This document summarizes research on carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies for industrial processes. It reviews CCS research for cement production, focusing on post-combustion capture using amine solvents and calcium looping technologies. Post-combustion capture for cement plants has an estimated cost of $107/tonne, while calcium looping averages $38/tonne. Oxy-fuel combustion is also discussed and estimated at $60/tonne. Current UK academic research on CCS for cement includes integrating calcium looping with cement manufacturing and examining the effects of high CO2 concentrations during cement production.

1. Capture from cement and UK calcium
looping research
Dr Paul Fennell (UKCCSRC Industrial Emissions Research Area Champion)
p.fennell@imperial.ac.uk
Duncan Leeson (PhD student) did the actual work…

2. Comparison of Industrial Sectors
The four largest CO2 emitting industrial
sectors make up almost 75% of
industrial emissions.
The sectors investigated here are iron
and steel production, petroleum refining,
chemical manufacturing, cement
manufacture and pulp and paper
production
• Chemical manufacture and petroleum
refining were joined in this study due to
the similar nature of the boilers which
CO2 would be captured from.
• The pulp and paper industry was also
investigated due to the large potential
for carbon capture in this sector

3. Systematic Review Process
Search
o Initial search terms were drawn together to cover the major technological areas of CCS,
policy and costs
o Search terms were entered into three academic databases
o Results were recorded, and search terms customised to return a selection of relevant
papers; in this case, 525.
Summarise
o All abstracts were screened and non-relevant papers were discarded according to agreed
criteria
o All 262 papers deemed relevant in the initial screening were read, summarized and
prioritised
o A questionnaire was formulated to allow all relevant data from the papers to be classified
Analysis
o Papers were sorted by industry and information regarding technology, policy or cost noted
in questionnaire and compared where applicable
o In order to directly compare capital costs and produce meaningful cost analysis, a cost
escalator model was constructed to convert all costs to 2013 US Dollars

4. Cost Comparisons for Industrial Plants
Iron and Steel Refineries Pulp and Paper Cement
Cost
(USD
2013)
Number
Cost
(USD
2013)
Number
Cost
(USD
2013)
Number
Cost
(USD
2013)
Number
Post-
combustion
74.23 5 77.60 5 24.73 2 106.53 3
Oxy-
combustion
N/A 0 65 1 N/A 0 59.46 1
Mineralisation 62.50 2 N/A 0 N/A 0 N/A 0
Calcium
Looping
N/A 0 51 1 N/A 0 37.78 4

5. Main Technological Options for Industrial Carbon Capture
Post Combustion Capture through Amine Solvents
• Amine-based solvents such as
MEA and MDEA can strip CO2
from flue gases with capture
efficiencies of >99%,
• This gives a waste gas stream of
very high purity CO2
• Can be easily retrofitted onto
existing plants
• Generally high cost of
regenerating the solvents, which
are often toxic and corrosive
Absorber
Stripper
Lean/Rich Heat
Exchanger
Export Gas
Reflux
Drum
Flue Gas
Inlet

6. Main Technological Options for Industrial Carbon Capture
Calcium Looping Technologies
• Operate by repeated reaction and regeneration of a
CaCO3 to form CaO + CO2. High temperatures are
needed to regenerate the CaO.
• Produces stream of pure CO2 from flue gas which can
then be sequestered
• Problems with solid transport and attrition, and loss of
activity of sorbent over time

7. Main Technological Options for Industrial Carbon Capture
Oxyfuel Combustion
• By burning fuels in pure oxygen (plus recycled CO2) instead of air, the
flue gas is almost pure CO2.
• Can provide heat for boilers and furnaces, e.g. in iron and steel mills
• Using a smaller volume of oxygen then air means that process
equipment can be smaller, so lower capital costs (oxyfuel in cement
plant)
• Requires large, energy intensive air separation unit

8. Main Technological Options for Industrial Carbon Capture
Other technologies
» Mineral carbonation of waste slags forms stable carbonates on
reaction with CO2, although a limited capture potential and low
TRL
» Biological systems using bacteria or algae to capture CO2 are
still in early development
» Membranes to directly separate CO2 from flue gases have been
trialled, but little cost data for large scale use exists
» Formation of hydrate compounds on reaction with CO2 which can
be filtered out of flue streams

9. Carbon Capture on Cement Plants
• Two major technologies costed for cement plants – amine post-combustion
capture and calcium looping
• Research near-evenly split between the two technologies
• Post combustion capture has an estimated capture cost of $107 per tonne for
cement plants
• Calcium looping technologies average at $38 per tonne, though are less
developed
• Oxy-combustion has been investigated and estimated at an average cost of $60
per tonne.
• Health warning:
• At least 50 % variation in estimated costs per technology per industry.
• Academic research can be prone to making optimistic assumptions – frequently
around cost of capital

