Every person is unique because of background, individual characteristics, needs, and how they perceive the world and other individuals
People who perceive things differently behave differently.
People with different attitudes or biases respond differently to instructions and work assignments.
People with different personalities interact differently with supervisors, co-workers, subordinates, and customers.
Individual differences explain why some people embrace changes, and others are fearful of changes; why some people are productive only when they receive detailed directions, others just require a broad outline.
Individual differences shape our organizational behavior and impact our success.
A person’s self-concept is greatly influenced by culture. It is formed over time based on early experiences.
Self-esteem can rise and fall depending on the life’s circumstances. Losing a job after a long period of successful employment can temporarily impact self-esteem.
Cultural values and norms play a substantial role in the development of personality.
Social factors include family life, religion, and many kinds of formal and informal groups.
Situational factors reflect the opportunities or constraints imposed by the operational context.
Who we are is a function of two forces: what we have inherited (nature), and how we are raised (nurture).
OB researchers have found significant evidence of this relationship by studying groups of twins. A recent study found that heredity, family experience, and work experience all contributed to whether or not an individual assumed a leadership role. Similar patterns were shown for males and females.
To tap the potential and the ability of their employees, managers must be aware of their developmental level.
Developmental continuum, as studied by Chris Argyris. This model provides a method of describing and measuring the growth of any individual in the culture.
Argyris notes that people pass through several developmental levels from immaturity to maturity. He believes the nature of the mature adult personality can sometimes be incongruent his/her work situation; in particular, organizations and their managers may neglect the ‘adult’ sides of people. They may use close supervision and control that is more typically needed by younger people whose personalities are still immature.
Levinson sees an individual’s personality growth in relation to key life stages that are age-group related. Gail Sheeley also views human development through a three-stage transition model: 18-30, 30-45, and 45-85.
Both believe that each stage has a crucial impact on a worker’s job, career, and on the organization.
Conclusions drawn from research indicate that personalities develop in predictable ways over time, and that these developments must require different managerial responses.
Personality combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels.
Special tests have been developed that attempt to measure personality dynamics, and thereby predict certain. Some employers have used these tests in hiring and in promotion.
Managers should use caution. There is no foolproof ‘one size fits all’ when it comes to aligning a personality type to job situation. Also, technological sophistication has spawned various forms of cheating on these tests - from acquiring electronic answer keys, coaching by friends who supply the ‘correct’ answers, to the prevalence of overall dishonesty.
Enduring characteristics of personality are called traits.
A key starting point is to consider the personality traits known as the “Big Five”.
Conscientiousness is positively associated with job performance.
An important social trait is problem-solving style.
It reflects the way a person goes about gathering and evaluating information in solving problems and making decisions.
A common inventory for determining problem solving style that used in organizations is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Employers who are aware of these styles will distribute tasks and assign responsibilities more effectively.
Fig. 2.3
Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and order and emphasize well-defined details in gathering information.
Intuitive-type individuals like new problems and dislike routine. They are ‘big picture’ people.
Feeling-type individuals are oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves to other people.
Thinking-type individuals use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions.
Key traits are Locus of control, Proactive personality, Authoritarianism/dogmatism, Machiavellianism and Self-monitoring.
Externals: more extraverted in their interpersonal relationships and more oriented toward the world around them.
Internals: more introverted and oriented towards their own feelings and ideas.
OB research has established a positive link between proactive personality and job performance, team effectiveness, and leadership. Proactive personality is a desirable personality trait in today’s work environment.
Both authoritarianism and dogmatism deal with the rigidity of a person’s beliefs.
Managers with these traits are rigid and closed to differing ideas. Dogmatic subordinates prefer to be told what to do.
Also, people with a high-Machiavellian personality are skilled at influencing others; may try to exploit loosely structured situations; but, perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in highly structured situations.
People with a low-Machiavellian personality:
Are strongly guided by ethical considerations;
Are unlikely to lie or cheat.
The degree to which you are aware of how your actions and behaviors affect others, and monitoring those behaviors to adapt to the situation.
High self-monitors are:
Sensitive to external cues.
Behave differently in different situations.
Good at changing behavior contingent on the environmental circumstance.
