This document is a research proposal that aims to study the effects of embedding specific literacy strategies within a science curriculum. The researcher hypothesizes that this will increase students' ability to demonstrate understanding of science concepts. The proposal provides background on the problem of students at a middle school struggling with science concepts. It then reviews literature supporting the integration of literacy into science instruction to develop scientific literacy. The proposed study will focus on strategies like summarizing, note-taking, previewing text, generating questions, and developing vocabulary and measure their impact on student understanding through assessments.

1. A Research Proposal Studying Literacy Strategies Embedded Within the
Science Curriculum
by
Barbara Giallombardo
A Research Proposal
Submitted to
Dr. Nancy Mansberger
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, Michigan
April 2009

2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4
METHODOLOGY 16
BIBLIOGRAPHY 18
APPENDICES 19

3. CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The proposed study will examine if embedding the use of specific literacy strategies in
the science curriculum will increase the ability of students to demonstrate an understanding of
science concepts.
Problem Statement:
At Springfield Middle School, students have demonstrated difficulty understanding and
retaining general science concepts. Grade eight is a transition year for students and after
administering the MEAP test in October, science teachers have the opportunity to educate
students in general Earth science concepts through the use of specific literacy strategies.
As juniors in high school, these eighth graders will take the ACT and the MME test.
These tests evaluate the student’s general knowledge in all content areas. The ACT and MME
are timed tests using multiple choice answers. Students are expected to read a short passage
containing information about a science concept or a scientific problem and answer several
multiple choice questions that follow.
A year ago, several secondary science teachers from Calhoun county area middle and
high schools, participated in a professional development (PD) looking at the new State of
Michigan High School Science Content Expectations. Part of the PD was to take the science
portion of the ACT test and the Michigan Merit Exam (MME). After taking the tests, the
teachers discussed issues with the Content Expectations and the two tests. The educators came to

4. the conclusion that in order for students to be successful on the science portion of the ACT and
the MME, they must have
• basic understanding of general science concepts,
• the ability to read a short passage quickly with understanding,
• the ability to understand a question,
• the ability to find answer within the reading or solve the problem using scientific
reasoning.
The literacy strategies proposed in this research will focus specifically on addressing the
mentioned needs.
Significance:
Studies show that reading and writing in content areas helps build critical thinking skills,
thoughtful consideration of ideas, and better concept learning. Writing allows students to self-
assess their understanding of complex concepts while it “makes thinking visible” (Miller &
Calfee, 2004). In order for writing to serve this function, the instruction must be focused and
purposeful and include certain strategies which will gain the biggest bang for the buck.
So why integrate science and literacy? David Pearson, dean of the Graduate School of
Education at the University of California, Berkeley explains “Science provides an authentic and
engaging context for literacy instruction and literacy learning can support students in learning
science”. Pearson suggests starting the integration of literacy and science in the early elementary
years will help science take a better stance in the elementary school curriculum. “Reading and
writing are better when they are tools, not goals,” Pearson asserts (Shapiro, 2006).
The proposed study will focus on specific literacy strategies and use these strategies as
tools to learn science content. The intended outcome will be better understanding of science

5. concepts overall, and the ability to be able to comfortably read and write non-fiction, something
students have not yet been exposed to.
Delimitations
This study is limited to the eighth grade students at Springfield Middle School.
Summary:
After implementation, educators should see a significant increase in scores on the ACT
and MME for students who participated in the study. In the interim, data will be collected from
student’s grades, reading and writing assessments given over the course of the school year. This
study will also provide educators with a frame work for teaching content through the use of
literacy strategies. The specific lessons and strategies used will become part of the 8th
grade
science curriculum for the Battle Creek Public Schools.

6. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
This literature review looks at studies and articles from both professional journals
and secondary sources and organizes the findings into three categories. The first part
looks at content area literacy, while the second part explains what it is to be scientifically
literate and the benefits of integrating literacy skills into science curriculum. The final
part looks at the implementation of specific literacy strategies in the science classroom.
Content Area Literacy
The emergence of content area reading instruction began as early as the 1920’s.
The belief that content area reading contributes directly to the development of reading
competency was acknowledged by the U.S. Bureau of Education in 1925. The Bureau
proposed that every teacher, including those in specific content areas, should be a teacher
of reading. Recently, the focus has changed from all teachers being teachers of reading,
to all teachers being teachers of literacy. The focus changed to include listening,
speaking, thinking, reading and writing (Clinard, 1999).
In 1997, California passed the California Assembly Bill 1086 which identified
specific skills which upper grade teachers are required to understand and be ready to
apply. These skills are:
• Word attack skills
• Spelling and vocabulary skills
• Comprehension skills
• Research on how reading skills are acquired
• Strategic reading strategies across curriculum

7. • Independent , self selected reading
• Integration of listening, speaking, reading and writing
• Intervention for, and integration of, low performing readers
• Effective ELL (English Language Learner) reading instruction
• Planning and delivery of appropriate reading instruction based on assessment and
evaluation.
The bill also provides a list of skills which each student should attain while attending
California Schools. These skills include word analysis, vocabulary, literacy response and
analysis, reading comprehension, writing, listening, speaking and other related literacy
skills (Clinard, 1999). The listed skills are important for all grade level teachers across
the nation; as all teachers must be teachers of reading and writing.
Learning across content areas (e.g., social studies, science) requires middle-grade
students to acquire and apply reading and writing strategies to construct knowledge.
Constructing knowledge, a meaning-making process, goes beyond just acquiring
information (LiteracyMatters.org, 2002 – 2008). Constructing knowledge is to acquire
information, make meaning of the information and communicate the information in a
way that makes sense to the intended audience.
In content area classes, such as social studies and science, writing is an integral
part of the knowledge construction process. To gather information, students take notes,
make outlines, and create graphic organizers. To process or synthesize information, they
write summaries of key ideas, write lab reports, and keep journals. To represent their
knowledge, they produce final reports, web sites, multimedia presentations, and projects.
The development and application of writing skills is a necessary component of making
meaning in content areas (LiteracyMatters.org, 2002 – 2008).

8. Scientifically Literate
Science literacy is the scientific knowledge needed to understand public issues.
The average person does not need to know how to perform the tasks of a scientist, but
instead be able to understand enough science to know how it impacts their lives.
Historically, Americans have not been exposed to science sufficiently, or in a way that
communicates the knowledge they need to cope with life in the 21st
century (Hazen &
Trefil, 1991).
In 1989, teachers and administrators from various schools districts took on the
task of shaping the future of science education. This future would demonstrate students
who are literate in science when they graduate from high school. Project 2061,
Benchmarks for Science Literacy, provides a tool for districts to use when developing
their own curricula. The benchmarks are statements of what all students should know or
be able to do in science by the end of grade 2, 5, 8, and 12 (AAAS, 1993).
In order for an individual to know something, they must be told what it is they
need to know. While this may seem like a very simplistic principle, it is rarely followed
in the world of science. For example, if it is necessary to understand stem cell research
and be able to make decisions with regards to it, then it is necessary to be informed
enough to make those decisions. The general public does not need to know how to
perform the actual stem cell research. Rather, they need to be able to read with
understanding information about the issue from many perspectives and form an opinion
or discuss the topic intelligently. Based on this perspective, science teachers need to
become teachers of literacy with a scientific theme.

9. David Pearson from U of C, Berkeley, sees an important connection between
learning science and learning literacy. “Both require investigation and learning through
multiple modalities: doing, talking, reading, and writing.” Pearson also points out that
literacy and science share many of the same cognitive activities such as summarizing,
posing questions, communicating findings, and drawing inferences and conclusions
(Shapiro, 2006).
Teachers working to integrate science with reading must remember that scientific
literacy means teaching students how to comprehend science by reading informational
text, not just engaging them in non-reading activities. Time in science class should be
spent reading in the context of learning science. Students tend to have difficulty reading
science textbooks and news articles because no one is teaching students how to read
“complex text in the science classroom”, said Holliday. If a student cannot comprehend
scientific material, “they are going to be at a huge disadvantage” (Holliday, 2003).
Implementing Specific Strategies
How then is the need for literacy addressed in the science classroom? There are
many literacy strategies, which if implemented properly and consistently, can be very
effective in shaping a scientifically literate society. For the purpose of this study, three
strategies will be used. The strategies of focus are: summarizing and note taking,
previewing text and generating questions, and vocabulary. All of these strategies will be
embedded into the overall strategy of reading comprehension. These strategies will be
implemented through the following activities:
1. Review by summary of prior knowledge.
2. Reading to understand.

