3. Introspection and the Functions
of Consciousness
• The only direct way to study consciousness is to have each person
look within themselves, or introspect. Introspection is a powerful
research tool—but limited. People often lack words to report their
experiences, and when they have the words, different individuals
may use the same words to refer to different inner experiences.
4. Translating Thoughts into Words
• Introspection
• Introspection Limitations
• Introspection: the process of “looking within”
• How to study consciousness?
• Introspection Research
– Questions & examination of subjective experience
5. Limitations of Introspection
• Higher value on diplomacy than honesty
• People don’t always have the vocabulary to
describe
6. The Cognitive Unconscious
• Unconscious events: not detectable through
introspection
• Cognitive Unconscious: Support machinery
that makes experience possible: Processor
that allows us to collect information,
perceive and respond
7. Brain Damage and Unconscious
Functioning
• Anterograde amnesia
– Damage to hippocampus
– Implicit memory
8. Blindsight
• Ability of person with lesionin visual cortext
to reach toward object even though they
report seeing nothing
• (video)
13. Good Consciousness =
Alertness + Awareness
Diminished alertness =
Widespread abnormalities of cerebral hemispheres
or reduced activity of reticular activating system
(RAS)
14. Definition ofTerms
• Confusion :
– impaired attention and concentration, manifest disorientation in
time, place and person, impersistent thinking, speech and
performance, reduced comprehension and capacity to reason
– Fluctuate in severity, typically worse at night ‘sundowning’
– Perceptual disturbances and misinterpret voices, common objects
and actions of other persons
• Confusion is also found in dementia (progressive failure of
language, memory, and other intellectual functions)
15. Definition ofTerms
Delirium : confusion and associated agitation,
hallucination, convulsion and tremor
Amnesia : a loss of past memories and to an
ability to form new ones, despite alert and
normal attentiveness
16. Level of Consciousness(1)
• Alert : normal awake and responsive state
• Drowsiness : state of apparent sleep, briefly
arousal with oral command
• Lethargic : resembles sleepiness, but not
becoming fully alert, slow verbal response and
inattentive. Unable to adequately perform
simple concentration task (such as counting 20
to 1)
17. Level of Consciousness (2)
• Somnolent : easily aroused by voice or touch; awakens and
follows commands; required stimulation to maintain arousal
• Obtunded/Stuporous : arousable only with repeated and painful
stimulation; verbal output is unintelligible or nil; some
purposeful movement to noxious stimulation
• Comatose : no arousal despite vigorous stimulation, no
purposeful movement- only posturing, brainstem reflexes often
absent
18. Consciousness
• Altered States of Consciousness- Shift in the
quality or pattern of mental activity as compared
to waking consciousness
– Thoughts are fuzzy, less alert, thoughts take bizarre
turns
– Drive to work, but don’t remember how you got there
– Driving and on cell phone as dangerous as drinking
and driving
19. Consciousness: Altered States
• Sleep
– Biology
• Sleep is a biological rhythm-natural cycle the body
MUST go through
• Circadian Rhythms-The 24 hour sleep-wake cycle
– Hypothalamus
• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)- internal clock that
tells when to sleep and wake
– Sensitive to light
– Tells pineal gland to release melatonin to make feel sleepy or
stop melatonin to wake up
– Serotonin and body temperature are correlated with sleep
– SCN may be responsible for resetting the biological clock to
24 hours everyday
21. Many Brain Areas Needed for
Consciousness
• Alertness & Sensitivity: Thalamus or RAS
• Content of consciousness: Cortex, i.e. visual
cortex
22. Hypothalamus
• The price of not sleeping
– Microsleeps- brief seconds of sleep
• May be the cause of many car accidents
• Makes doing minor tasks very hard
– Sleep deprivation- Significant loss of sleep that
causes lack of concentration and irritability
problems
• Actually lose more information staying up and
studying
• Symptoms- droopy eyes, inattention & irritability
• Even only 6 hours of sleep is equivalent to no sleep for
2 days!
