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P R E S E N T E R
M E H A K A L I
Chapter 2
Words, Dictionaries, and the
Mental Lexicon
• W h y w e m a k e b a s i c d i s t i n c t io n be t w e e n t h e
d i c t i o n a r y a n d m e n t a l l e x i c o n
• H o w l i n g u i s t s s t u d y m e t a l l e x i c o n
• H o w c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e w o r d s
• C o m p l e x w o r d s a r e s t o r e d i n t h e m e t a l
l e x i c o n o r d e r i v e d b y r u l e s o r b o t h
• H o w d i c t i o n a r i e s h a v e e v o l v e d
• H o w t h e y d i f f e r f r o m o n e a n o t h e r
• A n d f r o m m e n t a l l e x i c o n
Outline
• A s i n g l e d i s t i n c t m e a n i n g f u l e l e m e n t o f
s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g , u s e d w i t h o t h e r s ( o r
s o m e t i m e s a l o n e ) t o f o r m a s e n t e n c e a n d
t y p i c a l l y sh o w n w i t h a s p a c e o n e i t h e r s i d e
w h e n w r i t t e n o r p r i n t e d . ” O x f o r d A m e r i c an
D i c t i o n a r y
• L a n g u a g e s n e e d n o t b e w r i t t e n , b u t t h e y
s t i l l h a v e w o r d s , a n d w o r d s d o n ’ t h a v e
b l a n k s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e m i n s p o k e n
l a n g u a g e .
• A w o r d a s a s e q u e n c e o f o ne o r m o r e
m o r p h e m e s t h a t c a n s t a n d a l o n e i n a
l a n g u a g e
2.1 Introduction
 W h i c h D i c t i o n a r y ?
• I n d i v i d u a l o r s o c i e t a l f o i b l e s p l a y l e s s o f a
r o l e i n d i c t i o n a r y - m a k i n g t o d a y , b u t i t ’ s s t i l l
a g o o d i d e a t o k e e p i n m i n d t h a t n e i t h e r
l e x i c o g r a p h e r s n o r t h e d i c t i o n a r i e s t h e y
c r e a t e a r e i n f a l l i b l e .
• V e r y c o n c r e t e a n d t e m p o r a l n a t u r e o f
d i c t i o n a r i e s
 N o n c e s , M i s t a k e s , a n d M o u n t w e a z e l s
• ‘ n o n c e ’ , m e a n i n g t h a t t h e y ’ v e b e e n f o u n d j u s t
o n c e
• W o r d s t h a t t h e y i d e n t i f y a s m i s t a k e s
• m o u n t w e a z e l i s a p h o n y w o r d t h a t i s i n s e r t e d
i n t o a d i c t i o n a r y s o t h a t i t s m a k e r s c a n
i d e n t i f y l e x i c o g r a p h i c p i r a c y
2.2 Why Not Check the Dictionary?
 T h e p r o b l e m o f c o m p l e x w o r d s
• D i c t i o n a r i es d o n ’ t n ee d t o i n c l u d e e v e r y
w o r d . E v e r y l a n g u a g e h a s w a y s o f f o r m i n g
n e w w o r d s t h a t a r e s o a c t i v e a n d
t r a n s p a r e n t t h a t p u t t i n g a l l t h e w o r d s
f o r m e d t h a t w a y i n t o t h e d i c t i o n a r y w o u l d
b e a w a s t e o f s p a c e . Fo r e x a m p l e , s p e a k e r s
o f E n g l i s h k n o w t h a t a n y v e r b a t a l l c a n
h a v e a f o r m m a d e w i t h t h e s u f f i x - i n g .
• T h u s , d i c t i o n a r i e s c a n n o t an s w e r t h e
q u e s t i o n “ is x y z a w o r d ” . S o h a v e t o l o o k
i n t o m e n t a l l e x i c o n t o a n s w e r t h i s
q u e s t i o n .
Con….
• M e n t a l l ex i c o n m e an t h e s u m t o t a l o f
e v e r y t h i n g i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r s k n o w a bo u t
t h e w o r d s o f t h e i r l a n g u a g e e . g .
p r o n u n c i a ti o n , s y n ta x , s e m a n t i c s a n d
p r a g m a t i c s o f t h e i r l a n g u a g e a s w e l l .
