This chapter discusses the political economy of international trade and how governments intervene in markets. It provides examples of common trade barriers like tariffs, quotas, subsidies, and local content requirements. Both political and economic arguments for and against government intervention are presented. The emergence of the World Trade Organization and its role in facilitating trade liberalization on a global scale is also summarized.
the political economy of international trade
,
instrument of trade policy
,
what is the political reality of international tr
,
how has the current world trading system emerged
,
what is the future of the world trade organization
,
what do trade barriers mean for managers
,
how do governments intervene in markets
,
why government intervene
,
3:import quota
the political economy of international trade
,
instrument of trade policy
,
what is the political reality of international tr
,
how has the current world trading system emerged
,
what is the future of the world trade organization
,
what do trade barriers mean for managers
,
how do governments intervene in markets
,
why government intervene
,
3:import quota
IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON TRADE IN INDIA
Trade policies determine the size
of markets for the output
of firms and hence strongly influence
both foreign and domestic investment.
International trade is distorted by countries applying tariff and non tariff trade barriers.
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This ppt. tells about International Trade Barrier and its instruments for trade control.It shows the 3 sectors in which protectionism is provided in India.
IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON TRADE IN INDIA
Trade policies determine the size
of markets for the output
of firms and hence strongly influence
both foreign and domestic investment.
International trade is distorted by countries applying tariff and non tariff trade barriers.
Want more FREE resources? Checkout the B2B Whiteboard youtube channel:
www.youtube.com/b2bwhiteboard
Or join us on Facebook today: www.facebook.com/b2bwhiteboard
This ppt. tells about International Trade Barrier and its instruments for trade control.It shows the 3 sectors in which protectionism is provided in India.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in India has played an important role in the development of the Indian economy. FDI in India has - in a lot of ways - enabled India to achieve a certain degree of financial stability, growth and development. This money has allowed India to focus on the areas that may have needed economic attention, and address the various problems that continue to challenge the country.
trade liberalization legislation
presidential authority to negotiate bilateral tariff reduction if reciprocal in nature
most favored nation clause – agreement by two nations to maintain tariffs to each other as low as those applied to any other nation
now called normal trade relations
two exceptions – preferential tariffs on:
imports from developing nations
imports from nations that are members of the same free trade area
critics: WTO dispute settlement effectively supersedes decisions by U.S. government
counterargument: WTO findings cannot force the U.S. to change its laws
U.S. may choose to change its laws, compensate foreign countries, or do nothing & live with repercussions from other nations
economists: benefits of membership, namely normal trade relations with all members, compared with the costs
The dispute-settlement system favors large nations because retaliatory tariffs might different impact on different nations.
If a small nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, the result will be a decrease in national welfare. (Chapter 4)
If a large nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, demand and price throughout the world may change making imports less expensive improving the terms of trade ratio for the large nation.
Purpose of WTO is supposedly to reduce trade barriers not increase them; monetary fines would be a more suitable penalty.
The dispute-settlement system favors large nations because retaliatory tariffs might different impact on different nations.
If a small nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, the result will be a decrease in national welfare. (Chapter 4)
If a large nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, demand and price throughout the world may change making imports less expensive improving the terms of trade ratio for the large nation.
Purpose of WTO is supposedly to reduce trade barriers not increase them; monetary fines would be a more suitable penalty.
The dispute-settlement system favors large nations because retaliatory tariffs might different impact on different nations.
If a small nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, the result will be a decrease in national welfare. (Chapter 4)
If a large nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, demand and price throughout the world may change making imports less expensive improving the terms of trade ratio for the large nation.
Purpose of WTO is supposedly to reduce trade barriers not increase them; monetary fines would be a more suitable penalty.
The dispute-settlement system favors large nations because retaliatory tariffs might different impact on different nations.
If a small nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, the result will be a decrease in national welfare. (Chapter 4)
If a large nation imposes a retaliatory tariff, demand and price throughout the world may change making imports less expensive improving the terms of trade ratio for the large nation.
Purpose of WTO is supposedly to reduce trade barriers not increase them; monetary fines would be a more suitable penalty.