• Those sleep deprived totally for 3 days were not aware
of their impairment
23. Hypothalamus
• Adaptive theory of sleep
– Sleep patterns are developed to avoid predators
• Restorative theory of sleep
– Sleep is necessary to restore chemicals and repair
cells in the body
• How much sleep is needed?
– Varies according to age and person
24. Neural Correlates
• Binocular rivalry: visual system unable to
handle two different stimuli at once
• Physical sensation doesn’t change, but
experience of it does
27. The Global Workspace
Hypothesis
• Attention
• Workspace Neurons: Connect areas of brain
together
• Hypothesis: Integrated neural activity
provides biological basis of consciousness
30. Stages of Sleep
• Rapid Eye Movement (REM)- Eyes move rapidly,
typically dream stage
– Body move little
• Non-REM Sleep (NREM)- Deeper more restful sleep
– Body is free to move
• BetaWaves-Awake=very fast and small
• AlphaWaves- Sleepy=very slow and large
• ThetaWaves- More sleepy=slower and larger
31. Stages of Sleep
• Non-REM stage one: Light Sleep
– If awakened will not think they were asleep
– Hypnagogic images- flashes of light/images that seem realistic, may
be cause for “ghost/alien” sightings
– Hypnic Jerk- Body jerks awake
• Ancestors slept in trees
• Non-REM stage two: Sleep Spindles
– Body temp drops, heart & breathing slows
– Theta waves predominant
• Non-REM stage three and four: DeltaWaves
– Delta waves predominant
– Deepest stage of sleep
– Bodies lowest level of functioning, hard to awaken
– When body grows
– Boys experience more sleep disorders than girls due to testosterone
which causes boys to sleep deeper
32. REM Sleep
• After being in stage 4 for some time the sleeper will progress
up to stage 3, then 2 and finally the body temp will rise,
breathing slows and deepens and move to REM sleep
• 90% of dreams take place in REM sleep
• Dreams do occur in NREM sleep, but they are regular
thoughts and not as vivid
• REM paralysis-The body cannot move during this type of
sleep
• Physical stress= more NREM sleep longer
• Emotional stress= more REM sleep longer
33. REM Sleep
• REM Rebound- If do not get enough REM
sleep, will make up for it the next night
• Adult REM Sleep- Spend 20% of sleep in this
stage, EEG readings not the same as infants,
and cannot move body
• Infant REM Sleep- Spend 50% of sleep in this
stage and can still move the body
• Infants do not dream in this stage b/c busy
making neural connections
• Infants sleep for brain development
34. Sleep Disorders
• REM Behavior Disorder- Mechanism that
prevents person from moving doesn’t work and
may act out nightmares
– Generally found in men over 60
• Stage 4 sleep disorders
– Sleepwalking (somnambulism)- hereditary and found
more in male children. May just sit up in bed or even
eat food from the fridge. Lack of sleep may induce
this behavior and may wake them up
35. Sleep Disorders
• NightTerrors- Person screams out or even runs without
waking up during deep sleep
– Rare, and found in children
– Generally do not remember the night terror episode
– Night terrors occur in NREM sleep and nightmares in REM sleep
• Insomnia-Inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get quality
sleep
– Psychological Causes
• Worry, trying too hard to sleep, anxiety
– Physical Causes
• Too much caffeine, indigestion, aches and pains
36. Sleep Disorders
• Ways to sleep
– Limit caffeine, take pain meds, don’t eat what
causes indigestion, deal with anxieties, go to be
only when sleepy, only sleep in bed, regular
bedtime, don’t take sleeping pills, don’t drink
alcohol
37. Sleep Disorders• Sleep Apnea- Stop breathing for 30 sec or
more
– Associated with snoring, causes heart problems
– Obesity is a cause
– Treatments
• May lose weight, use nasal opening devices, CPAP-
Continuous positive airway pressure
– Found in infants-immature brain stem (SIDS)
38. Sleep Disorders
• Narcolepsy- Person falls immediately into
REM sleep without warning in the daytime
– Cataplexy- loss of muscle tone from REM
paralysis
• Dangerous if standing up and fall
• Excessive daytime sleepiness
40. Dreams
• Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams
– Conflicts, events and desires are represented
symbolically in dreams
– Manifest Content-What the dream actually
entails
– Latent Content-True meaning in dreams
expressed in symbols
41. Dreams
• Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis-A different kind of
thinking that comes from past experiences and
memories
• Signals sent from Pons to the Cortex to explain activity
of brain
• Frontal lobes are shut down during dreams causing
bizarre and unrealistic dreams
• Dreams can have meaning based on person’s reality
and emotions
42. Dreams
• Activation- information-mode model (AIM)-
brain uses info to create dream material so
real life can impact what we dream about
• What do people dream about?