• I t i s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t i n o u r m e n t a l l e x i c o n s
w e h a v e e n t r i e s t h a t a r e o n l y p a r t i a l . W e
m a y k n o w t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f a w o r d , b u t
n o t i t s m e a n i n g .
• E a c h p e r s o n ’ s m e n t a l l e x i c o n i s s u r e t o
c o n t a i n t h in g s t h a t a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r
p e o p l e ’ s m e n t a l l e x i c o n s .
• B u t o u r i n d i v i d u a l m e n t a l l e x ic o n s o v e r l a p
e n o u g h t h a t w e s p e a k t h e s a m e l a n g u a g e
2.3 The Mental Lexicon
• T h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t s s t u d y l a n g u a g e b y
s t u d y i n g l i n g u i s t i c d a t a
• P s y c h o l i n g u i s t s w h o s t u d y t h e a c q u i s i t i o n
o f w o r d s c a n d o s o b y o b s e r v i n g c h i l d r e n .
P s y c h o l i n g u i s t s c a n a l s o d o e x p e r i m e n t s
u s i n g e i t h e r c h i l d r e n o r a d u l t s a s s u b j e c t s .
A n d i n c re a s i n g l y , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t s a n d
n e u r o l i n g u i s t s a r e u s i n g b r a i n - i m a g i n g
t e c h n i q u e s t o s t u d y h o w w o r d s – s i m p l e
a n d c o m p l e x – a r e o r g a n i z e d i n t h e m i n d .
2.3.1 How We Study the Mental
Lexicon
• P s y c h o l i n g u i s t s e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e a v e r a g e
e n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g s i x - y e a r - o l d k n o w s 1 0 , 0 0 0
w o r d s , a n d t h e a v e r a g e h i g h - s c h o o l
g r a d u a t e a r o u n d 6 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s
• C h i l d r e n g e n e r a l l y be g i n t o p r o d u c e t h e i r
f i r s t w o r d s a r o u n d t h e a g e o f 1 .
• B l o o m c a l c u l a t e s t h a t b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f 1
a n d 1 8 w e w o u l d h a v e t o l e a r n
a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n w o r d s e v e r y d a y t o h a v e
a v o c a b u l a r y o f 6 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s .
• t h i s f i g u r e j u s t t a k e s i n t o ac c o un t t h e
w o r d s t h a t w e h a v e s t o r e d ( f u l l y o r
p a r t i a l l y ) i n o u r m e n t a l l e x i c o n , a n d n o t
t h e w o r d s – p e r h a p s a n i n f in i t e n u m b e r o f
t h e m – t h a t w e c a n c r e a t e b y u s i n g r u l e s o f
w o r d f o r m a t i o n
2.3.2 How Many Words?
• S o m e o n e p o i n t s a t s o m e t h i n g a n d s a y s
“ f l u r g e ” a n d y o u l e a r n b u t F o r o n e t h i n g ,
n o t e v e r y t h i n g f o r w h i c h w e h a v e a w o r d
c a n b e p o i n t e d a t .
• T h e G a v a g a i p r o b l e m
• I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t b o t h c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s
a r e a b l e t o d o w h a t t h e p s y c h o l in g u i s t
S u s a n C a r e y h a s c a l l ed f a s t m a p p i n g ( C a r e y
1 9 7 8 ) . F a s t m a p p i n g i s t h e a b i l i t y t o p i c k
u p n e w w o r d s o n t h e b a s i s o f a f e w r a n d o m
e x p o s u r e s t o t h e m .
• T h e a b i l i t y t o l e a r n l in g u i s t i c r u l e s ( s a y , o f
s y n t a x o r p h o n o l o g y ) i s t h o u g h t t o d e c l i n e
a f t e r p u b e r t y , t h e a b i l i t y t o l e a r n n e w
w o r d s r e m a i n s r o b u s t .
2.3.3 The Acquisition of Lexical
Knowledge
• S t r a t e g i e s t h a t b o t h c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s s e e m
t o u s e i n l e a r n i n g n e w w o r d
• A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e x i c a l C o n t r a s t P r i n c i p l e ,
t h e l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r w i l l a l w a y s a s s u m e t h a t
a n e w w o r d r e f e r s t o s o m e t h i n g t h a t d o e s n o t
a l r e a d y h a v e a n a m e .
• W h o l e o b j e c t p r i n c i p l e : w h o l e u n n a m e d o b j e c t
t o b e a z o r c h .
