums, but is often used incorrectly; although it doesn't sound like correct grammar, the proper way (within the field of Media Studies) to use "media" in a sentence is "media are" not "media is." When individuals, including politicians, members of non-profits, etc. say "media is" and fail to recognize that the concept of "media" actually encompasses many different mediums with various logics, there is an assumption that all mediums function the same, include the same message, and follow the same regulations and economic structure. For example, when "the media" is blamed for violent action or political outcomes, there is a misunderstanding that needs to be refined; are we talking about film? Television? News media? Are we talking about the digital edition of the news? Are we talking about the Tweets that come from that news organization? In other words, it is important to be specific about mediums when making claims about impact, and when referring to "media" it is important to remember that this is a plural term.
Now, the next step in introductory terminology is to identify which media are "interpersonal" and which mediums are considered "mass" - this course focuses on "mass" media. Some of you may have taken Communications courses that focus more on interpersonal communication, which is one-to-one, includes a single known receiver, and is very interactive (.
Social media Marketing Presentation by vaibhavjainVaibhav Jain
This is a Social media Presentation made by me a few months ago with a few Basics inside the PPT. Hope it Helps you to Grow your business. the Images used here are From Search Engine's and i hereby do not Claim to be the owner of the same. This PPT is in the interest of People and the content is wholly Written by me(@followvaibhav).
A slideshow explaining the Uses and Gratifications Media Theory, also relating specifically to music videos and the internet's influence over audiences.
Social media Marketing Presentation by vaibhavjainVaibhav Jain
This is a Social media Presentation made by me a few months ago with a few Basics inside the PPT. Hope it Helps you to Grow your business. the Images used here are From Search Engine's and i hereby do not Claim to be the owner of the same. This PPT is in the interest of People and the content is wholly Written by me(@followvaibhav).
A slideshow explaining the Uses and Gratifications Media Theory, also relating specifically to music videos and the internet's influence over audiences.
Reader-to-Leader Framework is designed to help researchers, designers, and managers understand what motivates technology-mediated social participation. This will enable them to improve interface design and social support for their companies, government agencies, and non-governmental organizations.
An introduction to social media for brands, part of a seminar given to clients and fellow agencies in Sept 09. A high level overview of what is social media and how you can use it
Let’s Get Social!Discussion TitlePrepare There is no shortage.docxsmile790243
Let’s Get Social!
Discussion Title
Prepare: There is no shortage of social media platforms that exist for us to communicate directly and indirectly with each other. For this assignment, we will focus on Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. This discussion requires that you establish an account for each of the platforms. If you already have one, create a separate one specifically for this assignment so you can share your links with others in the class. If you are a Journalism and Mass Communication major, your profile will be used in other courses as you progress through the program. You will also need to read the following about these forms of social media:
· Facebook 101
· Anatomy of a Tweet
· About YouTube
·
Reflect: Once you have established your social media presences, reflect on the following questions:
· Was the setup straightforward?
· How much personal information did you have to provide?
· How do you perceive the usefulness of each platform on a personal and professional level?
·
Write: Now that you have critically thought about the process of setting up and using these social media platforms, write a 200- to 250-word blog post about your experience with setting them up. In your post, you must include at least one credible source of information that is related to at least one of the questions to support your ideas. Include a byline at the beginning of your blog post. At the end of your blog, include a full reference for all sources cited in the body of your blog. All citations and references must adhere to APA style guidelines as outlined in theAshford Writing Center. View theFormatting Stories and Blogs document for assistance with formatting your blog.
Check It! Your blog must be submitted throughGrammarly prior to submission.
Respond to Peers: After you have written your blog, read the blogs of your peers and post a comment to at least three other bloggers about their experiences in setting up and using their social media presences. Your comments should address them by name, be between 50 and 75 words in length, and must include your name at the end of each response.
W4 Assignment 2
Use the Week 4 research template to complete the following assignment tasks.
· Choose the assigned research articles from W2 Assignment 2. Describe the sample with demographics, data collection process, and identification of variables; sampling design; instruments, tools, or surveys.
· Summarized the discussion about the validity and reliability of the instruments, tools, or surveys.
· Discussed legal/ethical concerns.
· NOTE: If a component is absent, student receives a zero for that component.
Cite all sources in APA format
Articles
Bortz, A., Ashkenazi, T., & Melnikov, S. (2015). Spirituality as a predictive factor for signing an organ donor card. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 47(1), 25-33. doi: 10.1111/jnu.12107
Dinkel, S., & Schmidt, K. (2015). Health education needs of incarcerated women.Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 46(4), 229-234. d ...
Social media refers to applications and websites – the collective of online communications channels – that enable people, companies, and other organizations to create and share content on social networking sites and blogs.
CHAPTER 3Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and .docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 3
Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and Other Standards ofPractice
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
2. Legal and Fiscal Management
· Knowledge and application of the advantages and disadvantages of different legal structures
· Knowledge of different codes and regulations as they relate to the delivery of early childhood program services
· Knowledge of child custody, child abuse, special education, confidentiality, anti-discrimination, insurance liability, contract, and laborlaws pertaining to program management
5. Program Operations and Facilities Management
· Knowledge and application of policies and procedures that meet state/local regulations and professional standards pertaining to thehealth and safety of young children
7. Marketing and public relations
· Skill in developing a business plan and effective promotional literature, handbooks, newsletters, and press releases
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
5. Children with Special Needs
· Knowledge of licensing standards, state and federal laws (e.g., ADA, IDEA) as they relate to services and accommodations for childrenwith special needs
10. Professionalism
· Knowledge of laws, regulations, and policies that impact professional conduct with children and families
· Knowledge of center accreditation criteria
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe the purpose of regulations that apply to programs of early care and education and list several topics they address.
2. Identify several ways accreditation standards are different from child care regulations.
3. State the purpose of Quality Rating and Improvement Systems (QRIS).
4. List some ways qualifications for administrators and teachers are different for licensure, for accreditation, and in QRIS systems.
5. Identify laws that apply to the childcare workplace, such as those that govern the program’s financial management and employees’well-being.
Marie’s Experience
Marie has been successful over the years in keeping her center in compliance with all licensing regulations. She is proud of her teachers andconfident that the center consistently goes above and beyond licensing provisions designed simply to keep children healthy and safe. She knowsthat the center provides high-quality care to the children it serves, but has never pursued accreditation or participated in her state’s optionalQuality Rating and Improvement System (QRIS) because of the time and effort it would require. Her families have confidence in her program anddo not seem to need this additional assurance that it provides high-quality services day in and day out.
Large numbers of families rely on out-of-home care for their infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children during the workday. In2011, there were 312,254 licensed child care facilities with a capacity to serve almost 10.2 million children. About 34% of these facilitieswere child care center.
Chapter 3 Human RightsINTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZ.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 3 Human Rights
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZATIONS LIKE THE UN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS HAVE MADE MONITORING HUMAN RIGHTS A GLOBAL ISSUE. The United Nations is headquartered in New York City.
Learning Objectives
1. 3.1Review the expansion of and the commitment to the human rights agenda
2. 3.2Evaluate the milestones that led to the current concerns around human rights
3. 3.3Evaluate some of the philosophical controversies over human rights
4. 3.4Recognize global, regional, national, and local institutions and rules designed to protect human rights across the globe
5. 3.5Report the efforts made globally in bringing violators of human rights to justice
6. 3.6Relate the need for stricter laws to protect women’s human rights across the globe.
7. 3.7Recognize the need to protect the human rights of the disabled
8. 3.8Distinguish between the Western and the Islamic beliefs on individual and community rights
9. 3.9Review the balancing act that needs to be played while fighting terrorism and protecting human rights
10. 3.10Report the controversy around issuing death penalty as punishment
When Muammar Qaddafi used military force to suppress people demonstrating in Libya for a transition to democracy, there was a general consensus that there was a global responsibility to protect civilians. However, when Bashar Assad used fighter jets, tanks, barrel bombs, chemical weapons, and a wide range of brutal methods, including torture, to crush the popular uprising against his rule in Syria, the world did not respond forcefully to protect civilians. The basic reason given for allowing Syria to descend into brutality and chaos was that it was difficult to separate Syrians favoring human rights from those who embraced terrorism. Although cultural values differ significantly from one society to another, our common humanity has equipped us with many shared ideas about how human beings should treat each other. Aspects of globalization, especially communications and migration, reinforce perceptions of a common humanity. In general, there is global agreement that human beings, simply because we exist, are entitled to at least three types of rights. First is civil rights, which include personal liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and thought; the right to own property; and the right to equal treatment under the law. Second is political rights, including the right to vote, to voice political opinions, and to participate in the political process. Third is social rights, including the right to be secure from violence and other physical danger, the right to a decent standard of living, and the right to health care and education. Societies differ in terms of which rights they emphasize. Four types of human rights claims that dominate global politics are
1. The abuse of individual rights by governments
2. Demands for autonomy or independence by various groups
3. Demands for equality and privacy by groups with unconventional lifestyles
4. Cla.
More Related Content
Similar to Chapter One MediaSociety in a Digital WorldNote Read the summ.docx
Reader-to-Leader Framework is designed to help researchers, designers, and managers understand what motivates technology-mediated social participation. This will enable them to improve interface design and social support for their companies, government agencies, and non-governmental organizations.
An introduction to social media for brands, part of a seminar given to clients and fellow agencies in Sept 09. A high level overview of what is social media and how you can use it
Let’s Get Social!Discussion TitlePrepare There is no shortage.docxsmile790243
Let’s Get Social!
Discussion Title
Prepare: There is no shortage of social media platforms that exist for us to communicate directly and indirectly with each other. For this assignment, we will focus on Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. This discussion requires that you establish an account for each of the platforms. If you already have one, create a separate one specifically for this assignment so you can share your links with others in the class. If you are a Journalism and Mass Communication major, your profile will be used in other courses as you progress through the program. You will also need to read the following about these forms of social media:
· Facebook 101
· Anatomy of a Tweet
· About YouTube
·
Reflect: Once you have established your social media presences, reflect on the following questions:
· Was the setup straightforward?
· How much personal information did you have to provide?
· How do you perceive the usefulness of each platform on a personal and professional level?
·
Write: Now that you have critically thought about the process of setting up and using these social media platforms, write a 200- to 250-word blog post about your experience with setting them up. In your post, you must include at least one credible source of information that is related to at least one of the questions to support your ideas. Include a byline at the beginning of your blog post. At the end of your blog, include a full reference for all sources cited in the body of your blog. All citations and references must adhere to APA style guidelines as outlined in theAshford Writing Center. View theFormatting Stories and Blogs document for assistance with formatting your blog.
Check It! Your blog must be submitted throughGrammarly prior to submission.
Respond to Peers: After you have written your blog, read the blogs of your peers and post a comment to at least three other bloggers about their experiences in setting up and using their social media presences. Your comments should address them by name, be between 50 and 75 words in length, and must include your name at the end of each response.
W4 Assignment 2
Use the Week 4 research template to complete the following assignment tasks.
· Choose the assigned research articles from W2 Assignment 2. Describe the sample with demographics, data collection process, and identification of variables; sampling design; instruments, tools, or surveys.
· Summarized the discussion about the validity and reliability of the instruments, tools, or surveys.
· Discussed legal/ethical concerns.
· NOTE: If a component is absent, student receives a zero for that component.
Cite all sources in APA format
Articles
Bortz, A., Ashkenazi, T., & Melnikov, S. (2015). Spirituality as a predictive factor for signing an organ donor card. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 47(1), 25-33. doi: 10.1111/jnu.12107
Dinkel, S., & Schmidt, K. (2015). Health education needs of incarcerated women.Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 46(4), 229-234. d ...
Social media refers to applications and websites – the collective of online communications channels – that enable people, companies, and other organizations to create and share content on social networking sites and blogs.
CHAPTER 3Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and .docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 3
Understanding Regulations, Accreditation Criteria, and Other Standards ofPractice
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
2. Legal and Fiscal Management
· Knowledge and application of the advantages and disadvantages of different legal structures
· Knowledge of different codes and regulations as they relate to the delivery of early childhood program services
· Knowledge of child custody, child abuse, special education, confidentiality, anti-discrimination, insurance liability, contract, and laborlaws pertaining to program management
5. Program Operations and Facilities Management
· Knowledge and application of policies and procedures that meet state/local regulations and professional standards pertaining to thehealth and safety of young children
7. Marketing and public relations
· Skill in developing a business plan and effective promotional literature, handbooks, newsletters, and press releases
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
5. Children with Special Needs
· Knowledge of licensing standards, state and federal laws (e.g., ADA, IDEA) as they relate to services and accommodations for childrenwith special needs
10. Professionalism
· Knowledge of laws, regulations, and policies that impact professional conduct with children and families
· Knowledge of center accreditation criteria
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe the purpose of regulations that apply to programs of early care and education and list several topics they address.
2. Identify several ways accreditation standards are different from child care regulations.
3. State the purpose of Quality Rating and Improvement Systems (QRIS).
4. List some ways qualifications for administrators and teachers are different for licensure, for accreditation, and in QRIS systems.
5. Identify laws that apply to the childcare workplace, such as those that govern the program’s financial management and employees’well-being.
Marie’s Experience
Marie has been successful over the years in keeping her center in compliance with all licensing regulations. She is proud of her teachers andconfident that the center consistently goes above and beyond licensing provisions designed simply to keep children healthy and safe. She knowsthat the center provides high-quality care to the children it serves, but has never pursued accreditation or participated in her state’s optionalQuality Rating and Improvement System (QRIS) because of the time and effort it would require. Her families have confidence in her program anddo not seem to need this additional assurance that it provides high-quality services day in and day out.
Large numbers of families rely on out-of-home care for their infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children during the workday. In2011, there were 312,254 licensed child care facilities with a capacity to serve almost 10.2 million children. About 34% of these facilitieswere child care center.
Chapter 3 Human RightsINTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZ.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 3 Human Rights
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS–BASED ORGANIZATIONS LIKE THE UN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS HAVE MADE MONITORING HUMAN RIGHTS A GLOBAL ISSUE. The United Nations is headquartered in New York City.
Learning Objectives
1. 3.1Review the expansion of and the commitment to the human rights agenda
2. 3.2Evaluate the milestones that led to the current concerns around human rights
3. 3.3Evaluate some of the philosophical controversies over human rights
4. 3.4Recognize global, regional, national, and local institutions and rules designed to protect human rights across the globe
5. 3.5Report the efforts made globally in bringing violators of human rights to justice
6. 3.6Relate the need for stricter laws to protect women’s human rights across the globe.