– Days occurrences
– Men dream about men and women dream about
both
– Men are aggressive in dreams and women are
victims in dreams
– Culture impacts dreams
43. Why do we dream?
• Freud: Manifes & Latent Content, Evaluation
of Theory
• Activiation-synthesis hypothesis
45. Altered States: Hypnosis
• Hypnosis- state of consciousness in which a
person is especially susceptible to suggestion
– 4 steps always present when hypnotizing
• Person told to focus on what is being said
• Person told to relax and feel tired
• Person told to let go and accept suggestions easily
• Person told to use vivid imagination
– Only 80% can be hypnotized; day dreamers,
fantasize, vivid imaginations are easily hypnotized
46. Hypnosis
• Hypnotic susceptibility- Degree to which
someone is a good candidate for hypnosis
• Person being hypnotized is really in control
– Must be willing to be hypnotized
• Basic suggestion effect- Subject blames the
hypnotist for controlling actions
47. Hypnosis
• Theories
– Hypnosis as Dissociation
• Hypnosis worked only on immediate part of mind, hidden
part was aware (driving and not remembering how you got
there)
– Hypnosis as Social Role-Playing
• (Social CognitiveTheory)
– People are not in an altered state, but playing the role of what is
expected from a hypnotized person
– People may not even realize they are not hypnotized
48. Theories of Hypnosis
• Social influences
• Dissociation
• Social factors & Dissociation together?
52. Psychoactive Drugs
• Psychoactive Drugs- alter thinking,
perception, and memory
– Were first used to help people
• Surgeries, deal with pain, insomnia, ADD
– When abused or misused they are very dangerous
– May cause psychological/physical dependence
53. Psychoactive Drugs
• Physical Dependence- Body becomes unable to function
normally w/out the drug
– This is addiction
• DrugTolerance- Larger doses are needed to get the same
effect
• Withdrawal- Symptoms are present when not taking the drug
– Headaches, nausea, irritability, pain, shaking, high blood pressure
54. Psychoactive Drugs
• Psychological Dependence-Think the drug is
needed to continue feeling of emotional or
psychological goodness
– Person thinks he/she needs it
– This addiction can last forever
56. Alcohol
• A depressant made from fermented or distilled
vegetables
– Risks to heart, brain & liver along with loss of job, work
time & economic stability
– Alcohol abuse
• Binge drinking- drinking 4-5 drinks w/in short amount of time
• Alcoholism signs- drunkenness, drinking in A.M., guilty feelings,
drinking to recover, drinking alone, blackouts, lying about
drinking, passing out
• Korsakoff’s Syndrome- Dementia from vitamin B1 deficiency from
lack of eating food
57. Alcohol
• Pregnant women should not drink-Fetal alcohol
syndrome & mental retardation
• Alcohol increases risk of bone density loss and heart
disease
• Alcohol confused as a stimulant because of “happy
feelings”
– This relieves inhibitions- keep a person following social rules
– Alcohol induces the release of GABA neurotransmitters which
slow down brain function
– Women’s bodies process alcohol differently than men
58. Narcotics
• Suppress the sensations of pain, slow down nervous
system
• All narcotics are derived from opium
• Opium- substance from opium poppy
• Paregoric- form of opium used for teething infants
• Morphine- narcotic used to treat severe pain
– Still used by doctors in small, controlled doses
– “God’s own medicine”
59. Narcotics• Heroin- Extremely addictive narcotic
– Inhibits the production/release of endorphins
which block pain
– When in withdrawal there is no protection from
the pain so they want to use again
– Methadone is narcotic used to wean person off of
heroin because it is not as addictive
61. Stimulants “Uppers”
• Drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous
system (Heart and brain speed up)
• Amphetamines- Stimulants that are made in labs
• EX. Benzedrine, Methedrine & Dexedrine
• Methamphetamine “Crystal Meth” used for recreation