• M u t u a l E x c l u s i v i t y P r i n c i p l e : S u b j e c t s , i n
o t h e r w o r d s , w i l l a s s u m e t h a t i f a n o b j e c t
a l r e a d y h a s a w o r d f o r i t , t h e w o r d p l i t z
c a n n o t b e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h o s e w o r d s .
• T h u s , C h i l d r e n n o t o n l y l e a r n s i m p l e w o r d s
b u t t h e y l e a r n t h e r u l e s t h a t a l l o w u s t o
c r e a t e a n d u n d e r s t a n d n e w c o m p l e x w o r d s .
Strategies
• A “ w o r d s v e r s u s r u l e s ” m o d e l o f t h e m e n t a l
l e x i c o n hy p o t h e s i z es t h a t s p e a k e r s o f
E n g l i s h u s e t h e p a s t t e n s e r u l e e v e r y t i m e
t h e y c r e a t e t h e p a s t t e n s e o f a r e g u l a r v e r b ,
b u t s i m p l y s t o r e t h e p a s t t e n s e f o r m s o f
i r r e g u l a r v e r b s w h o l e a n d u n a n a l y z e d i n
t h e i r m e n t a l l e x i c o n s . W e w i l l s e e t h a t t h e
e v i d e n c e f r o m a c q u i s i t i o n ,
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , an d s t u d i e s o f n o n
n e u r o t y p i c a l p o p u l a t io n s s o m e t im e s y i e l d s
c o n f l ic t in g e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h i s
h y p o t h e s i s .
2.3.4 The Organization of the
Mental Lexicon: Storage versus
Rules
• O n e c o m mo n in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s p a t t e r n
i s t h a t c h i l d r e n f i r s t s t o r e p a s t t e n s e s , t h e n
l e a r n r u l e s , a n d f i n a l l y s o r t o u t t h e r u l e -
g o v e r n e d c a s e s f r o m t h e s t o r e d o n e s .
2.3.5 Evidence from Language
Acquisition
• A g r a m m a t i s m a l s o c a l l e d n o n - f l u e n t a p h a s i c s :
h a v e m o r e t r o u b l e w i t h r e g u l a r p a s t t e n s e s
t h a n w i t h i r r e g u l a r o n e s . T h e s e s u b j e c t s t e n d
t o h a v e d a m a g e t o f r o n t a l a r e a s o f t h e l e f t
h e m i s p h e r e s o f t h e b r a i n t h a t h a v e b e e n
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r u l e - b a s e d l i n g u i s t i c a c t i v i t y .
• F l u e n t a p h a s i c s p r o d u c e s y n t a c t i c a l l y
c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e s b u t h a v e t r o u b l e a c c e s s i n g
c o n t e n t w o r d s . t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c d e f i c i t s s e e m
t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d a m a g e t o t h e p o s t e r i o r
p a r t o f t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e
• I t m u s t b e t a k e n a s t e n t a t i v e f o r t w o r e a s o n s :
f i r s t , b e c a u s e t h e n u m b e r o f s u b j e c t s s t u d i e d
i s v e r y s m a l l ; a n d s e c o n d , b e c a u s e c u r r e n t l y
a v a i l a b l e s t u d i e s d o n o t a b s o l u t e l y r u l e o u t
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y .
2.3.6 Evidence from Aphasia
• I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h S L I ( n o r m a l in t e l l i g e n c e
b u t s l o w t o d e v e l o p a n d u n d e r s t a n d
l a n g u a g e , an d t h e i r s p e e c h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
b y t h e o m i s s i o n o f v a r i o u s i n f l ec t io n al
m o r p h e m e s ) o f t en f a i l t o in f l ec t
u n f a m i l i a r r e g u l a r v e r b s c o r r e c t l y ; t h ey
h a v e l e s s d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i r r e g u l a r v e r b s ,
t h o u g h
• I n c o n t r a s t , i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h w i l l i a m s
s y n d r o m e ( n o r m a l a t l a n g u a g e b u t m o t o r
c o n t r o l and s p a t i a l p e r c e p t i o n th e y d i s p l a y
m i l d o r m o d e r a t e d e v e l o p m e n t a l d e l a y )
s p e a k f l u e n t l y an d p r o d u c e s e n t e n c e s w i t h
c o r r e c t r e g u l a r p a s t t e n s e s , b u t h a v e m o r e
t r o u b l e w i t h i r r e g u l a r o n e s
2.3.7 Evidence from Genetic
Disorders
• E a r l y i m a g i n g s t u d i e s o f n o r m a l s u b j e c t s ,
d o n e w i t h P E T s c a n s , s e e m e d t o y i e l d
r e s u l t s t h a t s u p p o r t t h e ‘ w o r d s a n d r u l e s ’
h y p o t h e s i s . J a e g e r e t a l ( 1 9 9 6 ) .