7. 3.7Recognize the need to protect the human rights of the disabled
8. 3.8Distinguish between the Western and the Islamic beliefs on individual and community rights
9. 3.9Review the balancing act that needs to be played while fighting terrorism and protecting human rights
10. 3.10Report the controversy around issuing death penalty as punishment
When Muammar Qaddafi used military force to suppress people demonstrating in Libya for a transition to democracy, there was a general consensus that there was a global responsibility to protect civilians. However, when Bashar Assad used fighter jets, tanks, barrel bombs, chemical weapons, and a wide range of brutal methods, including torture, to crush the popular uprising against his rule in Syria, the world did not respond forcefully to protect civilians. The basic reason given for allowing Syria to descend into brutality and chaos was that it was difficult to separate Syrians favoring human rights from those who embraced terrorism. Although cultural values differ significantly from one society to another, our common humanity has equipped us with many shared ideas about how human beings should treat each other. Aspects of globalization, especially communications and migration, reinforce perceptions of a common humanity. In general, there is global agreement that human beings, simply because we exist, are entitled to at least three types of rights. First is civil rights, which include personal liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and thought; the right to own property; and the right to equal treatment under the law. Second is political rights, including the right to vote, to voice political opinions, and to participate in the political process. Third is social rights, including the right to be secure from violence and other physical danger, the right to a decent standard of living, and the right to health care and education. Societies differ in terms of which rights they emphasize. Four types of human rights claims that dominate global politics are
1. The abuse of individual rights by governments
2. Demands for autonomy or independence by various groups
3. Demands for equality and privacy by groups with unconventional lifestyles
4. Cla.
CHAPTER 13Contributing to the ProfessionNAEYC Administrator Co.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 13
Contributing to the Profession
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
1. Personal and Professional Self-Awareness
· The ability to evaluate ethical and moral dilemmas based on a professional code of ethics
8. Leadership and Advocacy
· Knowledge of the legislative process, social issues, and public policy affecting young children and their families
· The ability to advocate on behalf of young children, their families and the profession
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
1. Historical and Philosophical Foundations
· Knowledge of research methodologies
10. Professionalism
· Knowledge of different professional organizations, resources, and issues impacting the welfare of early childhood practitioners
· Ability to make professional judgments based on the NAEYC “Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment”
· Ability to work as part of a professional team and supervise support staff or volunteers
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Describe how the field of early childhood education has made progress achieving two of the eight criteria of professional status.
2. Identify the advocacy tools that early childhood advocates should have at their disposal.
3. Discuss opportunities that program administrators have to contribute to the field’s future.
Grace’s Experience
Grace had found that working with children came naturally, and she considered herself to be a gifted teacher after only a short time in theclassroom. She thought she would spend her entire career working directly with children. She is now somewhat surprised how much she isenjoying the new responsibilities that come with being a program director. She is gaining confidence that she can work effectively with allfamilies, even when faced with difficult conversations; and her skills as a supervisor, coach, and mentor are increasing as well. She is nowcomfortable as a leader in her own center and is considering volunteering to fill a leadership role in the local early childhood professionalorganization. That would give her opportunities to refine her leadership skills while contributing to the quality of care provided for childrenthroughout her community.
Early childhood administrators are leaders. They contribute to the profession by making the public aware of the field’s emergingprofessionalism, including its reliance on a code of ethics; engaging in informed advocacy; becoming involved in research to increase whatwe know about how children learn, grow, and develop; and coaching and mentoring novices, experienced practitioners, and emergingleaders.
13.1 PROMOTING PROFESSIONALIZATION1
Lilian Katz, one of the most influential voices in the field of early care and education, began discussions about the professionalism of thefield in the mid-1980s. Her work extended a foundation that had been laid by sociologists, philosophers, and other scholars and continuesto influence how early childhoo.
Chapter 2 The Law of EducationIntroductionThis chapter describ.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 2 The Law of Education
Introduction
This chapter describes the various agencies and types of law that affect education. It also discusses the organization and functions of the various judicial bodies that have an impact on education. School leadership candidates are introduced to standards of review, significant federal civil rights laws, the contents of legal decisions, and a sample legal brief.
Focus Questions
1. How are federal courts organized, and what kind of decisions do they make?
2. What is law? How is law different from policy?
3. From what source does the authority of local boards of education emanate?
4. How can campus and district leaders remain current with changes in law and policy at the national and state level?
Key Terms
1.
2.
3.
4. En banc
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11. Stare decisis
12.
13.
14.
15.
Case Study Confused Yet?
As far as Elise Daniels was concerned, the monthly meeting of the 20 River County middle school principals was the most informative and relaxing activity in her school year. Twice per year, the principals invited a guest to speak to the group. Elise was particularly interested in the fall special guest speaker, the attorney for the state school boards association. Elise had heard him speak several times, so she was aware of his deep knowledge of school law and emerging issues. As the attorney, spoke Elise found herself becoming more anxious. It was as if the attorney was speaking a foreign language. Tinker rules, due process, Title IX, Office of Civil Rights, and the state bullying law. Elise found herself thinking, “The Americans with Disabilities Act has been amended? How am I supposed to keep up with all of this?”
Leadership Perspectives
Middle School Principal Elise Daniels in the case study “Confused Yet?” is correct. School law can be confusing. Educators work in a highly regulated environment directly and indirectly impacted by a wide variety of local, state, and federal authorities. When P–12 educators refer to “the law,” they are often referring to state and/or federal statutes enacted by legislatures (). This understanding is correct. The U.S. Congress and 50 state legislatures are active in the law-making business. To make matters more difficult, the law is constantly changing and evolving as new situations arise. For example, 10 years ago few if any states had passed antibullying laws. By 2008, however, almost every state had some form of antibullying legislation on the books. Soon after, the phenomenon of cyberbullying emerged, and state legislators rushed to add cyberbullying and/or electronic bullying to their state education laws. One can only guess at what new real or perceived problem affecting public P–12 schools will be next.
P–12 educators also refer to school board policy as “law.” However, law and policy are not necessarily identical. , p. 4) defines policy as “one way through which a political system handles a public problem. It includes a government’s expressed inten.
CHAPTER 1 Legal Heritage and the Digital AgeStatue of Liberty,.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 1 Legal Heritage and the Digital Age
Statue of Liberty, New York Harbor
The Statue of Liberty stands majestically in New York Harbor. During the American Revolution, France gave the colonial patriots substantial support in the form of money for equipment and supplies, officers and soldiers who fought in the war, and ships and sailors who fought on the seas. Without the assistance of France, it is unlikely that the American colonists would have won their independence from Britain. In 1886, the people of France gave the Statue of Liberty to the people of the United States in recognition of friendship that was established during the American Revolution. Since then, the Statue of Liberty has become a symbol of liberty and democracy throughout the world.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define law.
2. Describe the functions of law.
3. Explain the development of the U.S. legal system.
4. List and describe the sources of law in the United States.
5. Discuss the importance of the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Legal Heritage and the Digital Age
2. What Is Law?
1. Landmark U.S. Supreme Court Case • Brown v. Board of Education
3. Schools of Jurisprudential Thought
1. CASE 1.1 • U.S. Supreme Court Case • POM Wonderful LLC v. Coca-Cola Company
2. Global Law • Command School of Jurisprudence of Cuba
4. History of American Law
1. Landmark Law • Adoption of English Common Law in the United States
2. Global Law • Civil Law System of France and Germany
5. Sources of Law in the United States
1. Contemporary Environment • How a Bill Becomes Law
2. Digital Law • Law of the Digital Age
6. Critical Legal Thinking
1. CASE 1.2 • U.S. Supreme Court Case • Shelby County, Texas v. Holder
“ Where there is no law, there is no freedom.”
—John Locke Second Treatise of Government, Sec. 57
Introduction to Legal Heritage and the Digital Age
In the words of Judge Learned Hand, “Without law we cannot live; only with it can we insure the future which by right is ours. The best of men’s hopes are enmeshed in its success.”1 Every society makes and enforces laws that govern the conduct of the individuals, businesses, and other organizations that function within it.
Although the law of the United States is based primarily on English common law, other legal systems, such as Spanish and French civil law, also influence it. The sources of law in this country are the U.S. Constitution, state constitutions, federal and state statutes, ordinances, administrative agency rules and regulations, executive orders, and judicial decisions by federal and state courts.
Human beings do not ever make laws; it is the accidents and catastrophes of all kinds happening in every conceivable way that make law for us.
Plato
Laws IV, 709
Businesses that are organized in the United States are subject to its laws. They are also subject to the laws of other countries in which they operate. Busin.
CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF HUMAN SERVICESPAUL F.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF HUMAN SERVICES
PAUL F. CIMMINO
This chapter is dedicated to the development of basic definitions that describe and identify human services. However, any attempt to define human services in one sentence, or to use one description, is doomed to fail. According to Schmolling, Youkeles, and Burger, there is no generally accepted or “official” definition of human services (, p. 9). Human services is a multidisciplinary profession that reflects complex human interactions and a comprehensive social system. To understand human services, it is important to develop ideas that construct an organized perspective of the field. In this chapter, three general questions about human services are incorporated into the text. First, “What is it, and what isn’t it?” Second, “Who is helped and why?” Third, “How is help delivered and by whom?” These fundamental questions tend to exemplify the basic concepts and definitions in human services. This chapter proceeds to introduce important terms, definitions, subconcepts, and concentration areas in human services, which are expounded upon by a host of authors who have contributed their expertise to create this book.
The professional field of human services can be reduced to three basic concepts: intervention (needs and services); professionalism (applied practice and credentialing); and education (academic training and research). Each basic concept comprises important aspects of the human service field and identifies primary areas of the profession. The supporting background that nourishes intervention, professionalism, and education in human services is the history of the human service movement (Fullerton, ). The formal development of human services in society is located in the legislative, training, and service history of the field. This chapter attempts to offer a collective understanding of these important areas related to the professional development of human services. In this chapter, basic concepts and definitions converge to generate a comprehensive and theoretical notion of human services in forming an overview of the field. To further assist the reader in developing thoughts about the human service profession, and to avoid ambiguity in the field, a medley of contemporary definitions of human services is presented later in the chapter.
Finally, an important letter written by Dr. Harold McPheeters in 1992, which addresses the basic question of what comprises human services, is presented to close the chapter. McPheeters’s letter was sent in response to a manuscript written by me in 1991. The paper proposes an idealistic model that defines human services in terms of its purpose and professional responsibility in society. Later in the chapter, the central ideas are summarized, providing an orientation to the thoughtful feedback from Harold McPheeters. In my view, his written response conveys landmark perspectives in development of the emerging human service field. Thus, .
CHAPTER 20 Employment Law and Worker ProtectionWashington DC.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 20 Employment Law and Worker Protection
Washington DC
Federal and state laws provide workers’ compensation and occupational safety laws to protect workers in the United States.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain how state workers’ compensation programs work and describe the benefits available.
2. Describe employers’ duty to provide safe working conditions under the Occupational Safety and Health Act.
3. Describe the minimum wage and overtime pay rules of the Fair Labor Standards Act.
4. Describe the protections afforded by the Family and Medical Leave Act.
5. Describe unemployment insurance and Social Security.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Employment Law and Worker Protection
2. Workers’ Compensation
1. Case 20.1 • Kelley v. Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc.
3. Occupational Safety
1. Case 20.2 • R. Williams Construction Company v. Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission
4. Fair Labor Standards Act
1. Case 20.3 U.S. SUPREME COURT Case • IBP, Inc. v. Alvarez
5. Family and Medical Leave Act
6. Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act and Employee Retirement Income Security Act
7. Government Programs
“ It is difficult to imagine any grounds, other than our own personal economic predilections, for saying that the contract of employment is any the less an appropriate subject of legislation than are scores of others, in dealing with which this Court has held that legislatures may curtail individual freedom in the public interest.”
—Stone, Justice Dissenting opinion, Morehead v. New York (1936)
Introduction to Employment Law and Worker Protection
Generally, the employer–employee relationship is subject to the common law of contracts and agency law. This relationship is also highly regulated by federal and state governments that have enacted myriad laws that protect workers from unsafe working conditions, require employers to provide workers’ compensation to employers injured on the job, prohibit child labor, require minimum wages and overtime pay to be paid to workers, require employers to provide time off to employees with certain family and medical emergencies, and provide other employee protections and rights.
Poorly paid labor is inefficient labor, the world over.
Henry George
This chapter discusses employment law, workers’ compensation, occupational safety, pay and hour rules, and other laws affecting employment.
Workers’ Compensation
Many types of employment are dangerous, and many workers are injured on the job each year. Under common law, employees who were injured on the job could sue their employers for negligence. This time-consuming process placed the employee at odds with his or her employer. In addition, there was no guarantee that the employee would win the case. Ultimately, many injured workers—or the heirs of deceased workers—were left uncompensated.
Workers’ compensation acts were enacted by states in response to the unfairness of that result. These acts crea.
Chapter 1 Global Issues Challenges of GlobalizationA GROWING .docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 1 Global Issues: Challenges of Globalization
A GROWING WORLDWIDE CONNECTEDNESS IN THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION HAS GIVEN CITIZENS MORE OF A VOICE TO EXPRESS THEIR DISSATISFACTION. In Brazil, Protestors calling for a wide range of reforms marched toward the soccer stadium where a match would be played between Brazil and Uruguay.
Learning Objectives
1. 1.1Identify important terms in international relations
2. 1.2Report the need to adopt an interdisciplinary approach in understanding the impact of new world events
3. 1.3Examine the formation of the modern states with respect to the thirty years’ war in 1618
4. 1.4Recall the challenges to the four types of sovereignty
5. 1.5Report that the European Union was created by redefining the sovereignty of its nations for lasting peace and security
6. 1.6Recall the influence exerted by the Catholic church, transnational companies, and other NGOs in dictating world events
7. 1.7Examine how globalization has brought about greater interdependence between states
8. 1.8Record the major causes of globalization
9. 1.9Review the most important forms of globalization
10. 1.10Recount the five waves of globalization
11. 1.11Recognize reasons as to why France and the US resist globalization
12. 1.12Examine the three dominant views of the extent to which globalization exists
Revolutions in technology, finance, transportation, and communications and different ways of thinking that characterize interdependence and globalization have eroded the power and significance of nation-states and profoundly altered international relations. Countries share power with nonstate actors that have proliferated as states have failed to deal effectively with major global problems.
Many governments have subcontracted several traditional responsibilities to private companies and have created public-private partnerships in some areas. This is exemplified by the hundreds of special economic zones in China, Dubai, and elsewhere. Contracting out traditional functions of government, combined with the centralization of massive amounts of data, facilitated Edward Snowden’s ability to leak what seems to be an almost unlimited amount of information on America’s spying activities.
The connections between states and citizens, a cornerstone of international relations, have been weakened partly by global communications and migration. Social media enable people around the world to challenge governments and to participate in global governance. The prevalence of mass protests globally demonstrates growing frustration with governments’ inability to meet the demands of the people, especially the global middle class.
The growth of multiple national identities, citizenships, and passports challenges traditional international relations. States that played dominant roles in international affairs must now deal with their declining power as global power is more diffused with the rise of China, India, Brazil, and other emerging market countries. States are i.
CHAPTER 23 Consumer ProtectionRestaurantFederal and state go.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 23 Consumer Protection
Restaurant
Federal and state governments have enacted many statutes to protect consumers from unsafe food items.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe government regulation of food and food additives.
2. Describe government regulation of drugs, cosmetics, and medicinal devices.
3. Identify and describe unfair and deceptive business practices.
4. Describe the United Nations Biosafety Protocol concerning genetically altered foods.
5. List and describe consumer financial protection laws.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Consumer Protection
2. Food Safety
1. Case 23.1 • United States of America v. LaGrou Distribution Systems, Incorporated
3. Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics Safety
1. LANDMARK LAW • Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
2. ETHICS • Restaurants Required to Disclose Calories of Food Items
3. GLOBAL LAW • United Nations Biosafety Protocol for Genetically Altered Foods
4. Product and Automobile Safety
5. Medical and Health Care Protection
1. LANDMARK LAW • Health Care Reform Act of 2010
6. Unfair and Deceptive Practices
1. CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENT • Do-Not-Call Registry
7. Consumer Financial Protection
1. CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENT • Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
2. ETHICS • Credit CARD Act
3. BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT • Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act
“ I should regret to find that the law was powerless to enforce the most elementary principles of commercial morality.”