10. Relative Abundance of Cost Information for Industrial
Carbon Capture
Refineries CementPulp &
Paper
Iron & Steel

11. Carbon Capture on Cement Plants
• 5% of all global CO2 emissions can be attributed to the cement manufacture
process.
• Within the process, 60% of the emissions are due to the calcination reaction
and the other 40% attributable to combustion for heat generation
• Hence pre-combustion can only capture a maximum of 60% of emissions,
though with energy costs this is reduced to around 52%
• Impurities in the flue stream such as SO2 and dust can cause amine
scrubbing units to have high heat duties and necessitate a high degree of
solvent regeneration due to side reactions
Precalciner Kiln Cement Grinding
Fuel & Air Mix
CO2CO2
Fuel & Air Mix
CaCO3 Cement
Additives
Clinker

12. Alternatives to MEA– Oxyfuel combustion

13. Oxy-fuel combustion
Potential Benefits when used in cement plants……
 Reduces the fuel requirements
 Can remove virtually all of the CO2
 Enrichment to 30-35% O2 atmosphere
can increase kiln capacity by 25-50%

14. Oxy-fuel process in cement plant
ECRA, 2009
1. Oxygen separation is still expensive
2. Calcination in high-CO2 atmospheres reduces the surface area of lime-may
affect the formation of calcium silicates
3. The cement plant must be airtight
4. Extensive modifications to the cooler, precalciner and preheaters are required
 Effect on the properties
 But still Challenges…

15. Potential issues with integration – trace elements
Four main phases are present in cement:
• Alite
• Belite
• Aluminate
• Ferrite
Alite most important for strength (especially in early stages)
Trace elements affect the formation and stability of alite
• Trace elements absolutely vital if you want alite at room temperature!
Trace elements come from raw materials, e.g. clay and lime(stone), but
also fuels in cement plant and power station
Beneficial trace elements:
• B, Ba, Cd, Cu, K, La, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Sr, Ti, V, W, Zn, Zr
Detrimental trace elements:
• As, B, Be, Cr, Cu, Sb, Sn, Sr, Ti
Note some are in both lists!

16. Lab-scale cement production
• Lab-scale fluidised bed to produce
small amounts of cycled CaO
• ‘Wet process’ used batch-wise to
produce cement clinker
• Cement clinker ground and mixed with
gyspum to produce cement
• Coal fed into fluidised bed in some
experiments

17. Clinker Production

18. Results of trace element analysis via ICP-OES
Trace element analysis of cement made from CaO from cycling experiments using La
Jagua (Glencore, Colombia) coal
Beneficial
Detrimental
Both

19. Current UK Academic Cement Research – CCS + Cement
UKCCSRC Phase 2 funding – Integration of Cement manufacture (and
Iron and Steel) with Ca looping (Anthony, Fennell)
G8 Materials Efficiency – REO Kiln (Fennell) (oxyfuel cement production)
Cemex / Grantham Institute – Ca looping cement production
Edinburgh – PhD (Brandani Group – Ferrari representing) examining
Cement integration with Ca looping.
Energy balances and economic analysis of oxy-fuel cement manufacture
(needs doing)
Effect of high CO2 concentrations on calcination of limestone (Fennell
Group, Anthony Group, Scott / Dennis Cambridge)
Effect of high CO2 concentration on kiln chemistry (Fennell Group)
Centre for doctoral training – Snape (Nottingham, Midlands Energy
Consortium, Sheffield + Leeds).
New call soon – scoping workshop announced.
E-mail p.fennell@imperial.ac.uk
and I can put you in contact

20. Current UK Academic Research – Calcium Looping
Fennell Group (Imperial) – advanced and enhanced sorbents, sorbent-
enhanced reforming
Anthony Group (Cranfield) – linkage with cement and iron and steel, oxy-
firing with elevated O2 levels and improving the calciner.
Scott and Dennis Groups (Cambridge) – advanced, enhanced sorbents,
modelling. Integration with chemical looping and fuel reforming.
Brandani Group (Maria-Chiara Ferrari) (Edinburgh) Modelling, plant
integration
Dupont Group (Leeds) Sorbent-Enhanced Reforming
Maroto-Valer Group (Heriot-Watt) Sorbent development
E-mail p.fennell@imperial.ac.uk
and I can put you in contact

21. Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge funding from the EPSRC / RUK energy programme under
grants
EP/K000446/1: UKCCSRC - The United Kingdom Carbon Capture and Storage Research
Centre
EP/K021710/1 – G8 Multilateral Research Programme – REO Kiln
UKCCSRC Phase 2 – Advanced Sorbents for CCS via Controlled Sintering
UKCCSRC Phase 2 – UK Demonstration of Enhanced Calcium Looping and First Global
Demonstration of Advanced Doping Techniques
Grantham Institute and Cemex for Continued support in the field of Low CO2 cement
The Energy Programme is a Research Councils UK cross council initiative led by EPSRC
and contributed to by ESRC, NERC, BBSRC and STFC