• B u t t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e n o t u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l :
i n a n o t h e r s t u d y , D e s a i e t a l ( 2 0 0 6 ) p o i n t
o u t t h a t i m a g i n g s t u d i e s d o n o t a g r e e o n
w h i c h p a r t s o f t h e b r a i n a r e a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h r e g u l a r s a n d i r r e g u l a r s .
• I n c o n c l u s i o n , w e a r e n o t a b le t o d r a w
f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s y e t a b o u t t h e o r g a n i z a t io n
o f t h e m e n t a l l e x i c o n
2.3.8 Evidence from Imaging
Studies
• M o s t m o r p h o l o g i s t s w o u l d s a y t h a t x y z i s a
w o r d i f i t c a n b e f o r m e d b y t h e r u l e s o f
w o r d f o r m a t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e .
• T h u s , I t i s t h e r u l e s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n t h at
w e k n o w t h a t m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h o u r m e n t a l
l e x i c o n f ro m t h e d i c t i o n a r y . T h e d i c t i o n a r y
d o e s n o t n e e d t o l i s t a l l t h e w o r d s t h a t w e
k n o w o r t h a t w e c o u l d c r e a t e , b e c a u s e o n c e
w e k n o w w o r d f o r m a t i o n r u l e s w e c a n
p r o d u c e a n d u n d e r s t a n d p o t e n t i al ly
i n f in i t e n u m b e r s o f n e w w o r d s f r o m t h e
m o r p h e m e s a v a i l a b l e t o u s .
2.3.9 Reprise: Is It Really a
Word?
• H o w d i c t i o n a r i e s h a v e d e v e l o p e d
• E a r l y D i c t i o n a r i e s
• J o h n s o n ’ s D i c t i o n a r y
• W e b s t e r ’ s D i c t i o n a r y
• T h e O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y
• M o d e r n D i c t i o n a r i e s
• A n d O t h e r L a n g u a g e s
2.4 More about Dictionaries
A N Y Q U E S T I O N
Thank you

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chapter 2. Words, Dictionaries and the mental lexicon (Morphology (Linguistics)

  • 1. P R E S E N T E R M E H A K A L I Chapter 2 Words, Dictionaries, and the Mental Lexicon
  • 2. • W h y w e m a k e b a s i c d i s t i n c t io n be t w e e n t h e d i c t i o n a r y a n d m e n t a l l e x i c o n • H o w l i n g u i s t s s t u d y m e t a l l e x i c o n • H o w c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e w o r d s • C o m p l e x w o r d s a r e s t o r e d i n t h e m e t a l l e x i c o n o r d e r i v e d b y r u l e s o r b o t h • H o w d i c t i o n a r i e s h a v e e v o l v e d • H o w t h e y d i f f e r f r o m o n e a n o t h e r • A n d f r o m m e n t a l l e x i c o n Outline
  • 3. • A s i n g l e d i s t i n c t m e a n i n g f u l e l e m e n t o f s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g , u s e d w i t h o t h e r s ( o r s o m e t i m e s a l o n e ) t o f o r m a s e n t e n c e a n d t y p i c a l l y sh o w n w i t h a s p a c e o n e i t h e r s i d e w h e n w r i t t e n o r p r i n t e d . ” O x f o r d A m e r i c an D i c t i o n a r y • L a n g u a g e s n e e d n o t b e w r i t t e n , b u t t h e y s t i l l h a v e w o r d s , a n d w o r d s d o n ’ t h a v e b l a n k s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e m i n s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . • A w o r d a s a s e q u e n c e o f o ne o r m o r e m o r p h e m e s t h a t c a n s t a n d a l o n e i n a l a n g u a g e 2.1 Introduction
  • 4.  W h i c h D i c t i o n a r y ? • I n d i v i d u a l o r s o c i e t a l f o i b l e s p l a y l e s s o f a r o l e i n d i c t i o n a r y - m a k i n g t o d a y , b u t i t ’ s s t i l l a g o o d i d e a t o k e e p i n m i n d t h a t n e i t h e r l e x i c o g r a p h e r s n o r t h e d i c t i o n a r i e s t h e y c r e a t e a r e i n f a l l i b l e . • V e r y c o n c r e t e a n d t e m p o r a l n a t u r e o f d i c t i o n a r i e s  N o n c e s , M i s t a k e s , a n d M o u n t w e a z e l s • ‘ n o n c e ’ , m e a n i n g t h a t t h e y ’ v e b e e n f o u n d j u s t o n c e • W o r d s t h a t t h e y i d e n t i f y a s m i s t a k e s • m o u n t w e a z e l i s a p h o n y w o r d t h a t i s i n s e r t e d i n t o a d i c t i o n a r y s o t h a t i t s m a k e r s c a n i d e n t i f y l e x i c o g r a p h i c p i r a c y 2.2 Why Not Check the Dictionary?