—Lord Herschell Reddaway v. Banham (1896)
Introduction to Consumer Protection and Product Safety
Originally, sales transactions in this country were guided by the principle of caveat emptor(“let the buyer beware”). This led to abusive practices by businesses that sold adulterated food products and other unsafe products. In response, federal and state governments have enacted a variety of statutes that regulate the safety of food, drugs, cosmetics, toys, vehicles, and other products. In addition, governments have enacted consumer financial protection laws that protect consumer-debtors in credit transactions. These laws are collectively referred to as consumer protection laws .
consumer protection laws
Federal and state statutes and regulations that promote product safety and prohibit abusive, unfair, and deceptive business practices.
This chapter covers consumer protection and product safety laws.
Food Safety
The safety of food is an important concern in the United States and worldwide. In the United States, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the federal administrative agency that is responsible primarily for regulating meat, poultry, and other food products. The USDA conducts inspections of food-processing and storage facilities. The USDA can initiate legal proceedings against violators.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
A federal administrative agency that is responsible for regulating the safety of meat, poultry, and other food products.
The following case involve.
Chapter 18 When looking further into the EU’s Energy Security and.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 18
: When looking further into the EU’s Energy Security and ICT sustainable urban development, and government policy efforts:
Q2
– What are the five ICT enablers of energy efficiency identified by European strategic research Road map to ICT enabled Energy-Efficiency in Buildings and constructions, (REEB, 2010)?
identify and name those
five ICT enablers
,
provide a brief narrative for each enabler,
note:
Need 400 words. Need references
Please find the attached
.
CHAPTER 17 Investor Protection and E-Securities TransactionsNe.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 17 Investor Protection and E-Securities Transactions
New York Stock Exchange
This is the home of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) in New York City. The NYSE, nicknamed the Big Board, is the premier stock exchange in the world. It lists the stocks and securities of approximately 3,000 of the world’s largest companies for trading. The origin of the NYSE dates to 1792, when several stockbrokers met under a buttonwood tree on Wall Street. The NYSE is located at 11 Wall Street, which has been designated a National Historic Landmark. The NYSE is now operated by NYSE Euronext, which was formed when the NYSE merged with the fully electronic stock exchange Euronext.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the procedure for going public and how securities are registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
2. Describe e-securities transactions and public offerings.
3. Describe the requirements for qualifying for private placement, intrastate, and small offering exemptions from registration.
4. Describe insider trading that violates Section 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.
5. Describe the changes made to securities law by the Jumpstart Our Business Startups (JOBS) Act and its effect on raising capital by small businesses.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction to Investor Protection and E-Securities Transactions
2. Securities Law
1. LANDMARK LAW • Federal Securities Laws
3. Definition of Security
4. Initial Public Offering: Securities Act of 1933
1. BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT • Facebook’s Initial Public Offering
2. CONTEMPORARY ENVIRONMENT • Jumpstart Our Business Startups (JOBS) Act: Emerging Growth Company
5. E-Securities Transactions
1. DIGITAL LAW • Crowdfunding and Funding Portals
6. Exempt Securities
7. Exempt Transactions
8. Trading in Securities: Securities Exchange Act of 1934
9. Insider Trading
1. Case 17.1 • United States v. Bhagat
2. Case 17.2 • United States v. Kluger
3. ETHICS • Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act
10. Short-Swing Profits
11. State “Blue-Sky” Laws
“The insiders here were not trading on an equal footing with the outside investors.”
—Judge Waterman Securities and Exchange Commission v. Texas Gulf Sulphur Company 401 F.2d 833, 1968 U.S. App. Lexis 5796 (1968)
Introduction to Investor Protection and E-Securities Transactions
Prior to the 1920s and 1930s, the securities markets in this country were not regulated by the federal government. Securities were issued and sold to investors with little, if any, disclosure. Fraud in these transactions was common. To respond to this lack of regulation, in the early 1930s Congress enacted federal securities statutes to regulate the securities markets, including the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. The federal securities statutes were designed to require disclosure of information to investors, provide for the regulation of securities issues and trading, and prevent fraud. Today, many .
Chapter 13 Law, Ethics, and Educational Leadership Making the Con.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 13 Law, Ethics, and Educational Leadership: Making the Connection
Introduction
This chapter presents examples from the ISLLC standards of the relationship between law and ethics. The chapter also provides examples of how knowledge of law and the application of ethical principles to decision making helps guide school leaders through the sometimes treacherous waters of educational leadership.
Focus Questions
1. How may ethical considerations and legal knowledge guide school leader decision making?
2. Why is it important to consider a balance between these two sometimes competing concepts?
Case Study So Many Detentions, So Little Time
Jefferson Middle School (JMS) was the most racially and culturally diverse of the three middle schools in Riverboat School District, a relatively affluent bedroom community within commuter distance of Capital City. Unfortunately, the culture of Jefferson Middle School was not going well. Over the past 5 years, assistant superintendent Sharon Grey had seen JMS become a school divided by an underlying animosity along racial and socioeconomic lines. This animosity was characterized by numerous clashes between student groups, between teachers and students, between campus administrators and teachers, and between teachers and parents. Sharon finally concluded that JMS was a “mess.”
After much thought and a few sleepless nights, Sharon as part of her job description made the recommendation to the Riverboat school board to not reemploy Jeremy Smith as principal of JMS. Immediately after the board decision, Sharon organized a search committee of teachers, parents, and campus administrators and began the process of finding the right principal for JMS. The committee finally agreed on Charleston Jones. Charleston was a relatively inexperienced campus administrator but had impressed the committee with his instructional leadership knowledge, intelligence, and youthful energy. However, the job of stabilizing JMS was proving to be more of a challenge than anyone had anticipated.
Charleston had instituted a schoolwide discipline plan and had insisted that teachers and school administrators not deviate from the plan. However, he could sense that things were still not right. Animosity among student and parent groups remained just below the surface, ready to erupt at the slightest provocation. Clashes between teachers and students were still relatively frequent. Teachers still blamed one another, school administrators, and the school resource officer for a lack of order in the school. Change was not coming quickly to RMS, and Charleston understood that although school management had improved, several aspects of school culture were less than desirable. Student suspension rates remained high, and parental support was waning. As one of the assistant principals remarked after the umpteenth student referral, “So many detentions, so little time!”
Charleston felt the need to talk. He reached for the phone and made an appointment with.
Chapter 12 presented strategic planning and performance with Int.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 12 presented strategic planning and performance with Intuit. Define Key Performance Indicators (KPI) and Key Risk Indicators (KRI)? How does an organization come up with these key indicators? Do you know of any top-down indicators? Do you know of any bottom-up indicators? Give some examples of both. In what way does identifying these indicators help an organization? Are there any other key indicators that would help an organization?
Requirements:
Initial posting by Wednesday
Reply to at least 2 other classmates by Sunday (Post a response on different days throughout the week)
Provide a minimum of 2 references on the initial post and one reference any response posts.
Proper APA Format (References & Citations)/No plagiarism
.
ChapterTool KitChapter 7102715Corporate Valuation and Stock Valu.docxtiffanyd4
ChapterTool KitChapter 710/27/15Corporate Valuation and Stock Valuation7-4 Valuing Common Stocks—Introducing the Free Cash Flow (FCF) Valuation ModelData for B&B Corporation (Millions)Constant free cash flow (FCF) =$10Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =10%Short-term investments =$2Debt =$28Preferred stock =$4Number of shares of common stock =5The first step is to estimate the value of operations, which is the present value of all expected free cash flows. Because the FCF's are expected to be constant, this is a perpetuity. The present value of a perpetuity is the cash flow divided by the cost of capital:Value of operations (Vop) =FCF/WACCValue of operations (Vop) =$100.00millionB&B's total value is the sum of value of operations and the short-term investments: Value of operations$100+ ST investments$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102The next step is to estimate the intrinsic value of equity, which is the remaining total value after accounting for the claims of debtholders and preferred stockholders: Value of operations$100+ ST investments$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102− All debt$28− Preferred stock$4Estimated intrinsic value of equity$70The final step is to estimate the intrinsic common stock price per share, which is the estimated intrinsic value of equity divided by the number of shares of common stock: Value of operations$100+ ST investments$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102− All debt$28− Preferred stock$4Estimated intrinsic value of equity$70÷ Number of shares5Estimated intrinsic stock price =$14.00The figure below shows a summary of the previous calculations.Figure 7-2B&B Corporation's Sources of Value and Claims on Value (Millions of Dollars except Per Share Data)Inputs:Valuation AnalysisConstant free cash flow (FCF) =$10Value of operations$100Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =10%+ ST investments$2Short-term investments =$2Estimated total intrinsic value$102Debt =$28− All debt$28Preferred stock =$4− Preferred stock$4Number of shares of common stock =5Estimated intrinsic value of equity$70÷ Number of shares5Estimated intrinsic stock price$14.00Data for Pie ChartsShort-term investments =$2Value of operations =$100Total =$102Debt =$28Preferred stock =$4Estimated equity value =$70Total =$1027-5 The Constant Growth Model: Valuation when Expected Free Cash Flow Grows at a Constant RateCase 1: The expected free cash flow at t=1 and the expected constant growth rate after t=1 are known.First expected free cash flow (FCF1) =$105Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =9%Constant growth rate (gL) =5%When free cash flows are expected to grow at a constant rate, the value of operations is:Value of operations (Vop) =FCF1 / [WACC-gL]Value of operations (Vop) =$2,625Case 2: Constant growth is expected to begin immediately.Most recent free cash flow (FCF0) =$200Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) =12%Constant growth rate (gL) =7%When free cash flows are expected to grow at a constant rate, the value of operations is:.
CHAPTER 12Working with Families and CommunitiesNAEYC Administr.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER 12
Working with Families and Communities
NAEYC Administrator Competencies Addressed in This Chapter:
Management Knowledge and Skills
6. Family Support
· Knowledge and application of family systems and different parenting styles
· The ability to implement program practices that support families of diverse cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and socio-economic backgrounds
· The ability to support families as valued partners in the educational process
3. Staff Management and Human Relations
· The ability to relate to staff and board members of diverse racial, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds
7. Marketing and Public Relations
· The ability to promote linkages with local schools
9. Oral and Written Communication
· Knowledge of oral communication techniques, including establishing rapport, preparing the environment, active listening, and voicecontrol
· The ability to communicate ideas effectively in a formal presentation
Early Childhood Knowledge and Skills
6. Family and Community Relationships
· Knowledge of the diversity of family systems, traditional, non-traditional and alternative family structures, family life styles, and thedynamics of family life on the development of young children
· Knowledge of socio-cultural factors influencing contemporary families including the impact of language, religion, poverty, race,technology, and the media
· Knowledge of different community resources, assistance, and support available to children and families
· Knowledge of different strategies to promote reciprocal partnerships between home and center
· Ability to communicate effectively with parents through written and oral communication
· Ability to demonstrate awareness and appreciation of different cultural and familial practices and customs
· Knowledge of child rearing patterns in other countries
10. Professionalism
· Ability to make professional judgments based on the NAEYC “Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment”
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explain three approaches that programs of early care and education might take to working with families.
2. Identify some of the benefits enjoyed by children, families, and programs when families are engaged with the programs serving theiryoung children.
3. Describe some effective strategies for building trusting relationships with all families.
4. Identify the stakeholder groups and the kinds of expertise that should be represented on programs’ advisory committees and boardsof directors.
Grace’s Experience
The program that Grace directs has been an important part of the neighborhood for more than 20 years. She knows she is benefiting from thegoodwill it has earned over the years. It is respected because of its tradition of high-quality outreach projects, such as the sing-along the childrenpresent at the senior center in the spring. The program’s tradition of community involvement has meant that local businesses have always beenwilling to help out when asked fo.
Chapter 10. Political Socialization The Making of a CitizenLear.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 10. Political Socialization: The Making of a Citizen
Learning Objectives
· 1Describe the model citizen in democratic theory and explain the concept.
· 2Define socialization and explain the relevance of this concept in the study of politics.
· 3Explain how a disparate population of individuals and groups (families, clans, and tribes) can be forged into a cohesive society.
· 4Demonstrate how socialization affects political behavior and analyze what happens when socialization fails.
· 5Characterize the role of television and the Internet in influencing people’s political beliefs and behavior, and evaluate their impact on the quality of citizenship in contemporary society.
The year is 1932. The Soviet Union is suffering a severe shortage of food, and millions go hungry. Joseph Stalin, leader of the Communist Party and head of the Soviet government, has undertaken a vast reordering of Soviet agriculture that eliminates a whole class of landholders (the kulaks) and collectivizes all farmland. Henceforth, every farm and all farm products belong to the state. To deter theft of what is now considered state property, the Soviet government enacts a law prohibiting individual farmers from appropriating any grain for their own private use. Acting under this law, a young boy reports his father to the authorities for concealing grain. The father is shot for stealing state property. Soon after, the boy is killed by a group of peasants, led by his uncle, who are outraged that he would betray his own father. The government, taking a radically different view of the affair, extols the boy as a patriotic martyr.
Stalin considered the little boy in this story a model citizen, a hero. How citizenship is defined says a lot about a government and the philosophy or ideology that underpins it.
The Good Citizen
Stalin’s celebration of a child’s act of betrayal as heroic points to a distinction Aristotle originally made: The good citizen is defined by laws, regimes, and rulers, but the moral fiber (and universal characteristics) of a good person is fixed, and it transcends the expectations of any particular political regime.*
Good citizenship includes behaving in accordance with the rules, norms, and expectations of our own state and society. Thus, the actual requirements vary widely. A good citizen in Soviet Russia of the 1930s was a person whose first loyalty was to the Communist Party. The test of good citizenship in a totalitarian state is this: Are you willing to subordinate all personal convictions and even family loyalties to the dictates of political authority, and to follow the dictator’s whims no matter where they may lead? In marked contrast are the standards of citizenship in constitutional democracies, which prize and protect freedom of conscience and speech.
Where the requirements of the abstract good citizen—always defined by the state—come into conflict with the moral compass of actual citizens, and where the state seeks to obscure or obliterate t.
Chapters one and twoAnswer the questions in complete paragraphs .docxtiffanyd4
Chapters one and two
Answer the questions in complete paragraphs (at least 3), APA style (citations/references) and make sure to separate/number the answers
1. Explain the differences between Classic Autism and Asperger Disorder according to the DSM-V (Diagnostic Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association).
2. How is ASD identified and diagnosed? Name and describe some of the measurement tools.
3. Describe the characteristics of ASD under each criterion: a) language deficits, b) social differences, c) behavior, and d) motor deficits.
4. List and describe the evidence-base practices for educating ASD children discussed in chapter 2.
5. Describe the differences between a focused intervention and comprehensive treatment models.
6. What are the components of effective instruction for students with ASD?
.