10. 3. Preview text before reading.
4. Generate questions of what they know and what they want to learn.
5. Take notes during reading of written materials.
As juniors in high school taking the MME and ACT tests, students must be able to
read and comprehend short passages and questions. Therefore, teaching reading
comprehension in all classes is an absolute must if children are going to be successful on
these standardized tests. Students can gain understanding of text easily when they have
mastered techniques of reading comprehension such as summarizing and note-taking,
previewing text and generating questions, and developing vocabulary. Experts have
developed various ways in which to teach these techniques such as graphic organizers,
journals, and various guided reading activities.
According to the recommendations from High Schools That Work and ACT’s
“On Course for Success”, students must meet various literacy goals such as:
• Read scientific journals and news articles weekly,
• Use reading and writing strategies to enhance learning, including marginal notes
and annotations,
• Complete short writing assignments weekly,
• Routinely take detailed notes,
• Keep a science journal,
• Participate weekly in laboratory activities with a step-by-step predetermined
procedure emphasizing process,
• Design and conduct scientific investigations while analyzing, communicating and
defending findings.
Summarizing and Note Taking

11. In order to be able to meet the goals stated above, students must become
proficient in navigating technical writing and its elements, and critically read an
informational passage and be able to generalize the information (Michigan Education,
2006).
According to Robert Marzano, summarizing and note taking both require students
to distill information into a concise, synthesized form. Effective learners are able to sift
through a great deal of information, identify what is important and then synthesize and
restate the information (Marzano, 2001). Students also need to be able to understand
scientific vocabulary and think critically about what they read by generating questions as
they read. These skills must be an integral part of note-taking and will help students
summarize accurately.
The question then becomes, how do students gain the skills mentioned above?
How can teachers ensure these skills are being learned and students are proficient in
using them? Modeling is an effective teaching strategy which is generally under-used in
science classrooms at all levels of schooling. Modeling occurs when teachers go through
the motions of slowly acting out the steps needed for students to comprehend an idea,
solve a problem, or engage in mindful, hands-on activities (Holiday, 2001).
Developing rules for the different skills being taught, helps students to be able to
work through a process each time the newly learned skill is applied. Rule-based summary
strategy follows a set of rules or steps to produce a summary. These rules include:
• Delete trivial material that is unnecessary to understanding.
• Delete redundant material.
• Substitute superordinate terms for lists.

12. • Select a topic sentence or invent one if a topic sentence is missing.
Simply directing students to use these tools will not be as effective as showing students
how to use them. Modeling the use of the rules will help the students be better able to
apply them when performing a summarizing task (Marzano, 2001).
Previewing Text and Generating Questions
The ability to identify and take advantage of text structure—the way ideas in a
text are interrelated so as to convey meaning to readers—can contribute to students’
comprehension. The two major text structures, narrative and expository, place different
demands on readers’ comprehension. Expository materials generally use special
organizational features such as text headings and subheadings. Some materials may
include chapter and section previews and summaries, and most contain tables of content,
indices, and glossaries. They also may use extensive graphics, such as tables, charts,
diagrams, figures, photographs and illustrations, and each of these may be accompanied
by explanatory captions (Research-Based Reading Instruction, 2002). When students
understand how a text is structured, they stand a better chance of understanding what they
have read. Students need to learn how to use the organizational features within expository
text to help them comprehend what they are reading. Previewing text by specifically
looking at the features will help students understand as they read.
One previewing technique used in this study will be textmapping which enables
teachers too clearly and explicitly model reading comprehension, and writing and study
skills in the course of regular classroom instruction. Textmapping shines a light on the
pre-reading process. It focuses more attention on the text itself - lingering on the page,
delaying abstraction, forcing readers to engage in a more careful in-context

