- The study examined whether awareness of others' ability to selectively self-present on Facebook can attenuate the negative effects of upward social comparisons on the site.
- Participants viewed a fictitious Facebook profile designed to induce either an upward or downward social comparison and reported self-esteem and other measures.
- The study hypothesized that awareness of selective self-presentation online would lead to greater reported positivity than being informed self-presentation is unlikely or no information. This could help understand how social comparisons differ online versus face-to-face.
Relationships between facebook intensity self esteem and personalityMarcelo Pesallaccia
1) The study examined relationships between Facebook use, friendship-contingent self-esteem, personality, and narcissism in 200 U.S. college students.
2) It found that students who strongly tied their self-esteem to the quality of their friendships were more active Facebook users, supporting the hypothesis.
3) No significant relationships were found between Facebook use and personality or narcissism. The results suggest Facebook allows students to maintain social connections that are important for friendship-contingent self-esteem.
The document discusses a study on how social comparison on social media affects self-esteem. It conducted a survey of college students about their social media use and habits of comparing themselves to others. The results showed that most students use social media daily, feel a sense of belonging from groups, and compare aspects of their lives like photos and activities to other students' profiles. A significant portion felt worse about themselves after viewing peers' posts that portrayed desirable social situations. The conclusion is that social media allows people to curate ideal versions of their lives, leading others to unconsciously compare and potentially feel inadequate about their own lives.
This study investigated how physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and self-esteem affect perceptions of desirability and reciprocity in online dating. 80 students viewed one of four fictional dating profiles that varied in physical and social attractiveness of the person depicted. Participants completed self-esteem and desirability/reciprocity measures. Results showed that profiles with high physical or social attractiveness were seen as more desirable. Profiles with both high physical and social attractiveness were seen as most desirable. Contrary to hypotheses, those with low self-esteem perceived higher reciprocity than those with high self-esteem. The study provides insight into how attributes affect perceptions in online dating.
Digital technology can impact the development of self-esteem in adolescents in both positive and negative ways. Positively, social media allows teens to share their lives which can improve self-esteem through social comparison. However, comparison on social media can also cause teens to feel inadequate. Excessive social media use is linked to addiction which impacts self-esteem. While social media gives shy teens a way to connect, low self-esteem users may experience further drops in self-esteem from online interactions. Research shows self-esteem is lowest in adolescence and develops over the lifespan with both digital impacts and traditional influences.
This study examined how narcissism and self-esteem are manifested on Facebook. 100 Facebook users completed questionnaires measuring narcissism and self-esteem. Their Facebook profiles were then coded for self-promotional content. Results found that individuals higher in narcissism and lower in self-esteem engaged in more Facebook activity and displayed more self-promotional content on their profiles. Gender differences also influenced the type of self-promotional content, with males higher in narcissism displaying more descriptive self-promotion and females displaying more superficial self-promotion through photos. The study provided initial evidence that personality traits are related to online self-presentation and behavior on social media.
The document discusses research into whether bullying varies between genders. It presents an argument that boys bully physically while girls bully psychologically. Research included an article distinguishing gender differences in cyber and traditional bullying, and a book on bullies, victims, and bystanders. The evaluation process considered source credibility.
The document discusses how media portrays unrealistic gender ideals and stereotypes that can negatively impact people. It reviews research showing that media often sexualizes gender and promotes the idea that men should be dominant breadwinners while women are dependent homemakers. The author's own research using surveys found that social media also reinforces gender stereotypes. While some argue media does not affect them, research indicates it impacts everyone in some way. The author is interested in this topic both personally and professionally as unrealistic media portrayals can pressure people into restrictive roles and behaviors.
This document provides an overview of a study examining how media representations affect women's self-perception and communication. It reviews literature showing that media promotes unrealistic beauty standards and ideals that lead women to doubt their future success and scrutinize their bodies. The study uses qualitative interviews of 6 women to understand how media consumption relates to their self-perception. The interviews were analyzed to provide implications and directions for future research on this topic.
Relationships between facebook intensity self esteem and personalityMarcelo Pesallaccia
1) The study examined relationships between Facebook use, friendship-contingent self-esteem, personality, and narcissism in 200 U.S. college students.
2) It found that students who strongly tied their self-esteem to the quality of their friendships were more active Facebook users, supporting the hypothesis.