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3. 7-3
What Is The Political Reality
Of International Trade?
Free trade occurs when governments do
not attempt to restrict what citizens can
buy from another country or what they can
sell to another country
many nations are nominally committed to free
trade, but intervene to protect the interests of
politically important groups
4. 7-4
How Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
Governments use various methods to
intervene in markets including
1. Tariffs - taxes levied on imports that
effectively raise the cost of imported
products relative to domestic products
Specific tariffs - levied as a fixed charge for
each unit of a good imported
Ad valorem tariffs - levied as a proportion of
the value of the imported good
5. 7-5
How Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
Tariffs
increase government revenues
force consumers to pay more for certain
imports
are pro-producer and anti-consumer
reduce the overall efficiency of the world
economy
6. 7-6
How Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
2. Subsidies - government payments to
domestic producers
Subsidies help domestic producers
compete against low-cost foreign imports
gain export markets
Consumers typically absorb the costs of
subsidies
7. 7-7
How Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
3. Import Quotas - restrict the quantity of some
good that may be imported into a country
Tariff rate quotas - a hybrid of a quota and a
tariff where a lower tariff is applied to
imports within the quota than to those over
the quota
A quota rent - the extra profit that producers
make when supply is artificially limited by an
import quota
8. 7-8
How Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
4. Voluntary Export Restraints - quotas on
trade imposed by the exporting country,
typically at the request of the importing
country’s government
Import quotas and voluntary export
restraints
benefit domestic producers
raise the prices of imported goods
9. 7-9
How Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
5. Local Content Requirements - demand
that some specific fraction of a good be
produced domestically
benefit domestic producers
consumers face higher prices
6. Administrative Policies - bureaucratic
rules designed to make it difficult for
imports to enter a country
polices hurt consumers by limiting choice
10. 7-10
How Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
7. Antidumping Policies – aka countervailing
duties - punish foreign firms that engage in
dumping and protect domestic producers from
“unfair” foreign competition
dumping - selling goods in a foreign market below
their costs of production, or selling goods in a
foreign market below their “fair” market value
enables firms to unload excess production in
foreign markets
may be predatory behavior - producers use
profits from their home markets to subsidize
prices in a foreign market to drive competitors
out of that market, and then later raise prices
11. 7-11
Why Do Governments
Intervene In Markets?
There are two main arguments for government
intervention in the market
1. Political arguments - concerned with protecting
the interests of certain groups within a nation
(normally producers), often at the expense of
other groups (normally consumers)
2. Economic arguments - concerned with boosting
the overall wealth of a nation – benefits both
producers and consumers
12. 7-12
What Are The Political Arguments
For Government Intervention?
1. Protecting jobs - the most common
political reason for trade restrictions
results from political pressures by unions or
industries that are "threatened" by more
efficient foreign producers, and have more
political clout than consumers
13. 7-13
What Are The Political Arguments
For Government Intervention?
2. Protecting industries deemed important
for national security - industries are often
protected because they are deemed
important for national security
aerospace or semiconductors
14. 7-14
What Are The Political Arguments
For Government Intervention?
3. Retaliation for unfair foreign competition
- when governments take, or threaten to
take, specific actions, other countries
may remove trade barriers
if threatened governments do not back
down, tensions can escalate and new trade
barriers may be enacted
risky strategy
4. Protecting consumers from “dangerous”
products – limit “unsafe” products
15. 7-15
What Are The Political Arguments
For Government Intervention?
5. Furthering the goals of foreign policy -
preferential trade terms can be granted
to countries that a government wants to
build strong relations with
trade policy can also be used to punish
rogue states
the Helms-Burton Act and the D’Amato Act,
have been passed to protect American
companies from such actions
16. 7-16
What Are The Political Arguments
For Government Intervention?
6. Protecting the human rights of individuals in
exporting countries – through trade policy
actions
the decision to grant China MFN status in 1999 was
based on this philosophy
6. Protecting the environment – international
trade is associated with a decline in
environmental quality
concern over global warming
enforcement of environmental regulations
17. 7-17
What Are The Economic Arguments
For Government Intervention?