ChapterTool KitChapter 1212912Corporate Valuation and Financial .docxtiffanyd4
ChapterTool KitChapter 1212/9/12Corporate Valuation and Financial Planning12-2 Financial Planning at MicroDrive, Inc.The process used by MicroDrive to forecast the free cash flows from its operating plan is described in the sections below.Setting Up the Model to Forecast OperationsWe begin with MicroDrive's most recent financial statements and selected additional data.Figure 12-1 MicroDrive’s Most Recent Financial Statements (Millions, Except for Per Share Data)INCOME STATEMENTSBALANCE SHEETS20122013Assets20122013Net sales$ 4,760$ 5,000Cash$ 60$ 50COGS (excl. depr.)3,5603,800ST Investments40-Depreciation170200Accounts receivable380500Other operating expenses480500Inventories8201,000EBIT$ 550$ 500Total CA$ 1,300$ 1,550Interest expense100120Net PP&E1,7002,000Pre-tax earnings$ 450$ 380Total assets$ 3,000$ 3,550Taxes (40%)180152NI before pref. div.$ 270$ 228Liabilities and equityPreferred div.88Accounts payable$ 190$ 200Net income$ 262$ 220Accruals280300Notes payable130280Other DataTotal CL$ 600$ 780Common dividends$48$50Long-term bonds1,0001,200Addition to RE$214$170Total liabilities$ 1,600$ 1,980Tax rate40%40%Preferred stock100100Shares of common stock5050Common stock500500Earnings per share$5.24$4.40Retained earnings800970Dividends per share$0.96$1.00Total common equity$ 1,300$ 1,470Price per share$40.00$27.00Total liabs. & equity$ 3,000$ 3,550The figure below shows all the inputs required to project the financial statements for the scenario that has been selected with the Scenario Manager: Data, What-If Analysis, Scenario Manager. There are two scenarios. The first is named Status Quo because all operating ratios except the sales growth rate are assumed to remain unchanged. The initial sales growth rate was chosen by MicroDrive's managers based on the existing product lines. The growth rate declines over time until it eventually levels off at a sustainable rate. The other scenario is named Final because it is the set of inputs chosen by MicroDrive's management team.Section 1 shows the inputs required to estimate the items in an operating plan. For each of these inputs, Section 1 shows the industry averages, the actual values for the past two years for MicroDrive, and the forecasted values for the next five years. The managers assumed the inputs for future years (except the sales growth rate) would be equal to the inputs in the first projected year.MicroDrive's managers assume that sales will eventually level off at a sustaniable constant rate.Sections 2 and 3 show the data required to estimate the weighted average cost of capital. Section 4 shows the forecasted growth rate in dividends.Note: These inputs are linked throughout the model. If you want to change an input, do it here and not other places in the model.Figure 12-2MicroDrive's Forecast: Inputs for the Selected ScenarioStatus QuoIndustryMicroDriveMicroDriveInputsActualActualForecast1. Operating Ratios2013201220132014201520162017201.
Chapters 4-6 Preparing Written MessagesPrepari.docxtiffanyd4
Chapters 4-6: Preparing Written Messages
Preparing Written Messages
Lesson Outline
Seven Steps to Preparing Written Messages
Effective Sentences and Coherent Paragraphs
Revise to Grab Your Audience’s Attention
Improve Readability
Proofread and Revise
Seven Steps to Preparing
Written Messages
Seven Preparation Steps
Step 1: Consider Contextual Forces
Step 2: Determine Purpose, Channel, and Medium
Step 3: Envision Audience
Step 4: Adapt Message to Audience Needs and Concerns
Step 5: Organize the Message
Step 6: Prepare First Draft
Step 7: Revise, Edit, and Proofread
Effective Sentences and
Coherent Paragraphs
Step 6: Prepare the First Draft
Proceed Deductively or Inductively
Know Logical Sequence of Minor Points
Write rapidly with Intent to Rewrite
Use Active More Than Passive Voice
Craft Powerful Sentences
Rely on Active Voice—Subject Doer of Action
(Passive—Subject Receiver of Action Sentence Is Less Emphatic)
Passive Voice Uses
Conceal the Doer/Avoid Finger Pointing
Doer Is Unknown
Place More Emphasis on What Was Done
(Receiver of Action)
5
Emphasize Important Ideas
Techniques
Sentence Structure—place important ideas in simple sentences/place in independent clauses (emphasis)
Repetition—repeat a word in a sentence
Labeling Words—use words that signal important
Position—position it first or last in a clause, sentence, paragraph, or presentation
Space and Format—use extraordinary amount of space for important items or use headings
Develop Coherent Paragraphs
Develop Deductive/Inductive Paragraphs Consistently
Link Ideas to Achieve Coherence
Keep Paragraphs Unified
Vary Sentence and Paragraph Length
Position Topic Sentences and
Link Ideas
Deductive—topic sentence precedes details
Inductive—topic sentence follows details
Link Ideas to Achieve Coherence (Cohesion)
Repeat Word from Preceding Sentence
Use a Pronoun for a Noun in Preceding Sentence
Use Connecting Words (e.g., Conjunctive Adverbs)
Link Paragraphs by Using Transition Words
Use Transition Sentences before Headings,
But Not Subheadings
Paragraph Unity
Keep Paragraphs Unified—support must be focused on topic sentences
Ensure Paragraphs Cover Topic Sentence, But Do Not Write Extraneous Materials
Arrange Paragraphs in a Logical and Systematic Sequence
Vary Sentence and
Paragraph Length
Vary Sentence Length (Average—Short)
Vary Sentence Structure (Sentence Variety)
Vary Paragraph Length (Average—Short
8-10 Lines)
Changes in Tense, Voice, and Person in Paragraphs Are Discouraged
Revise to Grab
Reader’s Attention
Cultivate a Frame of Mind (Mind-set) for Revising and Proofreading
Have Your Revising/Editing Space/Room
View from Audience Perspective (You Attitude)
Revise until No More Changes Would Improve the Document
Be Willing to Allow Others to Make Suggestions (Writer’s Pride of Ownership?)
Ensure Error-Free Messages
Use Visual Enhancements for More Readability
Add Only When They Aid Comprehension
Create an A.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
CLASS 11 CBSE B.St Project AIDS TO TRADE - INSURANCE
Chapter One MediaSociety in a Digital WorldNote Read the summ.docx
1. Chapter One: Media/Society in a Digital World
Note: Read the summary below and click on all supplemental
links as part of this lecture;the videos and articles provided will
assist with your understanding of this chapter.
Key Questions:
1. How can we understand the importance of media in
relationship to socialization, structure and agency?
2. How can a sociological lens help us understand the
relationship between media and social context?
3. What roles do structure and agency play in our understanding
of media culture?
Themes:
1.1 Definitions: Media vs. Medium & Interpersonal vs. Mass
Media
1.2 Technology, Interactivity & Consumption
1.3 Cultural Experience & Socialization
1.4 Sociology: Social Relations, Structure & Agency
1.5 Model of Media
1.1 Definitions: Media vs. Medium & Interpersonal vs. Mass
Media
Before we examine and critique the role(s) of media in our
social world(s), it is essential to identify and narrow our scope
by defining terms; after all, "media" is a term used very loosely
in contemporary culture. As Croteau & Hoynes (2019) explain
in your textbook , the term "media" is the PLURAL of medium
and is derived from medius,which is the Latin term for
"middle."
A helpful way to think about these concepts is
that mediumsfacilitate communication between (are in the
middle of) a sender and receiver; for example, television is a
medium that facilitates programming from
producers/creators/networks to audiences. Other mediums
include radio, print, film, and the internet, and notices that they
are both digital and non-digital (print).
2. The term "media" is the plural of these mediums, but is often
used incorrectly; although it doesn't sound like correct
grammar, the proper way (within the field of Media Studies) to
use "media" in a sentence is "media are" not "media is." When
individuals, including politicians, members of non-profits, etc.
say "media is" and fail to recognize that the concept of
"media" actually encompasses many different mediums with
various logics, there is an assumption that all mediums function
the same, include the same message, and follow the same
regulations and economic structure. For example, when "the
media" is blamed for violent action or political outcomes, there
is a misunderstanding that needs to be refined; are we talking
about film? Television? News media? Are we talking about the
digital edition of the news? Are we talking about the Tweets
that come from that news organization? In other words, it is
important to be specific about mediums when making claims
about impact, and when referring to "media" it is important to
remember that this is a plural term.
Now, the next step in introductory terminology is to identify
which media are "interpersonal" and which mediums are
considered "mass" - this course focuses on "mass" media. Some
of you may have taken Communications courses that focus more
on interpersonal communication, which is one-to-one, includes
a single known receiver, and is very interactive (may include a
conversation, for example). Mass communication, then, is
exactly what it sounds like: one-to-many, involves a potentially
large and unknown audience, and features limited, if any
interaction. Think about the film medium, which is typically
consumed in a theater, at home, on a device, etc. - is this
"interpersonal" or "mass" communication? Yes, it is considered
"mass" communication because you are not interacting with the
text and it is created for a potentially large and unknown
audience. Sure, you or someone you may know may talk at the
screen and argue with a plot point or character development, but
the characters are not talking back to you in one-to-one
communication; hence, film is mass communication.
3. Again, this course is particularly interested in mass
communication (and in particular, mainstream, mass
communication) because texts (both digital and non-digital) that
are designed for mass consumption will often lead to a variety
of social impact(s).
1.2 Technology, Interactivity & Consumption
But what about the internet? Isn't that interactive? Does that
mean that it's a form of interpersonal communication? As
Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out, the internet offers
a blend of interpersonal and mass communication due to
technological features and affordances; in particular, the
internet blurs the boundaries between "private interpersonal
communication and public mass communication" (p. 9).
For example, the internet allows for email communication
(typically one-to-one or to various known users), which is more
interpersonal communication, but is also allows individuals to
engage in very public forms of interactive, real-time
communication via hashtags, viral videos, "likes," "retweets,"
etc. This very "active" form of participation with/in a medium is
extremely different than the consumption experiences of books,
magazines, films, television, etc. Croteau & Hoynes (2019)
stress that the internet has allowed audiences to be "users" of
media and can be active in various ways: choosing what media
content they will access, deciding when will use media rather
than depend on scheduled broadcasts,
sharing/promoting/distributing media content, responding to and
commenting, and creating their own media content (p. 9). For
this reason, the internet offers more "dynamic" opportunities for
interactivity than traditional media.
Not only has the internet offered applications and interfaces -
like Twitter and Instagram - that create dynamic spaces for user
interactivity - it has also created opportunities for fans of
television programming to engage in public conversations about
content. Before the internet, fans did not have the ability to
connect with other fans during/after consumption. Now,
the ability to comment, in real time, allows fans to engage with
4. community rather than rely on interpersonal communication
with those watching with them or someone sitting next to them
on the subway.
For example, think about the Super Bowl or Bachelor Nation.
The Super Bowl is an annual event that has become even more
exciting due to the use of hashtags and the sharing of memes,
commentary and reactions during the game itself. Bachelor
Nation, on the other hand, is the ecosystem of fandom that
exists in conjunction with The Bachelor and The Bachelorette,
and this "Nation" is the community of fans that enjoy engaging
offline and online in order to react to the weekly drama.
Navigate to Twitter and search for the hashtag
#bachelorinparadiseand look at the posts for a few minutes; this
is an example of fandom communication that operates both
during programming and before/after. You could also check out
#SaveAPBio to see how fans of the NBC series A.P. Bio have
engaged Twitter to launch support for the show after it was
cancelled recently:
https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2019/05/ap-bio-
canceled-nbc-save-ap-bio-patton-oswalt-twitter (Links to an
external site.)
How has this ability to interact changed the consumption
experience of television, then? Are we now compelled to offer
our commentary of television on social media? Are we only
considered fans of a television program if we engage with its
network-sponsored hashtag? These are the types of questions
that allow us to explore the connection between media and
culture. How are media shaping and impacting our everyday
lives?
1.3 Cultural Experience & Socialization
It's no secret that media have had a profound impact on
socialization; from the moment we wake up to that last check of
our social media accounts before we go to bed, digital media
have become integrated in our everyday communication and
behavior. Many of us (depending on accessibility issues)
"search" for information daily and rely on Google (a for-profit
5. media company) for the answers to our questions
(click here (Links to an external site.) to read a quick opinion
piece about trends in "search"). Think about the Apple Watch;
a wearable device offers an (expensive!) alternative path to the
way we think about convenience, connection, communication,
health, and other facets of social live. Take a moment to scroll
through the website for the Series 4,
(https://www.apple.com/apple-watch-series-
4/?afid=p238%7CsJKznVXu8-
dc_mtid_20925qtb42335_pcrid_339078136212&cid=wwa-us-
kwgo-watch-slid---apple+watch-e (Links to an external
site.)). Which of these features to we need? Which of these
features may seem to impact our relationship to this device?
Check out some of the"films" associated with this
product: https://www.apple.com/apple-watch-series-
4/films/ (Links to an external site.)
More recent discussions of media technology and modern
culture have centered on the adoption of virtual
reality. Whether or not you have experienced virtual reality
recently, you've probably engaged in discussions, or read news
articles about the possible impact (both socially and
economically) that this technology might/will have on the way
we experience information. In fact, The New York
Times developed an application, as well as partnered up with
Google and their devices (Daydream &
Cardboard: http://www.nytimes.com/marketing/nytvr/ (Links to
an external site.)), that will allow their readers to experience
news via virtual reality. How might this change "news?"
Because of how fast mobile technology has become integrated
into our everyday lives, many researchers have
conducted studies on impact and behavior. Some issues that
have emerged as zero-TV households, time-shifted viewing,
and multi-tasked media usage(e.g., streaming television content
on your computer and texting with a friend at the same time).
Because younger generations, including yours, have grown up
6. using digital technology (to varying degrees, of course), many
journalists and academics track and analyze the consumption
habits and outcomes of teenagers. The following link takes you
to the results of a comprehensive study conducted by Pew
Research (http://www.pewresearch.org/about/ (Links to an
external site.)) on Teens, Social Media & Technology in (May,
2018):
http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/05/31/teens-social-media-
technology-2018/ (Links to an external site.)
Here is another short article
from Wired magazine about teenage use of social media from a
different perspective:
https://www.wired.com/2016/08/how-teens-use-social-
media/ (Links to an external site.)
Take a moment to think about the ways that digital media
impact your life on a daily basis. Think about a world where
you didn't have a smart phone or computer: How would you call
a friend to tell them you're going to be late for a study date?
How would you get help if your car broke down on your way to
work? How would you figure out correct information during a
heated debate with a friend about the wage gap between men
and women?
With all this in mind, it is important to think conceptually, or
theoretically, about the relationship between media,
technological development, and society. One way to do this is
to consider socialization, defined by your book as, " ... the
process by which people learn the expectations of a particular
role" (Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 177). In this way we can
think of mass media as socializing agents; but it's important to
keep in mind that we're all impacted by media/mediums in
different ways at different times in our lives. Think about it:
How have mass media shaped your values around what "beauty"
means? Or what "masculinity" looks like? You have
been socialized, by socializing agents, which includes the mass
media, to accept the norms of our culture.
And because of digitization, those norms, or what is culturally
7. "normal" have shifted as well. Think about relationships, dating
and apps such as Tinder (https://www.gotinder.com/ (Links to
an external site.)). Now think about online relationships on
discussion boards, chat rooms, social media websites, video
games, etc. Here is a link to a debate about if such relationships
are "real" from the "Room for Debate" feature in The New York
Times. The different views represent how we, as a culture, have
different (and strong!) opinions on the matter:
http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/03/05/real-
relationships-in-a-digital-world (Links to an external site.)
As mentioned before, many researchers (including those at Pew
Research) have taken a serious interest in the relationship
between media and society and because media are also seen as
socializing agents, it is a continued focus in academia as
well. Sherry Turkle(https://www.mit.edu/~sturkle/ (Links to an
external site.)) , a professor at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT), wrote a book titled Alone Together (2011)
that received much support and criticism regarding the social
impact of digital media on our lives. Many of her points
illustrate the issue of socialization and media as a "socializing
agent," and I'd like you to watch her TED Talk:
http://www.ted.com/talks/sherry_turkle_alone_together?languag
e=en (Links to an external site.)
Also, check out this short (three-minute) film from Charlene
deGuzman that offers a similar take:
http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2013/09/05/2192
66779/our-cultural-addiction-to-phones-in-one-disconcerting-
video (Links to an external site.)