3) No significant relationships were found between Facebook use and personality or narcissism. The results suggest Facebook allows students to maintain social connections that are important for friendship-contingent self-esteem.
The document discusses a study on how social comparison on social media affects self-esteem. It conducted a survey of college students about their social media use and habits of comparing themselves to others. The results showed that most students use social media daily, feel a sense of belonging from groups, and compare aspects of their lives like photos and activities to other students' profiles. A significant portion felt worse about themselves after viewing peers' posts that portrayed desirable social situations. The conclusion is that social media allows people to curate ideal versions of their lives, leading others to unconsciously compare and potentially feel inadequate about their own lives.
This study investigated how physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and self-esteem affect perceptions of desirability and reciprocity in online dating. 80 students viewed one of four fictional dating profiles that varied in physical and social attractiveness of the person depicted. Participants completed self-esteem and desirability/reciprocity measures. Results showed that profiles with high physical or social attractiveness were seen as more desirable. Profiles with both high physical and social attractiveness were seen as most desirable. Contrary to hypotheses, those with low self-esteem perceived higher reciprocity than those with high self-esteem. The study provides insight into how attributes affect perceptions in online dating.
Digital technology can impact the development of self-esteem in adolescents in both positive and negative ways. Positively, social media allows teens to share their lives which can improve self-esteem through social comparison. However, comparison on social media can also cause teens to feel inadequate. Excessive social media use is linked to addiction which impacts self-esteem. While social media gives shy teens a way to connect, low self-esteem users may experience further drops in self-esteem from online interactions. Research shows self-esteem is lowest in adolescence and develops over the lifespan with both digital impacts and traditional influences.
This study examined how narcissism and self-esteem are manifested on Facebook. 100 Facebook users completed questionnaires measuring narcissism and self-esteem. Their Facebook profiles were then coded for self-promotional content. Results found that individuals higher in narcissism and lower in self-esteem engaged in more Facebook activity and displayed more self-promotional content on their profiles. Gender differences also influenced the type of self-promotional content, with males higher in narcissism displaying more descriptive self-promotion and females displaying more superficial self-promotion through photos. The study provided initial evidence that personality traits are related to online self-presentation and behavior on social media.
The document discusses research into whether bullying varies between genders. It presents an argument that boys bully physically while girls bully psychologically. Research included an article distinguishing gender differences in cyber and traditional bullying, and a book on bullies, victims, and bystanders. The evaluation process considered source credibility.
The document discusses how media portrays unrealistic gender ideals and stereotypes that can negatively impact people. It reviews research showing that media often sexualizes gender and promotes the idea that men should be dominant breadwinners while women are dependent homemakers. The author's own research using surveys found that social media also reinforces gender stereotypes. While some argue media does not affect them, research indicates it impacts everyone in some way. The author is interested in this topic both personally and professionally as unrealistic media portrayals can pressure people into restrictive roles and behaviors.
This document provides an overview of a study examining how media representations affect women's self-perception and communication. It reviews literature showing that media promotes unrealistic beauty standards and ideals that lead women to doubt their future success and scrutinize their bodies. The study uses qualitative interviews of 6 women to understand how media consumption relates to their self-perception. The interviews were analyzed to provide implications and directions for future research on this topic.
The need for human affiliation and forming relationships is biologically rooted. While some feel this need more strongly than others, friendship motivation and establishing warm interpersonal connections have been extensively studied. Online dating allows people to form relationships based more on personality rather than superficial characteristics, though it also presents some risks if users misrepresent themselves. Ultimately, effective communication is key to developing relationships both online and offline.
How Does the Level of Homesickness Experienced by Students at Jacobs Universi...Jonathan Laetsch
This research report aims to identify the various factors that contribute to both level of social integration and level of homesickness experienced by Students of Jacobs University Bremen in an effort to clarify the similarities and differences between the two factors.
Psychological and long-term effects of social mediajreay925
The document discusses the potential psychological and long-term effects of social media use, especially on children and teens. It explores how excessive social media use has been linked to increased rates of anxiety, depression, and declining social skills in young people. Additionally, the document examines whether social media addiction is a real disorder and how overuse of sites like Facebook can negatively impact students' grades and performance in school. While some positive effects are noted, the long-term impacts of social media on mental health remain unclear.
