Case study

1. Case Study Method

2. Defining a Case
Case may be a relatively bounded object or a process; it may be theoretical,
empirical, or both (Ragin & Becker 1992).
Miles and Huberman (1994) define it as, “a phenomenon of some sort occurring in a
bounded context. The case is, “in effect, your unit of analysis” .
As reported by Stake (1995), a case is a “bounded system” (Flood, as reported in
Fals Borda, 1998) that should be a complex functioning unit, be investigated in its
natural context with a multitude of methods and be contemporary (Johansson, 2003).
It is expected to be something that functions, that operates; the study is the
observation of operations (Kemmis, 1980). It is also a phenomenon specific to time
and space. (Johansson, 2003)

3. The case may be a single person, or a group (a distinctive set of people such as
family or a group of friends), a location, an organization (a small company/ start-up
company), or an event.
Case study may constitute a single entity or may comprise more than one, in
which case it becomes a multiple case study.

4. What is Case Study
A case study is a “systematic inquiry into an event or a set of related events which
aims to describe and explain the phenomenon of interest” (Bromley 1990, p. 302).
MacDonald and Walker (1977) defined case study as “the examination of an
instance in action”. It is an empirical inquiry about a contemporary phenomenon
(e.g., a “case”), set within its real-world context—especially when the boundaries
between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin, 2009, p. 18).
A case, in fact, is the starting point of the case study research, as Robert Stake
(1998) points out in the following: “As a form of research, case study is defined by
interest in individual cases, not by the methods of inquiry used”.

5. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events
or conditions and their relationships.
“binding a case” refers to framing the research question in a manner that the study
is not too broad remains reasonable in scope.
Several authors including Yin (2003) and Stake (1995) have suggested that
placing boundaries on a case can prevent this explosion from occurring.
Suggestions on how to bind a case include: (a) by time and place (Creswell,
2003); (b) time and activity (Stake); and (c) by definition and context (Miles &
Huberman, 1994).

6. Historical backdrop
Origins in anthropology, in the form of study of other cultures (Malinowski, 1935)
and psychopathology, as an aid to formulation of theory. (Freud, 1893, 1905)
First generation of case studies culminated in the Chicago school of sociology in
which the anthropologist’s field study method was practised on contemporary
society in the university surroundings (Platt 1992, van Maanen 1988).
In the late 1960s a second generation of case study methodology began to
emerge: one which bridged the gap between positivism and social constructionism
as a philosophical foundation of the social sciences.

7. Features of Case Study
The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or
reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such
as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach.
The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of
data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies
such as qualitative techniques (semi-structured interviews, participant observation,
diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g.
case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).
Data collected can be analysed using different methods.

8. 1. Case study is descriptive in nature
a. The data collected constitute descriptions of psychological processes and events, and of
the contexts in which they occurred (qualitative data).
b. The main emphasis is always on the construction of verbal descriptions of behaviour or
experience but quantitative data may be collected.
c. High levels of detail are provided.
2. It is narrowly focused.
a. Typically a case study offers a description of only a single individual, and sometimes about
groups.
b. Often the case study focuses on a limited aspect of a person, such as their
psychopathological symptoms.

9. 3. It combines objective and subjective data
The researcher may combine objective and subjective data: All are regarded as
valid data for analysis, and as a basis for inferences within the case study.
i. The objective description of behaviour and its context
ii. Details of the subjective aspect, such as feelings, beliefs, impressions or
interpretations. In fact, a case study is uniquely able to offer a means of achieving
an in-depth understanding of the behaviour and experience of a single individual.

10. 4. It is process-oriented
a. The case study method enables the researcher to explore and describe the
nature of processes, which occur over time.
b. In contrast to the experimental method, which basically provides a stilled
‘snapshot’ of processes, which may be continuing over time like for example the
development of language in children over time.

11. Purpose of conducting Case Study
Rigorous qualitative case studies afford researchers opportunities to explore or
describe a phenomenon in context using a variety of data sources. It allows the
researcher to explore individuals or organizations, simple through complex
interventions, relationships, communities, or programs (Yin, 2003) and supports
the deconstruction and the subsequent reconstruction of various phenomena.
A case study may be undertaken to gain a deeper understanding of an individual/
event/ policy, or to provide insight into an issue. It may also entail a number of
cases in order to inquire into a particular phenomenon (Stake 1995). Mariano
(1993) suggested that the purposes of case study research may be exploratory,
descriptive, interpretive and explanatory.