13. comprehension of both the big picture and the details, and enabling teachers to explicitly
and systematically model comprehension processes (Middlebrook, 2007).
Reading comprehension is strengthened by reading. In other words, the more
students read, the better their comprehension. If students struggle to understand what they
are reading, then they need to ask questions to help them better understand. Developing
student’s self-questioning skills is critical to reading comprehension. Good readers
monitor their understanding by actively asking questions to check for understanding.
However, these questioning skills do not happen automatically, they need to be taught.
‘Embedded questions—questions placed in a narrative flow of a reading selection—arrest
the reader's attention and demand thoughtful reflection. These type questions model the
type behavior that strong readers "self practice" during reading. Embedded questions
scaffold, or support, a student's self-questioning process’ (justreadnow.com, 2008).
The following list of nonfiction comprehension strategies comes from researchers
like Keene and Zimerman (1997), P. David Pearson, et. Al., and Stephanie Harvey. They
are also based upon a reading project sponsored by Denver’s Public Education and
Business Coalition that focuses on comprehension
1. Activating background knowledge. Readers pay more attention when they relate
to the text–text to self, text to text, and text to world. Knowing something about
an article’s content before reading it gives readers an edge. Part of the meaning
breakdown that can occur when reading expository text comes from a lack of
prior information. Teachers can help readers build background knowledge where
little or none exists.

14. 2. Questioning. If confusion disrupts understanding, nonfiction readers need to stop
and take stock of why and what they don’t understand. Asking questions is at the
heart of nonfiction inquiry and often leads to further research.
3. Determining important ideas. Reading to learn requires readers to identify
essential information. There are many ways to help students do this such as asking
‘what is this paragraph about?’
4. Monitoring and repairing comprehension. Nonfiction text is often packed with
unfamiliar ideas and vocabulary. Cracking these strange words and concepts is
crucial to understanding. Knowing how to adjust when meaning breaks down is
critical.
5. Drawing inferences. Reading between the lines requires inferential thinking.
Inferring is particularly helpful when searching for answers to questions that are
not answered directly in the text.
6. Synthesizing information. Reviewing, sorting, and sifting information are specific
skills students should apply to nonfiction reading. These can lead to new insights
that change the way readers think.
7. Visualizing. Sensory imaging makes reading pleasurable. When readers get
pictures in their mind while reading, they are more likely to hang in with the text
against difficult odds (Stone, 2001).
Developing Vocabulary
Often, both teachers and parents assume that, once children master the basic skills
of reading, they should be able to read anything, including content-area textbooks.
However, each type of reading material, including every content area, has its own

15. characteristics that must be learned. Each content area has its own vocabulary, sentence
structure, required reading speed, and assumptions about what experience the reader has
already had. Students must develop literacy skills for each content area to meet the
different challenges presented by content-area literature.
Preparing students to tackle content-area materials needs to begin in the primary
grades. Students can learn to crack the written code of a variety of genres, including both
narrative and expository texts, while also learning content. It is important to remember
that students who are studying a subject area such as science are also studying language
(Rees, 2001).
The most recently released study of international reading achievement provides
some strong evidence that the weakness in U.S. student performance is not the result of
decoding problems or inability to comprehend narrative texts. Instead, it seems to be due
to weakness in ability to comprehend informational texts (Progress in International
Reading Literacy Study, 2003).
When students do not understand an author's vocabulary, they cannot fully
understand the text. Good vocabulary instruction emphasizes useful words (words that
students see frequently), important words (key words that help students understand the
text), and difficult words (idiomatic words, words with more than one meaning, etc.). In
providing vocabulary instruction teachers can help students by:
• Activating their prior knowledge
• Defining words in multiple contexts
• Helping them see context clues
• Helping them understand the structure of words, e.g., prefixes, roots, and suffixes