This document summarizes a student's research paper on the effects of social media on communication. The student conducted a survey that found social media causes negative health effects and is harmful to well-being. Most participants visited social media multiple times daily and used it negatively, despite believing it damages communication skills. The research also found social media is ubiquitous in participants' lives. A literature review discussed studies finding social media preference over face-to-face interaction is linked to loneliness, social anxiety, and depression. Excessive internet use can negatively impact psychological well-being and communication beliefs.
The document discusses a study on the link between identity and content sharing online. Some key findings:
- Users primarily share content to strengthen their relational and personal identities rather than collective or superficial identities.
- The most common motivations for sharing are to entertain others and educate others, which have social effects.
- An article about funny autocorrects was most likely to be shared, followed by articles about shared experiences or that were entertaining with low personal relevance.
- Women valued identity aspects slightly more than men but men actually shared more content, focusing more on entertaining and educating others.
Social media has become deeply ingrained in the lives of teenagers and young adults. It allows constant comparisons to peers and celebrities through curated photos and profiles. This can be detrimental to mental health, especially for young women, by facilitating competition over physical appearance and setting unattainable standards of beauty. Research shows that social media disproportionately impacts women's body image satisfaction compared to men. While social media connects people, it also promotes artificial and edited representations of physical perfection that can negatively influence how people, especially teenage girls, view themselves.
Rashad decided to research the psychological effects of bullying to understand the long-term impacts and promote bullying prevention. His argument was that revealing these effects could demonstrate the value of preventing bullying. He cited a book on the impacts of bullying on school success, a website with detailed information on psychological effects, and an article linking bullying to common health problems. Rashad evaluated his sources based on their relevance to his position and the credibility of their authors. Kayla chose to research the long-term effects of bullying out of curiosity about self-esteem. Her argument was that the impacts of bullying persist beyond childhood and can hinder later life success. She discussed a book citing bullying as a learned behavior and the need for proactive
Rashad discussed the psychological effects of bullying in order to raise awareness of the problems that can result from bullying. He argued that revealing these effects can demonstrate the value of bullying prevention. He cited a book, website, and article that backed his position by detailing various psychological effects such as problems with school success, common health issues, and effects on self-esteem. Kayla explored the long-term effects of bullying and argued these effects can last well beyond childhood and hinder success later in life and in academic environments. She discussed sources including a book on bullying facts, a government website on effects, and a scholarly article on victims being bullied into college.
1) The study aims to investigate whether people who owned dogs as children have more empathy towards others as adults compared to those who did not own dogs as children.
2) Previous research on the relationship between pet ownership and empathy in children had mixed findings, with one study finding higher empathy in children with pets, and another finding differences only based on type of pet owned.
3) The proposed study would administer questionnaires to 1000 adults in Southwestern Ontario and conduct follow-up interviews to further examine the relationship between childhood dog ownership and adult empathy.
The document summarizes the key findings of a survey conducted by Vocus and Brian Solis on perceptions of what makes an online influencer. Some of the main findings include:
1) While most respondents saw a difference between influence and popularity, the distinction was not always clear. There was also a perceived correlation between reach and influence.
2) The top factors contributing to influence were the quality of one's network and the quality of content created, as well as the ability to drive measurable outcomes.
3) Creating compelling content was seen as the most important action for increasing influence, though there were varying views on how to effectively measure influence.
4) A majority of senior executives said they would be
The document analyzes the shift in media messages on the covers of Seventeen magazine from 1944-1954 compared to 2004-2014. It finds that the earliest decade focused on topics like political/current events and education, mentioning physical appearance zero times. However, the most recent decade focused almost exclusively on physical appearance, which was mentioned 30 times, and money, with no mentions of political topics. This dramatic shift suggests the magazine no longer aims to empower girls as role models, and instead focuses on their physical selves. The implications are that readers may develop unhealthy attitudes about body image and relationships based on the magazine's framing of topics.
This document is a Sociology Internal Assessment based on the high rate of unemployment in relation to youth groups. I also have uploaded a copy of my Entrepreneurship IA for your perusal if needed.
You can contact me at: erica5dacas@gmail.com
Bragging about accomplishments to coworkers or on social media often backfires, according to a new study. The study found that excessive self-promotion makes people view the self-promoter as less likeable and as a braggart. Recipients of self-promotion experience more negative emotions than the self-promoter realizes. The results suggest that people should avoid excessive self-promotion as it tends to have the opposite of the intended effect of increasing one's favorability with others.