1. The infant industry argument - an
industry should be protected until it can
develop and be viable and competitive
internationally
accepted as a justification for temporary
trade restrictions under the WTO
18. 7-18
What Are The Economic Arguments
For Government Intervention?
Question: When is an industry “grown up” ?
Critics argue that if a country has the potential
to develop a viable competitive position, its
firms should be capable of raising necessary
funds without additional support from the
government
19. 7-19
What Are The Economic Arguments
For Government Intervention?
2. Strategic trade policy - first mover
advantages can be important to success
governments can help firms from their
countries attain these advantages
governments can help firms overcome
barriers to entry into industries where foreign
firms have an initial advantage
20. 7-20
When Should Governments
Avoid Using Trade Barriers?
Paul Krugman argues that strategic trade
policies aimed at establishing domestic firms in
a dominant position in a global industry are
beggar-thy-neighbor policies that boost national
income at the expense of other countries
countries that attempt to use such policies will
probably provoke retaliation
Krugman argues that since special interest
groups can influence governments, strategic
trade policy is almost certain to be captured by
such groups who will distort it to their own ends
21. 7-21
How Has The Current World
Trading System Emerged?
Until the Great Depression of the 1930s,
most countries had some degree of
protectionism
Smoot-Hawley tariff (1930)
After WWII, the U.S. and other nations
realized the value of freer trade
established the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) - a multilateral agreement
to liberalize trade
22. 7-22
How Has The Current World
Trading System Emerged?
In the 1980s and early 1990s protectionist
trends emerged
Japan’s perceived protectionist (neo-
mercantilist) policies created intense political
pressures in other countries
persistent trade deficits by the U.S
use of non-tariff barriers increased
23. 7-23
How Has The Current World
Trading System Emerged?
The Uruguay Round of GATT
negotiations began in 1986 focusing on
1. Services and intellectual property
going beyond manufactured goods to address
trade issues related to services and intellectual
property, and agriculture
2. The World Trade Organization
it was hoped that enforcement mechanisms
would make the WTO a more effective policeman
of the global trade rules
24. 7-24
How Has The Current World
Trading System Emerged?
The WTO encompassed GATT along with
two sisters organizations
the General Agreement on Trade in Services
(GATS)
working to extend free trade agreements to
services
the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
working to develop common international
rules for intellectual property rights
25. 7-25
How Has The Current World
Trading System Emerged?
The WTO has emerged as an effective advocate
and facilitator of future trade deals, particularly in
such areas as services
153 members in 2011
so far, the WTO’s policing and enforcement
mechanisms are having a positive effect
most countries have adopted WTO
recommendations for trade disputes
a magnet for various groups protesting free
trade
26. 7-26
What Is The Future Of The
World Trade Organization?
The current agenda of the WTO focuses
on
the rise of anti-dumping policies
the high level of protectionism in agriculture
the lack of strong protection for intellectual
property rights in many nations
continued high tariffs on nonagricultural goods
and services in many nations
27. 7-27
What Is The Future Of The
World Trade Organization?
The WTO launched a new round of talks
at Doha, Qatar in 2001 that were still
going on in 2011
The agenda includes
cutting tariffs on industrial goods and services
phasing out subsidies to agricultural
producers
reducing barriers to cross-border investment
limiting the use of anti-dumping laws
28. 7-28
What Do Trade Barriers
Mean For Managers?
Managers need to consider how trade
barriers affect the strategy of the firm and
the implications of government policy on
the firm
1. Trade barriers raise the cost of exporting
products to a country
2. Voluntary export restraints (VERs) may
limit a firm’s ability to serve a country
from locations outside that country
29. 7-29
What Do Trade Barriers
Mean For Managers?
3. To conform to local content
requirements, a firm may have to locate
more production activities in a given
market than it would otherwise
Managers have an incentive to lobby for
free trade, and keep protectionist
pressures from causing them to have to
change strategies
Editor's Notes
The Opening Case: U.S. Tariffs on Tire Imports from China explores the implications of U.S. tariffs on imported tires. The tariffs were implemented after intense lobbying by union workers. However, not only did the WTO rule that the tariffs violated trade agreements, they also caused tire prices in the United States to rise significantly.