16. • Teaching them how to use a dictionary and showing them the range of
information it provides
• Encouraging deep processing. Students need to integrate new words into their
working vocabularies.
• Giving them multiple exposures
• Focusing on a small number of important words. Ideally, the words should be
related so that the depth of concept development can be increased
(http://www.literacymatters.org/content/readandwrite/vocab.htm).
Conclusion:
Content area reading contributes directly to the development of reading
competency. Learning across content areas requires middle school students to acquire and
apply reading and writing strategies to construct knowledge, a meaning-making process,
which goes beyond acquiring information to include all literacy skills.
Science literacy is the scientific knowledge needed to understand public issues. In
the past, Americans have been underexposed to science information in a way that
communicates the knowledge they need to cope with life. Therefore gaining the
opportunities to learn the skills necessary to understand and communicate science
information needs to be taught in the classroom.
Specific, purposeful instructional strategies implemented in the science classroom
will assure that all students can comprehend and communicate science information when
they graduate from high school, skills necessary to function in our ever changing world
and to excel in the American work force.

17. METHODOLOGY
Subjects:
This research study will be limited to 68 eighth grade students at Springfield
Middle School. The students in the study are a combination of general education and
special education students including Cognitively Impaired, Learning Impaired, Hearing
Impaired and Emotionally Impaired. Also included are several ESL (English as a Second
Language) students. Not included in the research are the Gifted and Talented students as
the daily activities and some assessments were different than the general education
students. Also not included are the highly mobile students as continuous data was
difficult to keep for these students.
Procedures:
In order to collect and analyze data for this study, several types of instrumentation
will be used. Overall, data will be collected on student achievement on daily activities
supporting the studied literacy strategies, various assessment types including multiple
choice tests and various writing assessments. (See Appendix A)
Daily Activities
Daily activities are broken down into three focus areas: summarizing and note-taking,
previewing text and generating questions, and vocabulary development.
Marking
Period
Number of
Summarizing and
Note-taking
Assignments
Number of
Previewing Text and
Generating Questions
Assignments
Number of
Vocabulary
Development
Assignments
Quarter 1 4 3 2
Quarter 2 8 6 5
Quarter 3 5 8 6

18. Along with the above assignments, there were similar type activities on which data was
not collected, but supported the literacy strategies being studied. (See Appendix B)
Data
Comparison of Summary Assessment Data Over the Course of Three Quarters
Number of Students
Summary
Assessment 1-2*
Summary
Assessment 2-2*
Summary
Assessment 3-2*
Advanced 20 18 7
Proficient 33 39 35
Basic 7 6 11
Below Basic 2 0 0
No Score 6 5 15
Total Students 68 68 68
* Numbers after Assessment is the assessment order and then the quarter in which it was
given.

19. Comparison of Process Assessment Data Over the Course of Three Quarters
Number of Students
Process
Assessment 1-1*
Process
Assessment 2-2*
Process
Assessment 3-3*
Advanced 4 5 5
Proficient 17 27 18
Basic 4 13 10
Below Basic 29 11 21
No Score 14 12 14
Total Students 68 68 68
*Numbers after Assessment is the assessment order and then the quarter in which it was
given.
Data Analysis:
In the summary assessments given in the second and third quarters, the number of
proficient students increased by approximately 9%, but then dropped to a 3% increase.
Also in the summary assessments given in the second and third quarters, the number of
basic students stayed about the same for the first and second assessment, but increased by
6 – 8% on the third summary assessment. Then number of advanced and below basic
students dropped from the first summary assessment to the second and again from the

20. second summary assessment to the third. Unfortunately, the number of students who had
no score showed a significant increase of 14% from the first assessment to the third
assessment.
In the process writing pieces given at the end of each quarter, the number of
advanced students increased by 1.5%, and the number of basic students increased by 8.8 -
13.2 %. The number of proficient students increased by 14.7 % from the first to the
second process writing piece, but ended up with an increase of 1.5% from the first to the
third process writing piece. The number of students who were below basic on the process
writing piece had a significant decrease from the first piece to the second by 26.2% but
only showed a decrease of 12.3% from the first process writing piece to the third, an
increase from the second to the third piece. The number of students who had no score on
any process piece writing stayed about the same for all three writing pieces.
The data does not show in a significant manner that summarizing and note-taking,
previewing text and generating questions, or vocabulary development increase the
performance of students to be able to better communicate scientifically. However, there
was an increase in student scores in both the summary assessment pieces and the process
writing pieces.
Conclusion
In retrospect, the length of the study was not adequate to see enough growth in
students scores overall. The process itself was flawed in that the types of daily activities
were not consistent enough for students to master any particular skill. Where many
students showed some growth in certain skills, most likely, too many different skills were
being assessed for any significant growth on a particular skill to be evident.