Do you support these perspectives? For many, this critical take
removes individual choice and responsibility. Both Turkle and
DeGuzman paint a negative picture of the impact of media
consumption on our everyday lives. Is there room for positive
experiences? How can we think about media consumption in a
more nuanced way? Media theorists will often point to the terms
"structure" and "agency" to describe the complex ways that
media and consumers interact; rather than think of things as
8. "good" or "bad," we can think about media consumption as a
practice that is influenced by structures such as the government,
capitalism, and social constructs (to name a few).
1.4 Sociology: Social Relations, Structure & Agency
For this section, I have prepared a short lecture video: Structure
& Agency.mp4播放媒体评论。播放媒体评论。
If you have trouble accessing this video, here is a link you can
use:
http://flashmedia2.du.edu/relay/Structure__Agency_-
_20150701_122700_25.htmlLinks to an external site.Links to an
external site.
Remember: Structures can be social and institutional.The family
is an example of a social structure; social patterns organize the
way we understand "family" while the government is an
example of an institutional structure that exerts measurable
power over our agency. "Self-branding" can be understood as a
form of agencywithin the constraints of the media
industry (tension between structure/agency), beauty industrial
complex, and other norms about the self; here, we are able to
curate and present a version of ourselves within the structure of
industry culture.
In fact, the concept of self-branding as it relates to digital
media and beauty has not only been deemed a space for
agency, but it is also a space that has created concern. The issue
over whether we are truly "choosing" (agency) how to "brand"
ourselves online has come into question due to the way that
applications (we can think of these as structures) encourage us
to alter our appearances based on cultural norms related to
physical beauty. New York Times reporter Amanda Hess
explores this issue in her beauty apps episode of "Internetting
with Amanda Hess"; while you screen this short video, I'd like
you to think about how it applies to the terms we've discussed
so far: socialization, medium, agency, structure:
The Ugly Business of Beauty Apps | Internetting with Amanda
Hess (Links to an external site.)
1.5 Model of Media
9. Your textbook offers a visual model (see p. 16) so that you can
begin to think about media in a sociological way, a way
that privileges social relations, socialization, structure, agency,
and context.
According to Croteau & Hoynes (2019), "Four
components, each represented by a separate box in the diagram,
make up the core of our model. All four elements
are simultaneously a part of the social world and surrounded by
the social world (the shaded area). The graphic organization of
these four elements is arbitrary; there is no 'top' or 'bottom' to
the process; rather, it is a circular process" (p. 16). This model
emphasizes relationships; for example, "users" influence
"technology" and "technology" influences "users," as I've
pointed out earlier in this (written) lecture.
It is important to keep in mind that just because the elements
aren't next to each other, that doesn't mean that a relationship
isn't present. In other words, Users have a relationship to the
Industry and Technology can have an impact on/relationship to
Content. The point is that we have to think about all of these
elements (Users, Content, Technology and Industry) as they
relate to one another to truly understand the complexities of
media culture. For example, Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out
that within the Black Lives Matter
movement, new technology (Twitter, hashtags) allows members
of this movement to gather and share content to other members
of the movement, the public and news organizations alike (see
pages 20-21).
(Trigger Warning: shooting, racial violence)
Now, let's apply the model to the shooting on June 17, 2015, in
South Carolina, committed by white supremacist Dylan
Roof (who is now in federal death row), and how this social
event was mediated.
(Review of case and
sentencing: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/10/us/dylann-
roof-trial-charleston.html (Links to an external site.))
10. Remember, we need to start thinking about how
readers/audiences, technology, the media industry, and the
media message/product all impact each other. Therefore, our
questions change and we no longer think about these issues in
isolation. From a sociological standpoint, we need to think
about and question relationships, structure and agency. Here are
some questions we might ask about this event, using this model:
What messages did the media industry create about Roof's act?
How did these meanings affect how readers/audiences reacted?
How did readers/audiences use digital media to grieve,
communicate and spread information? How did technology
(such as social media) influence the media industry and
reporting?
One of the meanings that had a direct impact on this social
event was the term "terrorist" and why or why not this term was
used to describe Roof and his act. Was it a "terrorist" act? Why
or why not should this term be used? Remember, the industry
creates meanings about this event and those meanings directly
impact how audience members react, or understand, the events.
Based on information you've received from media outlets,
whether it be local news, Twitter, Facebook, NPR, or Fox News,
do you think that Dylan Roof is a "terrorist?" Here is a short
article from The Intercept exploring why he was not considered
a "terrorist":
https://theintercept.com/2015/07/22/department-justice-didnt-
charge-dylan-roof-domestic-terrorism/ (Links to an external
site.)
You can apply this model of critical thinking and relationships
to breaking news and information about violent acts more
generally, beyond the debate about "terrorism." Think critically
about mainstream media involvement in breaking news, how
survivors communicate, how the public is able to help, how
stories from survivors help the nation/world grieve, etc. How
does amateur video (technology) help journalists cover the
events of that evening?
Remember: By asking different - critical - questions that focus
11. on structural and social "relationships," we can have a better
understanding of the intersection between media and culture.
Chapter Two Lecture: The Evolution of Media Technology
Note: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this
lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your
understanding of this chapter.
Key Questions:
1. What are the key characteristics of media/mediums and how
did they impact history and culture?
2. How does the presence of media affect the phenomenon that
we wish to stake a claim in?
3. What are the main theoretical approaches to the study of
media and how might this awareness affect our day-to-day?
Themes:
2.1 Deconstructing the term "technology"
2.2 Theoretical approaches to technology and society
2.3 The historical development of media technology and
cultural/institutional impact(s)
2.4 Wu: Cycle of technological innovation
2.5. Noble: Algorithms of Oppression
2.1 Deconstructing the term "technology"
Close your eyes (after reading this quick prompt) and think of
the word "technology" - what comes to mind? Do you see a
circuit board? A cyborg? A robot jumping onto a box? This
chapter unpacks the relationship between media culture and
technology; and as you've noticed, the authors work to broaden
your scope to think beyond just scientific innovation.
Remember that model of media from the last chapter (p. 10
text)? Technology is connected to our social world(s) and
impacts sites such as Users and Industry; therefore, we have to
think about how technology shapes, and is shaped
by issues such as media ownership, cultural meanings,
historical/cultural context and consumer behavior.
According to Croteau & Hoynes (2019):
1. Technology includes scientific innovations used to shape,
impact and/or improve human life;
12. 2. Technology makes every medium unique;
3. Technology is influenced by a variety of social
forces (adoption, regulation, accessibility);
4. Technology accumulates, does not always eradicate older
developments.
With this in mind, we can start to think more critically about
therole(s) of technology in contemporary culture, not just
simply as an "advancement" for humankind. Think about home
assistants or "smart speakers" such as Google Home or
Amazon's Alexa (examples of the term autonomous
technology, as discussed in your textbook). Both are
technological developments that grew out of supposed societal
needs (from a consumer standpoint) yet have also made impacts
on societal behavior (again, this has to do with consumption).
They are extensions of other technological assistants such as
Apple's Siri, yet are unique in their physical presence.
How necessary are these assistants? Do you have one in your
dorm/apartment/home? Think about the cultural implications of
these assistants: How does privilege and affordability factor in?
How does this increase our dependence on technology? How
might hacking and privacy factor in to our evaluation of these
assistants? We have to start thinking beyond just the "science"
of technological innovation to include more society/cultural
questions (sociology).
For this section, we have prepared a video lecture:
"Perspectives on Technological Development:
2.2 Theoretical approaches to technology and society
When we start to include more of a sociological orientation
toward our understanding of media and technology, the issue
of "impact" is not far behind; in other words, the question
of "how does technology impact us" is a central question of
Sociology, Media Studies, and Communication Studies. Your
textbook identifies two main theoretical approaches that have
developed as a result of this question: (1) Technological
Determinism; (2) Social Constructionism.
1. Technological Determinism:
13. Technology causes change in ways that people don’t intend or
are aware of; is the primary causal element of social change;
focus on the role of technology.
Scholars who are technological determinists include: Marshall
McLuhan and Neil Postman, who have very different
perspectives (see text, pp. 32-34). McLuhan was
an optimist about media technology and the way a new medium
disrupts tradition and reshapes social life, extending our senses
and connecting us to create a "global village." He posited that
"the medium is the message," meaning that the technology itself
(such as TV) is what has an impact, regardless of the content. In
contrast, in his book, Amusing Ourselves to Death, Neil
Postman was very critical of technology and particularly
television, arguing that the rise of this medium was contributing
to the erosion of democracy with a decline in the seriousness of
public life and participation.
2. Social Constructionism:
Emphasis on the role of active human agents in the
determination of how technology is used; social forces (cultural
norms, economic pressures, legal regulations) fundamentally
shift the ways technologies are designed and developed; social
reality is socially constructed - humans “normalize” technology
consumption.
Note: Remember, context is KEY to social constructionism.
What are different forms of context that could impact the way
society uses and adopts technology? Historical, right? A large
issue relates to nation; and in particular, cultural norms,
regulation, government structure. So because "social
construction" is a theory that asserts that humans are active in
the determination of how technology is used, we can't leave out
differences in the environments in which those humans are
making those decisions.
Raymond Williams, a longtime media scholar contended that the
use and impact of media technology is shaped by social factors
and processes that transform an innovation into a useful
technology. For example, Williams asserted that preexisting
14. cultural values and practices shape the way that technologies
are adapted and used. He compared the individualistic values of
the United States and how citizens/government created a more
commercial media industry and then the collectivist values of
the UK society and how citizens/government created a more
state-controlled media industry. Williams' example showed
that the "technology" did not impact the US and the UK in the
same way (technological determinism); rather, it was adopted in
particular ways due to social forces and human decision-
making.
Here, you can see that both of these theoretical frameworks
have very different approaches to the issue of human
agency(independent human action); determinism implies that a
force outside humanity "determines" outcomes
while constructionismimplies that humanity plays a role in the
development and need for technological consumption. This can
create tension between the two theoretical perspectives. Both
frameworks have developed based on historical and cultural
outcomes as well as organized research and observation; in
other words, both theories reflect the conclusions of theorists
that are trying to make sense of humanity's relationship to
technological innovation. As you can see, not all theorists agree
on this. Within the field of Media Studies, most theorists fall in
the middle of these frameworks/theories; they agree that media
technology influences us to a degree, and that we influence
media technology to a degree as well.
Scholars are divided on which theory they support, although
most fall somewhere in between.
One concept that is explored within the area of technological
determinism is materiality, a term that refers to the tangible and
physical characteristics of a medium/technology that enables
capabilities and limitations. Materiality is a helpful way to
identify the characteristics of innovation that have led to
societal change, including consumer behavior, trends, and
cultural development.
Let's think about the materiality of the media technology that
15. Beyoncé has used to distribute her creative work(s), and how
the "tangible and physical characteristics" of each technology
have been a response to both fandom and innovation. Discussing
and evaluating "materiality" offers a way for us to consider
physical characteristics and their relationship to impact, social
change, etc.
Questions of materiality:
What are the capabilities and limitations of listening to
Beyoncé's songs on the radio?
What are the capabilities and limitations
of streamingBeyoncé's Homecoming on Netflix?
Trailer for Homecoming:Homecoming: A Film By Beyoncé |
Official Trailer | Netflix (Links to an external site.)
How does themateriality, then, of each technology (radio vs.
online video streaming) create different experiences for the
user? What is the role of user agencyin both of these
experiences? And how is Netflix responding to the limitations
of other mediums when it comes to user experience; in other
words, how might audio + visual + interactive (user is able to
pause, watch on their own time, etc.) be a reaction to the needs
of contemporary culture?
2.3 The historical development of media technology and
cultural/institutional impact(s)
On pages 36-59 of your textbook, the authors offer a brief
historical overview titled "From Print to the Internet" that not
only highlights technological innovation, but also describes the
ways that each development in media technology contributed to
social change.This is a sociological approach; by evaluating the
"tension between media technology and the people who create,
regulate, and use it" (p. 36), we are able to understand and
articulate the ways that media impact culture.
Building on the issue of sound recording (from our Beyoncé
example earlier in the lecture), Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point
out how the ability to record music, which was previously only
consumed in live performance, impacted artists (musicians were
16. now able to record their work and distribute it) as well
as users(recorded music was played at social gatherings instead
of live music, which actually became controversial because
many saw this change as a threat to live performance), and
impacted/created an industry that led to record labels and
eventually, streaming services (see p. 43). Here, you can see
how media technology impacts and is impacted by society, but
that these impacts are not in isolation, and they include other
elements such as context, regulation, and the interests of
capitalism.
In the section on the internet, two key terms are introduced that
are fundamental to understanding the contributions of this
technology: digitization and convergence.
Digitization: "The shift from analog to digital media" (p. 58).
Convergence: "The blurring of boundaries among types of
media" (p. 58).
As Croteau & Hoynes (2019) state: "Digitization sets the stage
for convergence ..." and they use the medium of print, and
newspapers in particular, as an example. As the newspaper
industry started taking advantage of digitization and the
availability of digital websites to deliver content, many outlets
made the shift from being purely analog to including digital
distribution (the problem they had was how to monetize it!).
This process of digitization (shift from just print stories to
including digital stories on their websites) led to
the convergence of print stories, embedded video, hyperlinks,
interactive discussion boards (comment sections), and digital
photography on their websites.
Questions to consider: How has digitization shifted the media
landscape? What opportunities has digitization created? What
pressures has digitization
created? Has digitization determined the industry or has
is enabled opportunity by human agents? Or both?
2.4 Wu: Cycle of technological innovation
Another theory that is worth noting from this chapter is Tim
Wu's (2011) Cycle of Technological iInnovation, in which he -
17. from a social constructionist perspective - identifies a "cycle"
of impact on technology from markets and standardization. This
impact is important because mediums have been industrialized
and are marketed, and therefore considering this "cycle" offers
us a lens into thinking about how media technology changes
based on consumer and market needs:
1. Introduction of innovation begins period of idealistic
experimentation;
2. When technology threatens to displace/render obsolete older
markets/revenues, companies seek to control or “tame” it
through standardization;
3. Novelty wears off, users are familiar with flaws and
limitations, dissatisfaction grows.
Wu argues that media companies, in various mediums, stifle
true innovation and creativity because they work
to standardize innovation rather than promote competition; in
other words, companies would rather pour capital into the mass
marketing/production of a successful technological advance
rather than pour capital into experimentation. Wu says that this
type of intervention on technological development works
to slow down innovation and leads to dissatisfaction once users
are bored with mass production.
Let's think about virtual reality for a moment, as a technological
advance. There was a period of idealistic experimentation,
where Google, Samsung, Microsoft and Oculus emerged in the
marketplace and offered consumers a way to experience this
emergent technology (which was now becoming mainstream).
We can think about Facebook's purchase of Oculus as a way to
"tame" this emergent technology and make sure that it supports
existing technology (social media, FB) rather than offer
competition. Do you feel that the novelty has worn off of virtual
reality? Have you tried virtual reality? If so (and many of you
might as a supplement to gaming), has dissatisfaction grown?
Using Wu's theory, we might be able to argue that because
virtual reality has been integrated into the marketplace, and
developed by mainstream, mass, media companies, the interest
18. is more in "standardization" and marketability rather than
innovation, and therefore dissatisfaction(not complete) has
grown among (some) consumers.