• Truck drivers may use stimulants to drive longer
• Overweight people use to lose weight
• Does not give “extra” energy, but uses all the energy the
person has= they will “crash”
62. Stimulants “Uppers”
• Amphetamines
– Symptoms
• Nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure & strokes
– Amphetamine Psychosis- Person becomes
delusional and paranoid from taking large doses
of amphetamines
– Violence is common
63. Stimulants “Uppers”
• Cocaine- Natural drug from cocoa leaves
– Produces feelings of euphoria, power, energy, and
pleasure
– Deadens pain and suppresses appetite
– Was used by doctors and dentists
– Was present in Coca-Cola
– May die from convulsions the first use
– Mice would give selves cocaine instead of eating and
drinking to the point of death
64. Stimulants “Uppers”
• Cocaine withdrawal
– Mood swing into depression, tiredness, nervousness,
inability to feel pleasure & paranoia
– Signs of physical dependence
• Compulsive use- can’t say no
• Loss of control- If available must use it, to point of
exhaustion
• Disregard for the consequences of use- nothing else
matters
65. Stimulants “Uppers”
• Nicotine- Active ingredient in tobacco
– Gives the smoker a “rush” when inhaled
• Increases: heart beat, blood pressure. Releases
adrenalin, reduce stress
• Was first used as insecticide
• More addictive than heroine or alcohol
• Delayed smoking- delay the first cigarette more and
more each day, eventually do not smoke
66. Stimulants “Uppers”
• Caffeine- Stimulant found in coffee, tea, and other plant
based substances
– Helps maintain alertness and increase effectiveness of pain relievers
• Replaced the use of cocaine in medicines
– Drinking coffee will cure drunkenness is myth
• Wide awake drunk
• Barbiturates- depressant drugs that induce sleep (sedative)
– Known as major tranquilizers
– Overdose can lead to death when breathing and heart stop
– Highly addictive and easy to gain tolerance
– Drug interaction- when several drugs are combined and generally
causes death
• Alcohol and barbiturates can be deadly
67. Stimulants “Uppers”
• Benzodiazepines (Minor tranquilizers)- Drugs
that lower anxiety and reduce stress
– Valium, Xanax, Halicon, Ativan and Librium
– Addictive and deadly when combined with
alcohol
– Rohypnol- “date rape drug”= person becomes
unconscious
70. Hallucinogens
• Hallucinogens- cause false sensory messages,
altering the perception of reality
– Synesthesia- sensory distortions; colors have sounds,
sounds have smells, ect
– Two types of hallucinogens
• Manufactured
– Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)- Ergot fungus found on grains
» May have a “bad trip”
» May make poor decisions or not notice danger
71. Hallucinogens
• Manufactured
– Phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine (PCP)-animal
tranquilizer with effects of stimulant, depressant,
narcotic or hallucinogenic
– MDMA (Ecstasy)- stimulant and hallucinogenic
effects
• Dehydrates body and raises temp.
• Drink lots of water, but not too much- may disrupt salt
content in body and regular body functions
72. Hallucinogens
• Non-manufactured
– Though found in nature, still very dangerous
– Mescaline- made from peyote cactus buttons
• Used by Native Americans for out of body experience
– Psilocybin- Found in mushrooms
• Used by Native Americans
• Not physically addictive, but may be psychologically
73. Hallucinogens
• Marijuana
– Mild hallucinogen derived from hemp plant
(cannibus sativa)
– Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)- Active ingredient
– May experience mild euphoria, relaxation, altered
sense of time, visual distortions
– Higher doses may cause hallucinations, delusions
and paranoia
– Not physically addictive buy are withdrawal
symptoms of irritability, memory difficulties,
sleep problems and increased aggression
77. Differences in Addiction
• Genetics
• Personality
• Environment
• Life status
• Cultural factors
• Beliefs
– (overestimate others use, more likely to become users
themselves)