21. Had the focus of the study been limited to summarizing and note-taking for
example, and this skill was supported daily, the scores on the summary assessments may
have shown more significant growth. The same could probably be said for the previewing
text and generating questions skill and vocabulary skill.
All of the instructional strategies used were viable and more students passed
eighth grade science this year than have in the past. This difference was also most likely
influenced by a change in the grading structure. There is also a general feeling from both
the students and the instructor that they have learned a great deal of scientific knowledge
and can communicate scientifically through writing better than they could before the
eighth grade.

22. BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science
literacy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Clinard, Linda. (1999). Literacy strategies improve content area learning. Reading
Conference Yearbook: Claremont Graduate University.
Hazen, R. M., and J. S. Trefil. (1991). Science matters: achieving scientific literacy. NY:
Doubleday.
Holiday, William G. (2003). Teaming up for science and reading success. Science and
Children: 40, 8.
Justreadnow.com (2008). Beacon Learning Center: Florida.
Literacymatters.org. (2009). Education Development Center Inc.: Massachusetts.
Marzano, David. (2001). Classroom instruction that works. Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development: VA.
Michigan Department of Education. (2006).

23. Middlebrook, David. (2007). The textmapping project. Gateway to Educational Materials
(GEM) Consortium. Syracuse University: New York.
Miller, R.G., & Calfee, R.C. (2004). Making thinking visible: A method to encourage
science writing in upper elementary grades. Science and Children. (42) 3, 20-25.
Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, (2003). Boston College: MA.
Research based content area reading instruction. (2002). Texas Education Society.
Austin: TX.
Rees, Kari. (2001). FOSS science stories: building literacy through science. FOSS
Newsletter # 17.
Stone, Ellen. (2001). Science and literacy. National Energy Foundation. Salt Lake City:
Utah.

24. APPENDIX A
Qtr 1
• Assessments – Universe Test, Sun Multiple Choice Test, Process Writing Piece
on The Sun
Qtr 2
• Assessments – Matter Quiz, Restless Earth Retelling, Geosphere Multiple Choice
Test, Process Writing Piece on Plate Tectonics
Qtr 3
• Assessments – Ocean Quizzes, Matter Quiz, Water Wells Retelling, Restless Sea
Retelling, Hydrosphere Multiple Choice Test, Process Writing Piece Comparing
and Contrasting Ocean Currents

25. APPENDIX B
Qtr 1
• Summary and Note-taking – Unit Goal, Dark Materials, Universe Paper and Sun
Worksheet
• Previewing Text and Generating Questions – Learn to Read Text, Sunspot Lab
and Sunspot Diagram
• Vocabulary Development – Universe Four Square and Sunspot Diagram.
Qtr 2
• Summary and Note-taking –Notes & Summarizing, Retelling for Sub, Unit Goal,
Convection Picture Journal, Floating Continents Main Idea, Plate Tectonics
Notes, Wegner Main Idea, Earthquake Video Notes
• Previewing Text and Generating Questions – Unit Goal, Crustal Plate Movement,
Sea-Floor Model, Drifting Continents, Earth’s Interior, Early Earth
• Vocabulary Development - Early Earth, Drifting Continents, Earth’s Interior,
Earth Model, Sea-Floor Spreading Model
Qtr 3
• Summary and Note-taking – Hydrogeology Unit Goal, Compare and Contrast
Ocean Characteristics, Coriolis Summary, Global Wind Patterns, Peer Editing
• Previewing Text and Generating Questions - Hydrogeology Unit Goal, Currents
and Climates, Land, Air, Water, Temperature Lab, Global Wind Patterns, Global
Winds, Ocean Chemistry, Surface Water, Aquifer Lab

26. • Vocabulary Development - Compare and Contrast Ocean Characteristics, Global
Wind Patterns, Global Winds, Ocean Chemistry, Surface Water, Illustrated
Dictionary of Terms.