At the same time, virtual reality is being used in alternative
spaces,such as film festivals, as consumers continue to be
interested in more interactive experiences. So, while the
mainstream market can often stifle new media technology in an
effort to standardize it, non-mainstream efforts continue to use
media technology in creative, disruptive and accessible
ways. Check out this articlefrom Wired (2019) on the use of
virtual (and augmented) reality in film festivals:
"Film Festivals Move to Make Virtual Reality a Marquee
Event (链接到外部网站。)"
Here is an article with links to the several immersive VR/AR
works from this year's Tribeca Film Festival: "This year’s
Tribeca Film Festival uses AR and VR to explore music-making
and empathy. (链接到外部网站。)"
2.5. Noble: Algorithms of Oppression
Now that you've familiarized yourself with the relationship(s)
between innovations in media technology, context, industry, and
social relations, there are additional considerations to raise,
especially as we, as a culture, continue to rely on technology for
everything from counting our daily "steps" to organizing
playlists to share with friends to storing our financial
information.
Some of you may already be aware of the growing concern over
technology and gender and racial profiling; in particular, this
comes up in search engine results, but also in facial
recognition as well as courtroom sentencing software.
"A Popular Algorithm Is No Better at Predicting Crimes Than
Random People (链接到外部网站。)"(Links to an external site.)
Dr. Safiya Noble (USC, Annenberg) wrote a very
successful/widely cited book titled Algorithms of
Oppression (2018) that details some of these issues, and I'd like
you to watch a short video of her discussing them. How does
her work contribute to existing theories such as technological
19. determinism and social constructionism?
Algorithms of Oppression: Safiya Umoja Noble (Links to an
external site.)Chapter Three Lecture: The Economics of the
Media Industry
Note: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this
lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your
understanding of this chapter.
Key Questions:
1. What is a production perspective and why is it important to
understand the media from this reference point?
2. What is the political impact of concentrated corporate
ownership of news and other forms of media?
3. What is the relationship between media ownership and and
diversity in media content?
4. Does advertising negatively influence media contents?
Themes:
3.1 Production perspective
3.2 Concentration of Ownership & Conglomeration
3.3 Vertical & Horizontal Integration
3.4 Advertising & Content
3.1 Production Perspective
Why is it important to understand the media industry from
a production perspective? First of all, and most importantly, the
media industry is an industry and therefore profits play an
essential role in the production and distribution processes.
When profits play an essential role, is becomes important to
think about economic constraints as well as the social and
economic processes that play a role in the production of media
texts. Think about it this way: Media products are not "free-
floating texts," rather, they exist in a context of economic
interests, constraints, and processes. Our job now is to become
familiar with this context and begin to think about the media
industry as inextricably linked to an economic
structure. Remember, from a sociological perspective, we
cannot understand the media industry without understanding the
forces and relationships that affect that industry.
20. This quote, from Gillian Doyle (Glasgow University), offers a
helpful - and critical - way to think about this context: "The
general aim is to make intellectual property, package it and
maximize revenues by selling it as many times as is feasible to
the widest audience at the highest possible price."
Here, Doyle is describing the "commercial mandate" of media
culture, which highlights profit as the primary motivation, or
goal, of a media company. A "non-commercial mandate" is
when a media company operates for outcomes other than profit,
including educational, community-based, etc. Beyondmedia
Education, a non-profit out of Chicago, is an example of a
media company with a non-commercial mandate:
http://www.beyondmedia.org/ (Links to an external
site.) (notice the .org domain)
When we think about the media industry from a production
perspective (which includes analyzing business models), we can
begin to understand why news media companies, for example,
are taking the following steps to cut costs:
1. Cut the number of journalists; multi-use of journalists
2. Decrease investigative reporting
3. Use frequent wire service (ex. Associated Press) reports
4. Use video public relations segments
5. Rely on a small number of elites for news sources
6. Focus the news on preplanned official events and on certain
institutions
BUT REMEMBER!Producing media, especially on a large scale,
depends on funding ($$), so seeking profit - or having a
commercial mandate - does not necessarily mean that the
production itself is problematic, or "selling out." Media
producers contend with development costs, production costs,
marketing and distribution costs, as well as overhead costs
(lawyers, publicists, etc.); in other words, when we think about
profit generation, we have to think beyond "good" or "bad" and
start to critically analyze the costs of being part of a
conglomerate, or the costs of a newspaper being owned by a
hedge fund, which is the case with The Denver Post.
21. 3.2 Concentration of Ownership & Conglomeration
After the passage of the the Telecommunications Act of
1996(more on this in the next chapter), the media industry
within the United States has become more concentrated, and
now only a handful of firms, or conglomerates, dominate the
media industry. A conglomerate, such as The Walt Disney
Company or Time Warner, Inc.,owns several different media
companies across mediums,meaning that they own companies in
movies, television, film, publishing, etc. Examples of
conglomerates include: Comcast, The Walt Disney Company,
21st Century Fox, and Time Warner, Inc. We can also consider
Alphabet/Google as a digital conglomerate as well. (Links to
an external site.)
(Links to an external site.) (Links to an external site.)This is
from Vox's "Recode" and is a timely, comprehensive ownership
map because it includes content, distribution and streaming
video:
One consequence of a concentrated media environment is the
promotion ofpolitical and/or ideological agenda(s). Here, media
outlets may promote an owners' specific political alignment; for
example, your chapter mentions Berlusconi and Bloomberg.
This undermines citizen monitoring, alternative media, and can
threaten democracy. On the one hand, shouldn't the owner of a
company be able to make decisions about their product? On the
other, if we rely on news media outlets to inform us about
political representatives and their platforms in order to vote,
how does the promotion of an owner's political agenda threaten
democracy?
The film Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch's War on
Journalism focuses on Fox News and how Rupert Murdoch's
(who was the CEO of 21st Century Fox at the time of the
documentary but is now co-executive chairman of Fox
Corporation, the company that remains after 21 Century Fox
sold the majority of its assets to Disney in 2018 ) politically
conservative agenda has impacted the way this company frames
22. the news. Here are a few clips from this film that help explain
the intersection of concentration of ownership, politics and
power.The filmmakers, who belong to the non-profit media
watchdog group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (Links to
an external site.), interviewed several journalists who had
worked for Fox News in order to understand how the company
creates their political agenda (note: this is an older film, but the
techniques they use are still used and relevant to this
discussion):
Peter Hart on media consolidation (Links to an external site.)
Frank O'Donnell on Fox News' political agenda (Links to an
external site.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLthBfWnHlA&index=18&l
ist=PL54FC814AE797FA21Another wide (Links to an external
site.)
Related: Fox News Network has updated its tagline to "Fair &
Balanced" to "Most Watched. Most Trusted" as of June
2017: http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2017/06/fox-news-
is-dropping-its-fair-and-balanced-slogan.html (Links to an
external site.)
Also Related: As you probably noticed, this documentary has a
particular, critical take on Fox News, so it is important to
reflect on how this genre (documentary) often reproduces
particular viewpoints, but also works to uncover information not
widely shared in mainstream media via interviews, case studies,
etc.
Another widely discussed consequence of concentrated media
ownership is thelack of diversity, whether it be type of content,
those who work in the industry, or viewpoints/voices. Your
book reminds us that this varies by medium; in other words, due
to technology (streaming services, lower cost to produce music,
etc.) there seems to be more content diversity in the music
industry, while concentration has led to less political
diversity in news media. Review studies by: Entman (1989),
Peterson & Berger (1975), Lopes (1992) & Dowd (2004) in your
textbook for more detailed information. There are many
23. organizations that fight for increased media diversity, including
Free Press.
Take a look at their
campaign: https://www.freepress.net/issues/media-
control/diversity-media-ownership (Links to an external site.)
3.3 Vertical & Horizontal Integration
Two business strategies that media conglomerates benefit from
are vertical and horizontal integration. When companies are
able to integrate in these ways, they can:
1. Self-promote their products across mediums
2. Minimize costs
3. Maximize profits
STRATEGY: VERTICAL INTEGRATION
Production & Distribution of a single media product
Example: Film Company
Talent agencies, production studios, manufacturing plants,
venues (theater chains, Internet-streaming services, etc.)
STRATEGY: HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION
Company acquires ownership across different types of media
rather than within one medium/industry
Example: Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019)
Vertical integration: This film was produced by Lucasfilm Ltd.,
which is a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company, and was
distributed by Walt Disney Studios, which is another subsidiary
of The Walt Disney Company. Thy were able to produce and
distribute a single product (a film) using all of their own
holdings, or subsidiaries, and did not have to outsource or hire
any media companies outside of the conglomerate.
Horizontal integration: Due to its diverse, cross-medium
holdings, Disney is able to promote the film using its television
networks, radio stations, magazines, etc. For example, Star
Wars was subtly promoted on ESPN's Insta page (ESPN is a
subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company):
Here, Disney is able to produce their own media products within
the conglomerate and self/cross-promote using their own
24. holdings!This is synergy: They dynamic where components of a
company work together to produce benefits that would be
impossible for a single, separately owned unit of a company.
Think about it, how can a small, independent film studio
compete against the production and distribution power of
Disney? This is why indie studios have to work hard to secure
distribution from a major media company so that they can
maximize exposure despite their lack of synergy.
Look at following poster for "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D" and let's
think about synergy and horizontal integration. What media
companies do you see on this poster? Which media
conglomerate owns both? Why is it to their advantage
to combine their resources in this way?
Now, what is potentially "lost" when cross-promotion and
commercial interests drive media production and certain
companies benefit from this synergy?
Consequence: LIMITATION of alternative discourses, identities
and narrative strategies in media production.
Which ideas are given more visibility?
How does this visibility create normalization (we will discuss
this term later in the course)?
3.4 Advertising & Content
As the authors (2019) of your book point out, "The media
industry is, in large part, an advertising-funded business ... In
2016, online advertising overtook television as the world's
largest advertising medium" (p. 81). For those of you who
frequent social media applications, you are no stranger
to digital advertising, including sponsored advertising and
native advertising. Have you ever checked out the policy on
sponsored advertising on Instagram?Here is a link to their FAQ
page; click on the down-arrows under "Learn More about Ads"
to learn more about the
process: https://help.instagram.com/1415228085373580 (Links
to an external site.)
Next, screen this clip from Last Week Tonight with John
25. Oliver on native advertising:
Native Advertising: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver
(HBO) (Links to an external site.)
After viewing this clip, explore Buzzfeed and see if you can
locate sponsored advertising:
http://www.buzzfeed.com/ (Links to an external site.)
Finally, it is important to note that not only has the internet
created platforms and opportunities for conglomerates to
increase their power, and for companies to advertise directly to
us based on our searches and clicks, it has also created
tremendous opportunities for up-and-coming producers.
For example, you may be familiar withIssa Rae's show on
HBO, Insecure (https://www.hbo.com/insecure (Links to an
external site.)), which was based on her YouTube
series/channel, The Misadventures of Awkward Black Girl
(https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL854514FC0EBDCD8
E) (Links to an external site.). Rae used this platform to
produce her show, and develop her voice, and was eventually
picked up by a major network. According to Rae: "If it weren’t
for YouTube, I would be extremely pessimistic, but I’m not
anymore. YouTube has revolutionized content creation. If it
weren’t for YouTube, I would still be at studios trying to
convince executives that Awkward Black Girls really do exist
… Online content and new media are changing our
communities and changing the demand for an accessibility of
that content” (2015, p. 125). I've included an excerpt from her
book (which includes this quote) in the Supplemental section of
this module.
And not only do up-and-coming and aspirational independent
producers utilize YouTube as a distribution platform, we've also
seen the rise of problematic content that has been reported
to radicalize users. If you're interested in reading more about
this, check out this story from The New York Times that
profiles a young man who experienced the exposure of extremist
content (and in particular, alt-right content) on YouTube and
actively began seeking out content based on what the platform's
26. algorithm suggested for him:
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/06/08/technology/yo
utube-radical.htmlChapter Four Lecture: Political Influence on
Media
Note: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this
lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your
understanding of this chapter
Key questions:
1. What are the major government regulations on media?
2. Do regulations apply the same to all media?
3. What are the arguments for and against regulating in the
"public interest"? How does this compare with the arguments
put forward by those who support a "free market" approach to
mass media policy?
4. What are political forces other than government that affect
media?
Themes:
4.1 Relationship between Government & Media
4.2 Regulating Ownership
4.3 Regulating Content
4.4 Regulating for Access & Distribution
4.1 Relationship between Government & Media
In addition to the limitations that a commercial (for-profit)
media system creates, governments are understood as structures
that constrain media production. One global issue at the
intersection of governance and media culture is free
speech; many countries operate with state-controlled
media industries that exist as the voice of the political
establishment while others, like the United States, support
a commercial media industry with laws in place that protect free
speech. Reporters Without Borders, a French non-profit that
consults the United Nations, circulates the "World Press
Freedom Index" each year as a way to rank which countries are
the safest for journalists. Based on a questionnaire that was sent
to journalists, researchers, jurists and human rights defenders,
Reporters Without Borders worked to measure freedom for
27. journalists in 180 countries in their World Press Freedom Index
(for more information on their methodology, click here (Links
to an external site.)). Surprisingly, despite our laws protecting
free speech, the United States was ranked #45th. Why? Here is a
link to the rational given and information on the
US: https://rsf.org/en/united-states (Links to an external
site.) (here is the link to the entire
Index: https://rsf.org/en/ranking_table (Links to an external
site.).
As you can see from the Index summary (2020), despite the
First Amendment, journalists have been arrested and treated
unfairly within the context of the Trump Administration -
including being denied entry to White House briefings -and
messages of distrust (media as "enemy of the people") has
impacted their professional lives, which suggests that even
democracies experience a complex relationship between the
government and media industry. So while the commercial
system places economic restraints on the media industry, the
government acts a structure that places additional legal and
political restraints. It is important that we understand how these
structures both limit and facilitate media production, and how
media producers navigate this complex landscape.
Freedom & the "Public Interest"
According to the US Constitution:
First Amendment: Government should have a "hands-off"
approach to the media environment.
Section 8, Article 1: Congress can intervene on account of the
"public interest."
So what exactly is the "public interest?" It is monitored and
served by Federal Communication Commission
policy (independent US government agency), who attempts to
balance the interest of various groups, highlighting that there
is no single public interest. According to your textbook, "The
FCC supports the viewpoint that the government cannot write
media regulation in stone for all eternity because technological
and economic changes are constantly occurring. Finally, they
28. believed that regulation that promotes diversity in programming
and services is in the public interest (2019, p. 112). As your
textbook points out, approaches to the "public interest" have
changed over time, and the 1980s was a turning point in this
history; it was at this time that the FCC pivoted to the notion
that media were in less need of protection and should be
classified more as commodities in a marketplace.
Remember, regulation is inherently political (in all policy areas)
and therefore definitions can change based on leadership and
power.
For a list of current FCC leadership, check out this
link: https://www.fcc.gov/about/leadership (Links to an external
site.)
Therefore, the government/FCC has been charged
with balancing the protection of free speech
by limiting government interventionwhile at the
same using intervening on behalf of the "public interest" (which
is often cited as regulating for balance and diversity) as they
see fit. And on top of all this, our country operates in a
capitalistic system, which promotes a "free
marketplace";therefore, media producers and consumers are
often against media regulation. A simplistic way to think about
these competing interests in the regulation debate is:
Regulate or Deregulate? As Croteau & Hoyes (2019) argue, "...
in various ways, the relationship between government and
media in U.S. society involves balancing the protections of free
expressionby limiting government intervention with
theprotection of the public interest by using government
intervention" (p. 110). And what about the role of
the marketplace? Should we just let purchasing power determine
the fate of media products and companies, not regulation
(deregulation approach)? As Croteau & Hoynes point out,
"Supporters of deregulation generally assert that the 'free
market' system is adequate for accommodating the needs of both
media producers and media consumers" (p. 110). But what about
the "public interest" and ensuring diverse opinions? How might
29. leaving this in the hands of the marketplace complicate things?