  • 5.  T h e p r o b l e m o f c o m p l e x w o r d s • D i c t i o n a r i es d o n ’ t n ee d t o i n c l u d e e v e r y w o r d . E v e r y l a n g u a g e h a s w a y s o f f o r m i n g n e w w o r d s t h a t a r e s o a c t i v e a n d t r a n s p a r e n t t h a t p u t t i n g a l l t h e w o r d s f o r m e d t h a t w a y i n t o t h e d i c t i o n a r y w o u l d b e a w a s t e o f s p a c e . Fo r e x a m p l e , s p e a k e r s o f E n g l i s h k n o w t h a t a n y v e r b a t a l l c a n h a v e a f o r m m a d e w i t h t h e s u f f i x - i n g . • T h u s , d i c t i o n a r i e s c a n n o t an s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n “ is x y z a w o r d ” . S o h a v e t o l o o k i n t o m e n t a l l e x i c o n t o a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n . Con….
  • 6. • M e n t a l l ex i c o n m e an t h e s u m t o t a l o f e v e r y t h i n g i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r s k n o w a bo u t t h e w o r d s o f t h e i r l a n g u a g e e . g . p r o n u n c i a ti o n , s y n ta x , s e m a n t i c s a n d p r a g m a t i c s o f t h e i r l a n g u a g e a s w e l l . • I t i s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t i n o u r m e n t a l l e x i c o n s w e h a v e e n t r i e s t h a t a r e o n l y p a r t i a l . W e m a y k n o w t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f a w o r d , b u t n o t i t s m e a n i n g . • E a c h p e r s o n ’ s m e n t a l l e x i c o n i s s u r e t o c o n t a i n t h in g s t h a t a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r p e o p l e ’ s m e n t a l l e x i c o n s . • B u t o u r i n d i v i d u a l m e n t a l l e x ic o n s o v e r l a p e n o u g h t h a t w e s p e a k t h e s a m e l a n g u a g e 2.3 The Mental Lexicon
  • 7. • T h e o r e t i c a l l i n g u i s t s s t u d y l a n g u a g e b y s t u d y i n g l i n g u i s t i c d a t a • P s y c h o l i n g u i s t s w h o s t u d y t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f w o r d s c a n d o s o b y o b s e r v i n g c h i l d r e n . P s y c h o l i n g u i s t s c a n a l s o d o e x p e r i m e n t s u s i n g e i t h e r c h i l d r e n o r a d u l t s a s s u b j e c t s . A n d i n c re a s i n g l y , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t s a n d n e u r o l i n g u i s t s a r e u s i n g b r a i n - i m a g i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o s t u d y h o w w o r d s – s i m p l e a n d c o m p l e x – a r e o r g a n i z e d i n t h e m i n d . 2.3.1 How We Study the Mental Lexicon
  • 8. • P s y c h o l i n g u i s t s e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e a v e r a g e e n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g s i x - y e a r - o l d k n o w s 1 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s , a n d t h e a v e r a g e h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e a r o u n d 6 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s • C h i l d r e n g e n e r a l l y be g i n t o p r o d u c e t h e i r f i r s t w o r d s a r o u n d t h e a g e o f 1 . • B l o o m c a l c u l a t e s t h a t b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f 1 a n d 1 8 w e w o u l d h a v e t o l e a r n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n w o r d s e v e r y d a y t o h a v e a v o c a b u l a r y o f 6 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s . • t h i s f i g u r e j u s t t a k e s i n t o ac c o un t t h e w o r d s t h a t w e h a v e s t o r e d ( f u l l y o r p a r t i a l l y ) i n o u r m e n t a l l e x i c o n , a n d n o t t h e w o r d s – p e r h a p s a n i n f in i t e n u m b e r o f t h e m – t h a t w e c a n c r e a t e b y u s i n g r u l e s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n 2.3.2 How Many Words?