Low self-monitors:
Not sensitive to external cues.
Not able to disguise their behaviors. “What you see is what you get”.
Are not always able to hide their feelings. In many situations, it is not prudent for others to always know what your are thinking.
Recall Chapter introduction regarding Anne Mulcahy’s (Xerox CEO) relationship with Xerox president Sandra Burns, during developmental years. Mulcahy tells Burns to develop a poker face… “Ursula, they could read your face. You have to be careful. Sometimes it’s not appropriate.”
Type A orientation is characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism.
Type B orientation is characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events.
Stress can be both positive and negative and is an important fact of life in our present work environment. Individual needs, capabilities, and personality strongly impact how constructively we deal with stress.
Mismatches between job requirements and a person’s skills often results in increased stress.
Without doubt, work can be stressful, and job demands can disrupt one’s work-life balance. Work stressors can arise from excessively high or low task demands, role conflicts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations, or career progress that is either too slow or too fast.
Since it is difficult to completely separate work and non-work lives, life stressors can spillover into the workplace. This compounds the stress and can negatively impact attitudes and performance.
Too much stress can overload and break down a person’s physical and mental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction, reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness.
Once stress has reached a destructive point, special techniques of stress management can be implemented. These techniques are focused on ‘wellness’:
physical (exercise, yoga), mental (positive self-talk, build confidence), spiritual (pray, meditate), be proactive (prioritize, set goals, develop new skill or a hobby).
Organizations that build positive work environments are best positioned to realize employees’ full talent and work potential.
Parents, friends, teachers, and external reference groups can influence individual values.
Values develop as a product of learning and experiences.
Terminal values are the goals individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime.
Instrumental values represent how a person might go about achieving important end states.
Different professions rank these categories differently.
Maglino’s values schema is aimed at people in the workplace. Maglino’s framework should be particularly relevant for studying values in OB.
Researchers have found greater follower satisfaction with the leader when there was congruence in terms of achievement, helping, honesty, and fairness values.
Younger workers perform better when supervisors share their values.
Studies identified the nine more prevalent work-related values to be:
Recognition of competence and accomplishment
Respect
Personal choice and freedom
Involvement at work
Pride in one’s work
Quality of life
Financial security
Self development
Health and wellness
Recognition of competence and accomplishment
Respect
Personal choice and freedom
Involvement at work
Pride in one’s work
Quality of life
Financial security
Self development
Health and wellness
Culture can be thought of as the “software of the mind.”
It helps define boundaries between different groups and affects how their members relate to one another.
Geert Hofstede studied how value differences can influence behavior at work. The dimensions are interrelated, expressing each dimension to a larger or lesser degree.
High power distance and collectivism are often found together. Although the group reaches a consensus, they may still defer to the authority of the leader.
The challenge of workforce diversity is respecting individuals’ perspectives and contributions and promoting a shared sense of organizational vision and identity.
Demographic characteristics may serve as the basis of stereotypes that obscure individual differences and prevent people from getting to know each others as individuals. Stereotypes may present an obstacle that prevents an accurate assessment their performance potential.
Stereotyping that views senior management roles as occupied by males presents a significant barrier to advancement.
Studies show that both men and women viewed women as supportive and encouraging roles, and men as taking charge.
Impact of stereotypic bias has been generally underestimated. Research shows that gender is not a reliable predictor of how people will lead.
Organizations have acknowledged the social and business advantages that are gained with a diverse, multicultural workforce. Maintaining this diversity needed more than affirmative recruitment efforts.
Policies and practices of inclusion were developed that offer equal opportunity for advancement to all levels of the organization.
Organizations may inadvertently set up potentially discriminatory situations by naming or creating special racial or ethnic clubs or social groups.
Baby Boomers value hard work, professional dress, long hours, and steady organizational advancement through established hierarchy.
GenXers value work-life balance and professionalism.
Millenials value diversity and gender equality, flexibility, fun, meaningful work, and flexible career paths.
Americans with Disabilities Act is a federal civil-rights statute that protect the rights of people with disabilities. The ADA has helped to generate a more inclusive climate in organizations. Universal design has resulted in greater access to buildings and work spaces.