Would all opinions be heard? How might recent issues with
Facebook, YouTube and Twitter highlight the need for
regulation; particularly when it comes to extreme political
viewpoints, hacking and hate speech. In 2019, YouTube
announced that it was going to remove videos related to
extremism and hate speech; this is an example of self-regulation
working to preemptively act before the possibility of
FCC/federal regulation:
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/05/business/youtube-remove-
extremist-
videos.html?emc=edit_na_20190605&ref=cta&nl=breaking-
news (Links to an external site.)
Also, the historical case study on microbroadcasting (in your
textbook) and the eventual passing of the Local Community
Radio Act is a wonderful example of the nuance of media
regulation (see p. 119).
4.2 Regulating Ownership
There have been many changes in the media environment since
the Constitution was written, including media technology and
ownership patterns. Several updates to legislating ownership
have taken plan in the form of Telecommunications Acts, and
the trend now is deregulation, which favors free market
capitalism (fosters competition in a less regulated marketplace),
which created a context for an increased concentration of media
ownership. The environment for media policy deregulation was
solidified with the passage of the 1996 Telecommunications
Act, which was designed to meet the new digital media
marketplace and promotedsynergy(vertical and horizontal
integration through conglomeration) as the way of the future.
For more detailed information on this Act, click here (Links to
an external site.). Also, page 123 of your book offers an
overview of how the 1996 Act is different than the 1934
Telecommunications Act.
Less than two years after the passage of this Act, there was a
12% decline in the number of radio stations due to an increase
30. in ownership (larger radio companies purchased smaller
companies nationwide). Thisconsolidation directly effects
access to local radio stations; if there is an increase in national
radio there is less of an opportunity for local music, weather,
and news to be heard. Despite this trend in deregulation, and an
increase in mergers and cross-ownership,the government will
continue to prevent monopolies in accordance with the public
interest.
4.3 Regulating Content
Take a moment to think about the creation of content: Are you
an artist? Have you ever written a song, performed it, or
produced a film? Think about the creativity that was involved in
that project and how much time you spent on its production.
Now think about whether or not you pay for creative work: Do
you illegally download music? Do you use Spotify; if so, do you
know how much artists get paid per play? What does it mean
when you illegally download music, television or movies?
Questions such as these are central to debates regarding the
regulation of media content. You are most likely familiar with
terms such as "copyright infringement" or "trademark"; these
are all connected to the protection of artistic works by the
government.
Your textbook mentions a film, Copyright Criminals, which is a
very interesting documentary that explains the relationship
between the hip-hop industry, sampling and regulation. Please
click on the following link and watch the three short videos as a
way to understand this complex and controversial issue:
https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/d0bc17ae-d82c-
4220-bc02-e832056d2739/hip-hop-sampling-copyright-
criminals/ (链接到外部网站。)
If you're having trouble accessing the videos through the PBS
site, here are some links through the PBS YouTube page:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p2SmmLJSbEU (链接到外部网
站。)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UdMVxSP_4x8 (链接到外部网
站。)
31. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kldKdSmgaYU (链接到外部网
站。)
(Links to an external site.)(Links to an external site.A recent-
ish case of copyright infringement was brought up against
Robin Thicke, TI, and Pharrell Williams for their track "Blurred
Lines." Marvin Gaye's children brought the case to court
because they believed Thicke, TI and Williams committed
infringement by using their father's song "Got to Give it Up" for
"Blurred Lines."What do you think? Listen to both tracks
Got to Give It Up: GOT TO GIVE IT UP - MARVIN
GAYE (Links to an external site.)
Blurred Lines: Robin Thicke - Blurred Lines (Clean) ft. T.I.,
Pharrell (Links to an external site.)
In 2015, the jury awarded the Gaye family $7.4 million and they
sought for an injunction to temporarily prohibit sales of the
track. Click here (Links to an external site.) to read a New York
Times interview with Robin Thicke published after the verdict.
FAKE NEWS
Fake news has become a major issue in politics in the US but
also around the world, and in some cases is being used as a
political weapon. Watch this video lecture for an exploration of
the issues.
Regulating for Diversity & Morality
As we've seen, the issue of content "diversity" in media
coverage is cause for debate; the overall consensus is
that concentrated media ownership threatens diversity of
information by putting the media industry in the power of a few,
wealthy companies. However, there was an attempt made by the
government to promote diversity by protecting the industry
against any single viewpoint from dominating media coverage.
This attempt was called The Fairness Doctrine, and
unfortunately, this policy was revoked in 1987 due to the fact
that broadcast scarcity seemed to no longer be an issue.
According to Croteau & Hoynes (2019), "The goal in the
application of the doctrine was to ensure diversity of
views within the program schedule of a station. The Fairness
32. Doctrine, for example, did not interfere with conservative radio
talk show hosts but rather required the station to provide other
programming that included differing points of view. Thus, the
Fairness Doctrine never suppressed views, but it
sometimes required additional speech for balance" (p. 94).
Think about "balance" for a minute and connect to
the concentrated media environment. Media conglomerates are
owned by CEOs with particular points of view and without a
policy like The Fairness Doctrine, are allowed to project such
views with little protest, right? Think back to Fox
News; many criticize this news media company because
they favor Republican and socially conservative guests while
only minimally offering the Democratic and socially liberal
point-of-view. Here is an example of a study conducted by the
non-profit organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting on
the guests on Brit Hume's talk show: http://fair.org/extra-
online-articles/foxs-slanted-sources/ (Links to an external
site.). So where do we see diversity in media content?
Is identity representation the first thing that comes to mind?
Indeed, being able to watch programming with increased racial
and LGBTQ identities, among others, is important, but what
about political diversity? This is an important issue to think
about, and with the failure of The Fairness Doctrine, we have
a lack of protective policy.Think about how any lack of
regulation in this area has impacted the amount of coverage
devoted to presidential candidates in 2016. Due to the
popularity of President Donald Trump's controversial
rhetoric, ratings skyrocketed whenever he was featured on
television, which led to an increased amount of ratings and
advertiser support. According to the New York Times, he
received$2 billion worth of "free" media during the election
season: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/16/upshot/measuring-
donald-trumps-mammoth-advantage-in-free-
media.html?_r=0 (Links to an external site.) When ratings,
advertiser dollars, and profit become the driving force behind
political coverage, whose voices are left out? How might we see
33. this already happening with 2020 candidates? Which voices are
being covered and which are being left out?
On the other hand, we certainly experience the regulation of
morality in the United States; more specifically, violence and
sexuality. Media industries experience either direct
regulationfrom the government/FCC (example: broadcast
networks have to abide by profanity and indecency regulation)
or they self-regulate,as is the case with the Motion Picture
Association of America.
Your textbook mentions the self-regulation of the video game
industry and television industry, but what about the regulation
of controversial digital content that emerges so quickly that
policymakers and the government are stumped over what to do
about it? The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) of
1998 was created in order to help regulate copyright
infringement online, but there have been other issues related to
digital content in the realm of morality; for example, online
harassment and revenge pornography. Often, regulation cannot
keep up with emergent digital practices due to the steps it takes
to sign a bill into a law, which is why music piracy was an
unregulated issue for en extended period of time.
Another interesting case in media regulation is thepornography
industry, which has no formal regulatory body; rather, this
industry is able to generate content that meets the demands of
the marketplace. However, there are laws that regulate child
pornography as well as age restrictions and HIV/AIDS/STD
testing for performers. Additionally, there is a limit to content;
a lawsuit can be filed against a production company for
producing what may be deemed "obscene" content. It is
important to keep in mind that not all pornographic content is
legally "obscene" unless it is deemed so in the court system -
you may personally find it to be obscene, but "obscenity" is a
legal term that, once applied to a work, has direct repercussions,
which includes that the work be officially removed from the
34. marketplace.
4.4 Regulating Access & Distribution
The issue of net neutrality manifested as a debate over access
and distribution, and highlights the impact of deregulated
political context. As Croteau & Hoynes point out net neutrality
is, "The idea that ISPs (Internet Service Providers) should
simply offer access to the internet and be 'neutral' in their
handling of internet traffic ..." (p. 136). Although the 2010
Open Internet Order (issued by the FCC, see p. 137), failed to
comprehensively support net neutrality, in 2015, the FCC ruled
in favor of classifying the Internet as a "common carrier"
(here (Links to an external site.) is a link to an article with more
information on this ruling). This effectively preserved net
neutrality and worked to treat it as a public service like mail or
the landlines, which allowed us all to breath a sigh of relief;
ISPs (Internet Service Providers) were prohibited from creating
"fast lanes," which would allow their content to stream faster
than content from their competitors. For example, Comcast
would stream content that they created (NBC, Bravo,
etc.) faster than content from Netflix, Hulu or Amazon.
Therefore, if Comcast was our ISP (Comcast billed us for
Internet service, cable, etc.) in our homes, we'd be able to
watch The Real Housewives without a problem, but if we
wanted to stream Empire on Hulu, we may have to sit through
buffering and lagging. Here is a short video (Links to an
external site.) from The New York Times on the that decision
regarding net neutrality.
Also: Here is a link to WIRED magazine's guide to net
neutrality: https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-
neutrality/ (Links to an external site.)
However, when current Federal Communications Commission
Chairman Ajit Pai took office, he was immediately interested in
reversing the Title II classification of the Internet as a "common
carrier" in favor of turning over governance of the Internet to
the Federal Trade Commission (America's consumer protection
agency that also governs the advertising industry). Many ISPs
35. feel that they should not experience government regulation, yet
the public benefits from a regulation if it does, indeed, preserve
net neutrality. Remember, the regulation of media is a political
issue, so it would make sense that a pro-business administration
would favor less regulation, just like a pro-government service
administration would favor more regulation.
In May, 2018, Senate Democrats voted to overturn Pai's
overturning of the Obama-era protections of net neutrality (in
other words, to restore net neutrality), but it did not pass in the
house, so as of June 11, 2018, media companies and
conglomerates are now able to operate without any
restrictionsrelated to fast lanes, etc.
Week Nine Lecture: Audiences, Creators & Media Influence
Note: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this
lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your
understanding of this chapter.
Please read the following sections of Chapters Eight & Nine
from Croteau & Hoynes (2019):
Chapter Eight: pp. 268-281; pp. 283-290; pp. 295-6
Chapter Nine: pp. 300-320; pp. 328-331
Key Questions:
1. What does the term "active audience" mean and why does it
matter?
2. How do human agency and social structure interact in an
audience's reading of media texts?
3. What kind of roles do fantasy and pleasure play in media
consumption?
4. How might media exposure affect individuals and societies?
5. What are the major tenets of major media effects and
mediatization theories?
6. In what ways do media - and social media in particular -
impact political processes?
Themes:
8.1 Defining the Active Audience
8.2 Encoding/Decoding
36. 8.3 Fan Communities & Disrupting Bias
9.1 Theorizing Media Influence & Effects
9.2 Effects, Mediatization & Politics
9.3 Social Media Logics & Deepfakes
8.1 Defining the Active Audience
At this point, your textbook - and this course - have explored
media culture from a more institutional perspective, and have
foregrounded structures that create both limitations and
opportunities for media producers. Now that you're familiar
with those forces, it is essential that we pivot away from
production and focus on consumption; and rather, how
production and consumption are related processes that influence
one another - from the audience perspective. This chapter
positions the audience as both "active" and as "content
creators"; while audiences have always been actively
consuming, it is important to remember that their new role as
creators, as well, is directly connected to digitization and
increased access to the tools of production (e.g., GarageBand).
Because audience members have such active roles in
contemporary media culture, Croteau & Hoynes (2019) make the
case that we should refer to ourselves, and audience members,
as "users" and state that: "User has the advantage of being open-
ended, so it can include both our roles as audience members and
our various roles on the internet. 'User' also implies active roles
in both interpretingexisting media content and creating our own
content" (p. 268). As they suggest, we both interpret and create,
and both activities are influenced by various social forces.
Later in the chapter, Croteau & Hoyes (2019) identify three
main motivations for audience creation online:
1. Self-expression/identity formation;
2. Interaction/community building;
3. Sharing (p. 294).
Think about yourself as a "user" on the internet. Which of these
motivations do you feel summarizes your experiences? Do all
three of them? Think about the last time you created something
online (snap, tweet, IG story, etc.), what was your motivation?
37. Remember, while economic and political forces shape media
culture, the "active audience" framework suggests that
users/audience members have agency and have an active role in
both use and interpretation. To explore the dynamic nature of
audience activity, your textbook includes two main theoretical
orientations to the "active audience" framework in this chapter:
(1) uses and gratifications (What are people doing with media?
Why are they using media?); (2) critical cultural studies (How
do people interpret media?).
One of the major motivations for pursuing audience research is
the observation that media are polysemic texts; in other words,
multiple meanings can exist within one media text. Therefore,
the way that users interpret those texts are worth exploring;
social location/experiences of the audience member, editing
techniques from the producers, the use of music to connect with
emotions, etc. For example, if a student had lived through a
school shooting, their interpretation of a violent film scene
involving a similar weapon would be different than the
interpretation of a student that is a gun rights advocate. And it
may be more subtle; for example, humor is subjective, and
something I may find funny may not be funny to the person
sitting next to me - for a variety of reasons.
For example, consider Between Two Ferns on the website Funny
or Die. Here's a clip that includes an interview with Barack
Obama(you only have to watch a minute or two):
https://www.funnyordie.com/2014/3/11/17736628/between-two-
ferns-with-zach-galifianakis-president-barack-
obama (链接到外部网站。)
(Links to an external site.)
Did you think this was funny? Some of you may have, some of
you may not have enjoyed the dry humor; this is how
"polysemy" works. Beyond comedy, think about complex
filmmaking from directors such as Lars Von Trier or Paul
Thomas Anderson. Think about the film Donnie Darko (2001).
The considering of our individualistic meaning-making, in a
particular historical and cultural context (structure) is the basis
38. of the active audience - we are not passive audience members
that interpret and use media in the same way. Another example:
Consider the film Zero Dark Thirty (2012). Was this film a
depiction of the effectiveness of interrogation techniques or a
portrayal of the brutality and moral complexity of torture?
Despite the director's intention, it's important to remember that
audiences are thinking while they view media texts and can
interpret and create meaning as an individualistic exercise.
Here are the four main ways that audiences are "active":
1. Interpretation: Audiences may not construct the meaning
intended by the producer; may make their own meanings.
2. Social Context of Interpretation: Media use is not just
individual, but is also social.
3. Collective Action: Audiences sometimes make formal
demands on media producers through protests, boycotts, or
campaigns.
4. Audiences as Media Producers ("Prosumers"): Audiences
create their own media outlets and products.
An important reminder, however, is that audiences are not just
"free agents" with unlimited agency. There are structural and
interpretive restraints on meaning-making; for example, your
social position, experiences and cultural surroundings. For
example, depending on your identity, you could be offended by
particular portrayals of race, gender and/or sexuality. Take the
program Game of Thrones, for example; some viewers may be
triggered by some of the sexual violence due to previous
experiences while others may interpret the sexual violence as
just part of the narrative structure of the program.