  • 9. • S o m e o n e p o i n t s a t s o m e t h i n g a n d s a y s “ f l u r g e ” a n d y o u l e a r n b u t F o r o n e t h i n g , n o t e v e r y t h i n g f o r w h i c h w e h a v e a w o r d c a n b e p o i n t e d a t . • T h e G a v a g a i p r o b l e m • I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t b o t h c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s a r e a b l e t o d o w h a t t h e p s y c h o l in g u i s t S u s a n C a r e y h a s c a l l ed f a s t m a p p i n g ( C a r e y 1 9 7 8 ) . F a s t m a p p i n g i s t h e a b i l i t y t o p i c k u p n e w w o r d s o n t h e b a s i s o f a f e w r a n d o m e x p o s u r e s t o t h e m . • T h e a b i l i t y t o l e a r n l in g u i s t i c r u l e s ( s a y , o f s y n t a x o r p h o n o l o g y ) i s t h o u g h t t o d e c l i n e a f t e r p u b e r t y , t h e a b i l i t y t o l e a r n n e w w o r d s r e m a i n s r o b u s t . 2.3.3 The Acquisition of Lexical Knowledge
  • 10. • S t r a t e g i e s t h a t b o t h c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s s e e m t o u s e i n l e a r n i n g n e w w o r d • A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e x i c a l C o n t r a s t P r i n c i p l e , t h e l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r w i l l a l w a y s a s s u m e t h a t a n e w w o r d r e f e r s t o s o m e t h i n g t h a t d o e s n o t a l r e a d y h a v e a n a m e . • W h o l e o b j e c t p r i n c i p l e : w h o l e u n n a m e d o b j e c t t o b e a z o r c h . • M u t u a l E x c l u s i v i t y P r i n c i p l e : S u b j e c t s , i n o t h e r w o r d s , w i l l a s s u m e t h a t i f a n o b j e c t a l r e a d y h a s a w o r d f o r i t , t h e w o r d p l i t z c a n n o t b e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h o s e w o r d s . • T h u s , C h i l d r e n n o t o n l y l e a r n s i m p l e w o r d s b u t t h e y l e a r n t h e r u l e s t h a t a l l o w u s t o c r e a t e a n d u n d e r s t a n d n e w c o m p l e x w o r d s . Strategies
  • 11. • A “ w o r d s v e r s u s r u l e s ” m o d e l o f t h e m e n t a l l e x i c o n hy p o t h e s i z es t h a t s p e a k e r s o f E n g l i s h u s e t h e p a s t t e n s e r u l e e v e r y t i m e t h e y c r e a t e t h e p a s t t e n s e o f a r e g u l a r v e r b , b u t s i m p l y s t o r e t h e p a s t t e n s e f o r m s o f i r r e g u l a r v e r b s w h o l e a n d u n a n a l y z e d i n t h e i r m e n t a l l e x i c o n s . W e w i l l s e e t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m a c q u i s i t i o n , e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , an d s t u d i e s o f n o n n e u r o t y p i c a l p o p u l a t io n s s o m e t im e s y i e l d s c o n f l ic t in g e v i d e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . 2.3.4 The Organization of the Mental Lexicon: Storage versus Rules
  • 12. • O n e c o m mo n in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s p a t t e r n i s t h a t c h i l d r e n f i r s t s t o r e p a s t t e n s e s , t h e n l e a r n r u l e s , a n d f i n a l l y s o r t o u t t h e r u l e - g o v e r n e d c a s e s f r o m t h e s t o r e d o n e s . 2.3.5 Evidence from Language Acquisition
  • 13. • A g r a m m a t i s m a l s o c a l l e d n o n - f l u e n t a p h a s i c s : h a v e m o r e t r o u b l e w i t h r e g u l a r p a s t t e n s e s t h a n w i t h i r r e g u l a r o n e s . T h e s e s u b j e c t s t e n d t o h a v e d a m a g e t o f r o n t a l a r e a s o f t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e s o f t h e b r a i n t h a t h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r u l e - b a s e d l i n g u i s t i c a c t i v i t y . • F l u e n t a p h a s i c s p r o d u c e s y n t a c t i c a l l y c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e s b u