LO1: Identify the policy instruments used by governments to influence trade flows.
Tariffs are the oldest form of trade policy; they fall into two categories:
Specific tariffs are levied as a fixed charge for each unit
Ad valorem tariffs are levied as a proportion of the value of the imported good
Tariffs are good for government because they generate revenue.
But, while they protect domestic producers but they reduce efficiency, and create higher prices for consumers.
Subsidies are government payments to domestic producers. They can be in the form of:
Cash grants
Low-interest loans
Tax breaks
Government equity participation in the company
Subsidy revenues are generated from taxes.
Subsidies encourage over-production, inefficiency and reduced trade.
Country Focus: Subsidized Wheat Production in Japan explores the subsidies Japan continues to pay its wheat farmers. Tens of thousands of Japanese farmers continue to grow wheat despite the fact that the wheat grown in North America, Argentina, and Australia is far cheaper and of superior quality. The Japanese farmers stay in business thanks to the hefty subsidies paid by the Japanese government. As a result, wheat prices in Japan are substantially higher than they would be if a free market were allowed to operate.
Management Focus: U.S. Magnesium Seeks Protection explores the dumping charged levied by U.S. Magnesium against Chinese and Russian producers. According to U.S. Magnesium, the sole American producer of magnesium, Russian and Chinese producers were selling magnesium significantly below market value in an effort to drive U.S. Magnesium out of business. The company failed a complaint with the International Trade Commission (ITC) which ultimately ruled in favor of U.S. Magnesium.
LO2: Understand why governments sometimes intervene in international trade.
Country Focus: Trade in Hormone-Treated Beef describes the trade battle between the United States and the European Union over beef from cattle that have been given growth hormones. It outlines the basic issues that led to the dispute, and shows how the World Trade Organization has treated the case.
The U.S. has used trade policy against countries like Libya, Iran, Iraq, North Korea, and Cuba.
Oldest argument - Alexander Hamilton, 1792.
Protected under the WTO.
Only good if it makes the industry efficient.
Brazil auto-makers - 10th largest - wilted when protection was eliminated.
Requires government financial assistance.
Today if the industry is a good investment, global capital markets would invest.
Oldest argument - Alexander Hamilton, 1792.
Protected under the WTO.
Only good if it makes the industry efficient.
Brazil auto-makers - 10th largest - wilted when protection was eliminated.
Requires government financial assistance.
Today if the industry is a good investment, global capital markets would invest.
Strategic trade policy suggests that:
government should use subsidies to protect promising firms in newly emerging industries with substantial scale economies
governments benefit if they support domestic firms to overcome barriers to entry created by existing foreign firms
LO3: Summarize and explain the arguments against strategic trade policy.
LO4: Describe the development of the world trading system and the current trade issues.
GATT - multilateral agreement established in 1948 under U.S. leadership.
Objective is to liberalize trade by eliminating tariffs, subsidies, and import quotas.
Nineteen original members grew to 120.
GATT used ‘rounds of talks’ to gradually reduce trade barriers.
Uruguay Round GATT 1986-93
Mutual tariff reductions negotiated.
Dispute resolution only if complaints were received.
GATT regulations could be circumvented using voluntary export restraints.
The WTO:
had 153 members in 2011
resolved more than 400 disputes between 1995 and 2010
three fourths of the disputes are settled by informal consultation
Because members believe that the protection of intellectual property rights is an essential element of the international trading system, TRIPS obliges WTO members to grant and enforce patents lasting at least 20 years, and copyrights lasting 50 years.
Country Focus: Estimating the Gains from Trade for America explores the results of a study by the Institute for International Economics. The study, which estimated the gains to the American economy from free trade, found that America’s GDP was more than 7 percent higher as a result of reductions in trade barriers than it would have been if the barriers remained. The study also estimated that if tariffs were reduced to zero, significant gains would still result.
LO5: Explain the implications for managers of developments in the world trading system.