8.2 Encoding/Decoding
The Encoding/Decoding model is a theory that supports
the active audience framework, yet also recognizes structural
influences on user/audience interpretation; it is a model that is
widely used in Media Studies/Cultural Studies, and was
introduced by theorist Stuart Hall in the 1970s. Although dated,
it continues to offer helpful language and reminds us that there's
a limit to audience agency. Here is a short lecture video that
39. works to explain this theory:
Remember, social position - including class - plays a major role
in decoding practices. In their discussion of David
Morely's (1980) research on interpretations
of Nationwide, Croteau & Hoynes (2019) remind us that,
"Social class, Morely concludes, does not determine how people
interpret media messages. Instead, social class - and we would
add age, race, ethnicity, gender, and other central markers of
identity - plays a key role in proving us with the cultural
'tools' for decoding. Often, these are discursive tools, giving
people a language and framework for understanding the world"
(p. 273). Think about the oppositional reading in the
Encoding/Decoding model; what "cultural tools" may lead a
person to oppose a particular text? For example, why might a
group protest a particular musician or film opening?
What "tools" have led them to oppose those texts? Perhaps it
was an experience, their access to critical social theories, or
perhaps what their grand/parents have taught them about certain
issues that are brought up in the lyrics/scenes.
8.3 Creators: Fan Communities & Disrupting Bias
While some audience members participate in resistance/culture
jamming (see p. 287 in your textbook; click on this link (Links
to an external site.) to Adbustersas an example of this, or visit
Banksy's website: http://www.banksy.co.uk/ (Links to an
external site.)), others participate in fan communities/fandom
(see p. 295 of your textbook), which is a large step beyond
consumption. According to media scholar Henry
Jenkins (1988), a person is considered a fan, " ... not by being a
regular viewer of a particular program but by translating that
viewing into some type of cultural activity, by sharing thoughts
and feelings about the program content with friends, by joining
a community of fans who share common interests" (p. 8).
Fan communities are:
1. Formed within and outside of popular culture;
2. Producers of their own media and build connection to
community and promote social activity.
40. Examples:
Twilight Fan Fiction (Fun fact: 50 Shade of Grey was based
on Twilight fan fiction!):
https://www.fanfiction.net/book/Twilight/ (Links to an external
site.)
Harry Potter Alliance:
http://thehpalliance.org/ (Links to an external site.)
Comic-Con International:
http://www.comic-con.org/ (Links to an external site.)
Remember, media culture also offers opportunities for audience
members/users to disrupt ideology (as discussed in Chapters Six
& Seven) - also known as engaging in cultural resistance - and
this chapter includes a section on Black Twitter, and argues
that, "Black Twitter is often used to directly challenge
perceived biases in mainstream media stories" (p. 280). Another
space that offers opportunities to directly challenge bias
is Tumblr, although it has recently experienced restrictions on
sexual/adult content that has had an impact on sexual
subcultures within the community. Can you think of other
online spaces that offer opportunities for ideological
disruption?
(Links to an external sitBlack Twitter brings visibility
to "counter-narratives" (Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 281) by
allowing users to construct and distribute stories, comments and
observations that are often overlooked by mainstream media.
Please watch this short video and while you watch, think about
the ways that concepts such as ideology, social inequality,
decoding, active audience, social location, and digitization
connect:
https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/100000003841604/blacktwitt
er-after-ferguson.html (Links to an external site.)
9.1 Theorizing Media Influence & Effects
The previous chapter explored questions of agency as it relates
to the active audience, or "users," as Croteau & Hoynes (2019)
have articulated, including the process of decoding, resistance,
and creation. This chapter extends this discussion to the issue
41. of "influence" at the individual and societal level, as questions
about how media affects individuals has been at the center of
various research studies, policy initiatives, organizational
missions, political platforms, and so on. As Croteau & Hoynes
(2019) state, "Welcome to the complicated, often ambiguous
world of media effects where nearly everyone
knows something is going on but where it is
notoriously difficult to pinpoint exactly why, how, to what
degree, and on whom media may be having an influence" (p.
301). They go on to argue that "negative behaviors" (e.g.,
violence, substance abuse, hate-group radicalization and
consumerism) as well as democratic influence get the most
attention, and that in the end, effects research suggests "more
complex and subtle influences"than direct, easy-to-identify ones
(p. 301).
So why is it so complicated to determine effects? Remember
what we explored in the last chapter: decoding/interpretation,
social location, and cultural context are among the various
variables that influence influence/effect. However, what
researchers to look for are patterns, and they identify these
patterns through audience research, which
includes methods such as polling, interviews, focus groups, pre-
test/post-test experimentation, surveys, etc.
For example, we know that cyberbullying happens, and that it
can have a negative impact for some individuals, but what can
we say about effects on a mass scale? Pew Research Center's
work on cyberbulling
(https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/09/27/a-majority-of-teens-
have-experienced-some-form-of-cyberbullying/ (Links to an
external site.)) has identified that 56% of US teens have been
bullied or harassed online, but there is a lack of concrete
data that suggests exactly howthis cyberbulling effects
individuals or groups. The next step in research would be to ask
these same teens who have identified that they've been
bullied how they feel after the bullying takes place, and then
see what patterns arise. For example, perhaps a majority of
42. these teens then feel "self-conscious" or "depressed." What are
some questions you might ask?
Additionally, we know that that seeing an increased amount of
the“thin ideal” imagery (mostly on visual social media websites
such as IG and TikTok) is having an impact, but it is hard to
measure.
One possible answer is self-objectification; but does not impact
everyone the same way (social location, socialization). Self-
objectification is when an individual begins to judge
themselvesbased on the ways that they are taught to judge
others, including celebrities, friends, etc. So, if we, the public -
and girls/women in particular, although this does impact
boys/masculinity and queer identities, as well - are taught
to judge other women based on cultural attitudes about body
shape (slim thick, etc.), hair, skin, etc., this will eventually lead
to an internal judgment when looking in the mirror. So if the
posts and comments on Instagram promote a narrow standard of
beauty, this could have an impact/effect on users.
Early theories on media influence/effect grew from a concern
over media's role in democratic life; journalists and scholars -
including Ferdinand Toennis, Charles Horton Colley, and even
Karl Marx -questioned the ways that media may influence how
the public would come to support particular candidates, vote for
president, etc. They believed that, as societies continued
to urbanize due to industrialization, as well as spread out due to
the growth of suburbia, media were developing a growing
significance in the lives of those who were
increasingly reliant on newspapers, and later, radio and
television, for information.
It is important to remember that many of these theories
had methodological issues, meaning that the questions were too
narrow, or they were conducted in too experimental of a setting
(subject were removed from a more "natural" setting and were
uncomfortable and/or may have told the researchers what they
43. wanted to hear). For example, as Croteau & Hoynes (2019)
point out that Herbert Blumer's social-psychological studies on
influence, " ... was problematic, especially in how it asked
leading questions about the influence of movies" (p. 303). This
is not to say that all of the early, direct theories were
problematic - indeed, they were very influential on creating a
foundation for effects research - but like any research tradition,
methodology and theory have improved over time.
Your book outlines a few of the more popular theories:
The Hypodermic Model: Direct and powerful influence (Orson
Welles’s, WOTW, 1939): PBS War of the Worlds
Mass Society Theory: Mass media as “homogenizing” the
public; less personal ties post-WWII (suburbs), but united
through mass media
The Minimal Effects Model: “Two-step flow of influence”: (1)
Media transmitted information to opinion leaders; (2) Leaders
influence those with personal contact
Agenda Setting: Media tell us not WHAT to think, but what to
think ABOUT
Priming: Mass media attention to particular issues; “prime”
audiences to be more sensitive (economics, candidates)
Cultivation Theory: Continued, lengthly and ritualistic viewing
that leads to homogenized public and “mainstreaming." Mean
World Syndrome: Heavy television viewers internalize many of
the distorted views of the social and political world presented
by television (i.e., crime and violence)
Additionally, your Croteau & Hoynes (2019) outline theories of
"framing" and the "spiral of silence," which are extremely
relevant to contemporary coverage of politics (along with
agenda-setting):
Framing: How coverage is constructed; how the media organizes
and presenting information influences how people are likely to
understand the story (second-level agenda setting); frames make
an event “intelligible” - easy to decode in a particular way.
Spiral of Silence: Media’s role in the squeezing out of minority
views and overstating the degree of political consensus
44. (narrows public discussion).
Example: “Trump’s election may have animated some who had
been previously silent because they had not seen their views
included in the mainstream media” (p. 310).
Before you move on to the next section, I'd like you to do an
activity that will help deepen your understanding of agenda-
setting and framing. Select a news item/story that has been
deemed extremely "newsworthy" today. For example, today (I'm
writing this on May 20th), I'd be interested in the evacuation of
thousands of Michigan residents due to flooding or any updated
news related to COVID-19. So, choose a story that interests you
and then select three newspapers (digital/online editions; visit
their website); next, you will see how those newspapers are
covering this story.
Agenda-setting: Where is the story located in the publication or
website? Is it on the front/landing page? Do you have to click
through many links to find it? How is the location of the story
telling you how important it is.
Framing: What does the headline reveal about the framing of
this story? Is there a photo as well, as how does that convey
meaning? Are there any politically-charged terms being used?
What sources are present (and absent?) and in what order?
Most importantly, how is the coverage different in each
newspaper? How might this be linked to ownership, circulation,
funding, and audience?
9.2 Effects, Mediatization & Politics
In a democratic nation such as the United States, we are charged
with participating in our government through electing
representatives. Because we have this electoral power, it is
important that we maintain an awareness of candidates and
issues.So where do we receive this information? Where do we
learn about candidates? How do we figure out which policies a
presidential candidate supports? It comes as no surprise to you,
then, that media hold much political power in this way; we
come to support our representatives through their mediations. In
other words, the way candidates and issues are portrayed in
45. news media become the way we understand them; we rely on
political communication and thus, it becomes essential that we
understand media's impact on politics.And with the Presidential
election coming up this year (!!!), we're already experiencing a
sharp increase in political messaging; in particular, a partisan
divide in the response to COVID-19.
(Links to an external site.)
Your textbook (2019) explores political culture using/through
the concept of mediatization,which is defined as " ... a social
change process in which media have become
increasingly influential in and deeply integrated into different
spheres of society" (Strömbäck and Esser 2014, p. 244, as
quoted in Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 314). Mediatization, as a
framework, draws on earlier media effects theories (including
agenda setting, framing, medium theory), but also "transcends"
them (as quoted by Schulz, 2004 in Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p.
314) by rethinking the social world and how media have had a
direct impact. Like globalization, mediatization is a process and
" ... evolves over time and manifests itself differently in
different social and cultural contexts" (p. 314. And while the
framework/theory of mediatization is helpful for some - and for
us to consider - it has also been critiqued as similar
to technological determinism and its emphasis on the role of
media versus its inclusion of human agency (p. 315).
Some examples of mediatization include: health care (WebMD);
criminal justice system (“risk assessment” tools and
algorithms); online shopping; live streaming musical events and
religious ceremonies (“virtualization of social institutions”).
Scholar Winfried Schulz (2004) outlines the changes in
interactionand communication brought
by mediatization into four categories(p. 315):
1. Media extend the ability of humans to communicate across
space and time.
2. Media replace some forms of face-to-face interaction, as with
online banking.
3. Media infiltrate and coexist with everyday communication, as
46. with checking your cell phone while talking with a friend or
“talking around” a television program while watching with
others.
4. “Media logic” encourages people to adjust their attitudes and
behaviors; connects media production to media effects.
So how might mediatization factor into the development of
our current political climate? Drawing on the notion of media
logic,Croteau & Hoynes (2019) highlight that, increasingly,
the ecosystem of US-based politics works to meet the needs of
media consumption and the performativity of
democracy. Candidates are thought of as "political actors" and
debates and press conferences are thought of as "stages"; this
transformation, as media scholars argue, is the result of the
increased presence (mediatization) of media
production/consumption in democratic life.
Now that political figures are mediated through television,
social media, documentary, radio, magazines, etc., campaigns
are built around media considerations. The importance of
appearance, the branding and imaging of an individual
candidate, and overall political messaging of a campaign
becomes paramount to their success, especially as political
parties have become less influential during a campaign season
(see p. 320-321).
Further, the use of Twitter and Facebook have become
absolutely essential in political races. How is this an example of
mediatization?
Now, there are a few things to reflect on before I/we move
further. First, your awareness and level of political "knowledge"
is contingent on a few things: how much reporting is done on
these issues, how much you read the news, the questions
journalists are asking, and what is "newsworthy." Think about it
this way, our accessto this important information (remember, we
need it in order to vote in a democratic culture) is contingent
upon media coverage. This is why political mediacoverage is
essential in an American culture where we are not in a position
to meet the candidates ourselves (but sometimes you can,
47. depending on your job, etc.).
Although politicians can utilize media to maintain a curated
image, media coverage can also negatively impact one's
image (warranted or not) due to constant exposure in light of a
scandal. Some examples include: The Bill Clinton/Monica
Lewinsky sex scandal(1998), the Anthony Weiner sexting
scandal (2011), also known as "Weinergate," and the Chris
Christie Fort Lee lane closure scandal (2013), also known
as "Bridgegate," and more recently, the release of Hillary
Clinton's emails before the 2016 election. In all of these cases -
and there are many more - news media presented audiences
with immediate coverage, including press conferences,
interviews, panel interviews, videos, etc., that worked to shift
their political image. In this way, politicians both use media
to connect with their constituents, but can also
be brought down by media coverage,often (but not always)
resulting in resignation (as in the case with Weiner).
9.3. Social Media Logics & Deepfakes
As social media platforms continue to extend their reach as
sites ofinteractive communication, community-building, and
knowledge-sharing, concerns over influence (effect) are
questioned various social stakeholders, including politicians,
students, parents, etc. Croteau & Hoynes use the work of Van
Dijk and Peoll (2013) to explore "social media logic," or, " ...
the strategies, mechanisms, and economies that are the
foundation for social media platforms: programmability,
popularity, connectivity, and datafication" and argue that the
issue of influence can be traced back to one (or more) of these
features (p. 328).
Programmability: Codes and algorithms that can steers users in
a particular direction;
Popularity: Likes, followers and retweets a technological
elements that will steer users in a particular direction;
Connectivity: Linking and connecting people and advertisers to
each other in order to steer users in a particular direction.
Based on these "logics," Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out
48. that social media platforms are not "neutral," and they (the
authors) highlight resulting issues related to surveillance,
advertising, algorithms, and racist content (see p. 330).
Another concerning issue, especially during an election season,
is the "deepfake," which is the use of AI (artificial
intelligence), algorithms, and video/audio footage to paste a
person's face onto another video. To date, this practice is
often predatory/problematicand has been used a variety of
practices including revenge porn and political coverage. Check
out this recent deepfake that altered a video of House Speaker
Nancy Pelosi to make it seem that she was drunk (the link has a
short video and text):
https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/23/politics/doctored-video-
pelosi/index.html (Links to an external site.)
Please read the following piece on deepfakes from The
Guardian,and as you're reading consider how issues
of mediatization, social media logic, media effects, and
socialization contribute to this issue:
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/ng-
interactive/2019/jun/22/the-rise-of-the-deepfake-and-the-threat-
to-democracy (Links to an external site.)
IMPORTANT: In order to deepen your knowledge of a
contemporary media organization, you will analyze the SAME
COMPANY for both your Mini-Essay A and Mini-Essay B, so
please select a company that you're interested in exploring. I've
narrowed down your options to the following list. Note that
some of these companies are "parent companies" or
"conglomerates" while others are independent studios or
subsidiaries within a parent company/conglomerate.
HBO
The Walt Disney Company
Comcast
ESPN
Capitol Records
The Washington Post
49. Vogue Magazine
Marvel
Buzzfeed
The New York Times
Fox News
VICE
Electronic Arts
National Geographic
A24 (Apartment 24)
Cosmopolitan
The Wall Street Journal
WarnerMedia
The Denver Post