12. White (1992) categorized social science casework according to three purposes:
case studies for identity, explanation, or control.
Case studies may also be useful for explaining presumed causal links between
variables (e.g., treatment and intervention outcomes) “too complex” for survey or
experimental designs. (Yin, 2009)
Although a case study design may include only a single case (perhaps one
person, classroom, or school), designs built around multiple cases (or at least two)
are often more informative, given their potential to replicate findings and test (or
rule out) rival explanations.

13. Types of Case Study
Case study types (Stake, 1995)
Intrinsic: Stake (1995) uses the term intrinsic and suggests that researchers who
have a genuine interest in the case should use this approach when the intent is to
better understand the case. It is not undertaken primarily because the case
represents other cases or because it illustrates a particular trait or problem, but
because in all its particularity and ordinariness, the case itself is of interest. The
purpose is NOT to come to understand some abstract construct or generic
phenomenon. The purpose is NOT to build theory (although that is an option;
Stake, 1995).

14. Instrumental: Is used to accomplish something other than understanding a
particular situation. It provides insight into an issue or helps to refine a theory. The
case is of secondary interest; it plays a supportive role, facilitating our
understanding of something else. The case is often looked at in depth, its contexts
scrutinized, its ordinary activities detailed, and because it helps the researcher
pursue the external interest. The case may or may not be seen as typical of other
cases.
Collective: Collective case studies enable the researcher to explore differences
within and between cases. The goal is to replicate findings across cases. Because
comparisons will be drawn, it is imperative that the cases are chosen carefully so
that the researcher can predict similar results across cases, or predict contrasting
results based on a theory.

15. Case Study Types (Yin, 2003)
Explanatory: This type of case study would be used if you were seeking to
answer a question that sought to explain the presumed causal links in real-life
interventions that are too complex for the survey or experimental strategies. In
evaluation language, the explanations would link program implementation with
program effects.
Exploratory: This type of case study is used to explore those situations in which
the intervention being evaluated has no clear, single set of outcomes.

16. Descriptive: This type of case study is used to describe an intervention or
phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred.
Multiple-case studies: A multiple case study is similar in nature and description
to collective case study. (Stake, 1995)

17. Methodology
According to Yin (1994) the case study design must have five components: the
research question(s), its propositions, its unit(s) of analysis, a determination of
how the data are linked to the propositions and criteria to interpret the
findings.Case studies are designed to suit the case and research question and
published case studies demonstrate wide diversity in study design. (Hyett et al.
2014)
Aim: Purpose of a case study is to attain and present a detailed description of the
case. The cases are of prominent interest before formal study begins.

18. Sampling and sample: It is based on purposive sampling. Sampling is also
guided by the research question which helps to define the breadth of the study
and contain it in scope. Case studies entailing a single individual often select a
case that is representative, or, contradictory of a phenomenon. Multiple case
studies include entities so that balance is maintained while keeping a rich variety
in the cases.
Another important factor is accessibility. According to Stake (2006), the choice of
cases is made, ensuring variety but not necessarily representativeness, without
strong argument for typicality, again weighted by considerations of access and
even by hospitality.

19. Once the case is decided, subsequent choices may be made about persons,
places, and events to observe. These are cases within the case- embedded case
or mini-cases.
Thus, case study design maybe classified on the basis of sample size- single and
multiple. It may also be classified upon the nature of intricacy- holistic (single unit
of analysis) and embedded (multiple units of analysis) thus giving rise to a 2X2 cell
matrix.

20. Nature of data/ tools: Case study draws upon a variety of data sources including
qualitative methods like interview, naturalistic observation, and diary record on the
one hand while also including archival records, quantification of several features
on the other. It may also include data collected at various time-periods upon the
same individual. A case presents data that is usually gathered through a variety of
means including, but not limited to interviews, observations, audio and video data
and document collection.
The goal of collecting data through a variety of means is both to enhance the
theory generating capabilities of the case, and to provide additional validity to
assertions made by either the researcher or the participants in the case itself.

21. Analysis of Data: Analysis depends upon the nature of the data. The data
(narratives and words) would be organized into hierarchical relationships,
matrices, or other arrays (e.g., Miles & Huberman, 1994). A simple array might be
a word table, organized by some rows and columns of interest and presenting
narrative data in the cells of the table.