t h a v e t r o u b l e a c c e s s i n g c o n t e n t w o r d s . t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c d e f i c i t s s e e m t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d a m a g e t o t h e p o s t e r i o r p a r t o f t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e • I t m u s t b e t a k e n a s t e n t a t i v e f o r t w o r e a s o n s : f i r s t , b e c a u s e t h e n u m b e r o f s u b j e c t s s t u d i e d i s v e r y s m a l l ; a n d s e c o n d , b e c a u s e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e s t u d i e s d o n o t a b s o l u t e l y r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y . 2.3.6 Evidence from Aphasia
  • 14. • I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h S L I ( n o r m a l in t e l l i g e n c e b u t s l o w t o d e v e l o p a n d u n d e r s t a n d l a n g u a g e , an d t h e i r s p e e c h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e o m i s s i o n o f v a r i o u s i n f l ec t io n al m o r p h e m e s ) o f t en f a i l t o in f l ec t u n f a m i l i a r r e g u l a r v e r b s c o r r e c t l y ; t h ey h a v e l e s s d i f f i c u l t y w i t h i r r e g u l a r v e r b s , t h o u g h • I n c o n t r a s t , i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h w i l l i a m s s y n d r o m e ( n o r m a l a t l a n g u a g e b u t m o t o r c o n t r o l and s p a t i a l p e r c e p t i o n th e y d i s p l a y m i l d o r m o d e r a t e d e v e l o p m e n t a l d e l a y ) s p e a k f l u e n t l y an d p r o d u c e s e n t e n c e s w i t h c o r r e c t r e g u l a r p a s t t e n s e s , b u t h a v e m o r e t r o u b l e w i t h i r r e g u l a r o n e s 2.3.7 Evidence from Genetic Disorders
  • 15. • E a r l y i m a g i n g s t u d i e s o f n o r m a l s u b j e c t s , d o n e w i t h P E T s c a n s , s e e m e d t o y i e l d r e s u l t s t h a t s u p p o r t t h e ‘ w o r d s a n d r u l e s ’ h y p o t h e s i s . J a e g e r e t a l ( 1 9 9 6 ) . • B u t t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e n o t u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l : i n a n o t h e r s t u d y , D e s a i e t a l ( 2 0 0 6 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t i m a g i n g s t u d i e s d o n o t a g r e e o n w h i c h p a r t s o f t h e b r a i n a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e g u l a r s a n d i r r e g u l a r s . • I n c o n c l u s i o n , w e a r e n o t a b le t o d r a w f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s y e t a b o u t t h e o r g a n i z a t io n o f t h e m e n t a l l e x i c o n 2.3.8 Evidence from Imaging Studies
  • 16. • M o s t m o r p h o l o g i s t s w o u l d s a y t h a t x y z i s a w o r d i f i t c a n b e f o r m e d b y t h e r u l e s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e . • T h u s , I t i s t h e r u l e s o f w o r d f o r m a t i o n t h at w e k n o w t h a t m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h o u r m e n t a l l e x i c o n f ro m t h e d i c t i o n a r y . T h e d i c t i o n a r y d o e s n o t n e e d t o l i s t a l l t h e w o r d s t h a t w e k n o w o r t h a t w e c o u l d c r e a t e , b e c a u s e o n c e w e k n o w w o r d f o r m a t i o n r u l e s w e c a n p r o d u c e a n d u n d e r s t a n d p o t e n t i al ly i n f in i t e n u m b e r s o f n e w w o r d s f r o m t h e m o r p h e m e s a v a i l a b l e t o u s . 2.3.9 Reprise: Is It Really a Word?
  • 17. • H o w d i c t i o n a r i e s h a v e d e v e l o p e d • E a r l y D i c t i o n a r i e s • J o h n s o n ’ s D i c t i o n a r y • W e b s t e r ’ s D i c t i o n a r y • T h e O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y • M o d e r n D i c t i o n a r i e s • A n d O t h e r L a n g u a g e s 2.4 More about Dictionaries
  • 18. A N Y Q U E S T I O N Thank you