22. Reliability and Validity: Trustworthiness
Most qualitative researchers agree that data trustworthiness, whether collected from
direct observations, focus groups, or interviews, is evidenced by the following (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985):
Credibility: It refers to the believability of the findings and is enhanced by evidence
such as confirming evaluation of conclusions by research participants, convergence of
multiple sources of evidence, control of unwanted influences, and theoretical fit.
Credible conclusions are believable when accompanied by strong evidence, clear logic,
valid data, and the ruling out of alternative explanations. Maximum confidence in the
believability of conclusions comes from support provided by participants’ agreement,
analysis of multiple sources of data, others’ interpretations, and prediction based on
relevant theoretical models (i.e., a predicted pattern matches an actual pattern).

23. Transferability: Transferability refers to evidence supporting the generalization of
the findings to other contexts- across different participants, groups, situations, and
so forth. This is possible in collective case study where comparisons across cases
may yield similar findings ad thus, increase transferability.
Dependability: Dependability emphasizes upon the consistency of data derived
through different sources (narrative, archival records etc.). Dependability is
enhanced by common qualitative strategies (audit trails, rich documentation,
triangulation, etc.) but also by traditional methods such as inter-coder or inter-
observer agreement (two coders or observers are consistent) and code-recode
consistency (the same coding or observation occurs more than once using the
same “human instrument”).

24. Confirmability: This refers to objectivity (neutrality) and the control of researcher
bias. Bias in qualitative research is an ever-present concern, but unbiased
interpretations are more likely once researcher self-reflection recognizes them
overtly and factors them into the design by, for example, intentionally seeking
potentially contradictory evidence predicted by alternatives (essentially different
biases or worldviews). Confirmability is also enhanced by consistency with
quantitative research findings that reach similar conclusions. Other evidence
includes the consensus reached by peer review.

25. Strategies to promote trustworthiness
● Triangulation, or multiple sources of data as evidence
● Member checks, or arranging for those who provided data to evaluate the
conclusions
● Saturation, or continuous data collection to the point where more data add little
to regularities that have already surfaced
● Peer review, or consultation with experts
● Audit trail, or the detailed record of data collection and rationale for important
decisions
● Thick description, or providing rich detail of the context of the study
● Plausible alternatives, or the rationale for ruling out alternative explanations
and accounting for discrepant (negative) cases

26. Note: trustworthiness is not
limited to case study but,
rather, applicable in case of all
qualitative studies.

27. Advantages of Case Study Method
1. Stimulating new research: A case study can sometimes highlight
extraordinary behaviour, which can stimulate new research.
2. Contradicting established theory: Case studies may sometimes contradict
established psychological theories. Searle cites the case study of severely
deprived Czechoslovak twins, and the remarkable recovery they showed when
placed in a caring social environment, as an example of a case study which
challenged the established theory of the early years of life being a critical period
for human social development.

28. 3. Giving new insight into phenomena or experience: Because case studies
are so rich in information, they can give insight into phenomena, which we could
not gain in any other way.
4. Permitting investigation of otherwise inaccessible situations: Searle
claimed that the case study gives psychological researchers the possibility to
investigate cases, which could not possibly be engineered in research
laboratories.

29. Limitations (Boundaries)
Searle (1999) identified a number of disadvantages to case study research.
1. The researcher’s own subjective feelings may influence the case study
(researcher bias) both the collection of data and the interpretation of them. This is
particularly true of many of the famous case studies in psychology’s history, especially
the case history reported by Freud. In unstructured or clinical case studies the
researcher’s own interpretations can influence the way that the data are collected, i.e.
there is a potential for researcher bias.
2. Memory distortions. The heavy reliance on memory when reconstructing the case
history means that the information about past experiences and events may be
notoriously subject to distortion. Very few people have full documentation of all various
aspects of their lives, and there is always a tendency that people focus on factors which
they find important themselves while they may be unaware of other possible influences.

30. Conclusion
Case study is a choice of what is to be studied. It embraces various
methodologies in order to achieve a detailed explanation of the issue/
phenomenon. This, in turn, leads certain researchers to criticize the method as it
does not have a set methodology and the study design varies from the reported
methodology (Hyett et al. 2014). This can, however, be modified through improved
reporting of the study.
This is a method that embraces data gathering through qualitative and quantitative
approaches for the complete description/ explanation of an entity and thus shows
that the two research paradigms (qualitative and quantitative) are but two sides of
the same coin.

31. Thank you!