1. Pew Research Center conducted a study administering the same survey to 9 online nonprobability samples from 8 vendors and their own probability-based online panel to assess accuracy.
2. There was substantial variation in accuracy across the online vendors, with the top performing sample averaging an estimated bias of 5.8 percentage points, nearly 1.5 points lower than the second best.
3. Estimates from some vendors exhibited widespread errors, particularly for blacks and Hispanics, with average estimated biases of over 10 points for both groups across most samples.
Rashad decided to research the psychological effects of bullying to raise awareness of the long-lasting impacts. His position is that bullying can cause stress and interfere with victims' ability to function. He discussed a book about the effects of bullying on school success and a website listing psychological effects as credible sources supporting his argument. Michelle researched cyberbullying and its effects, such as depression. Her sources included a government website on cyberbullying and a book by experts discussing its similarities to traditional bullying. Kayla's question was about long-term bullying effects. Her position is that bullying impacts job and academic success long after childhood. She discussed sources including a book citing bullying's learned nature and long-term effects, and a scholarly article
Adolescent and Young Adult Social Media Use: Using For a Purpose, but Resulti...samhauck
This document discusses adolescent and young adult social media use and its effects. While some argue that social media is turning youth into addicted narcissists, the author argues that most adolescents and young adults use social media for specific purposes like connecting with others and expressing identity. However, social media use still leads to unexpected negative side effects. The author aims to show that youth are not addicted to or becoming narcissists from social media, and that solutions exist to overcome negative side effects.
How obama won the social media battle in the 2012 presidential campaignAlyssa Louise Lozanes
Obama dominated social media in the 2012 US presidential election through an established social media presence and expertise on his campaign team. His team understood how social networks work and created engaging content that spread widely. This allowed Obama to have greater reach than Romney and tap into people's increasing sense of political empowerment through social media. Obama's campaign also utilized big data to target voters and coordinate effective communications. His social media strategy demonstrated how central social media has become to political campaigns.
The document summarizes the key findings of a survey conducted by Vocus and Brian Solis on perceptions of online influence. Some of the main findings include:
1) Respondents perceived a difference between influence and popularity, though the distinction is not always clear. There is seen to be a correlation between reach and influence on social networks.
2) Factors like the quality of one's network, quality of content, ability to drive outcomes, and relationship depth contribute most to perceptions of influence.
3) Creating compelling content is seen as important for increasing influence, but measuring influence effectively showed varying views.
4) Senior executives such as CEOs and CMOs were more willing to pay influencers
El documento describe los pasos para crear tablas y formularios en bases de datos: 1) crear una hoja y un formulario, 2) llenar la tabla con información necesaria para la tabla de datos o formulario, 3) los tipos de formularios incluyen clientes, empleados, inventario y productos.
The document discusses helping participants in Clemson University's Staff Development Program properly complete activity forms by reflecting on how their activities helped them meet their goals. It notes that participant notebooks from the pilot year did not adequately reflect this connection. To address this, a website was created with examples and guidance to help participants and mentors understand how to tie activities back to goals in their forms and notebooks going forward. The impact will be assessed by reviewing participants' mid-year notebooks.
The need for human affiliation and forming relationships is biologically rooted. While some feel this need more strongly than others, friendship motivation and establishing warm interpersonal connections have been extensively studied. Online dating allows people to form relationships based more on personality rather than superficial characteristics, though it also presents some risks if users misrepresent themselves. Ultimately, effective communication is key to developing relationships both online and offline.
How Does the Level of Homesickness Experienced by Students at Jacobs Universi...Jonathan Laetsch
This research report aims to identify the various factors that contribute to both level of social integration and level of homesickness experienced by Students of Jacobs University Bremen in an effort to clarify the similarities and differences between the two factors.
Psychological and long-term effects of social mediajreay925
The document discusses the potential psychological and long-term effects of social media use, especially on children and teens. It explores how excessive social media use has been linked to increased rates of anxiety, depression, and declining social skills in young people. Additionally, the document examines whether social media addiction is a real disorder and how overuse of sites like Facebook can negatively impact students' grades and performance in school. While some positive effects are noted, the long-term impacts of social media on mental health remain unclear.
This document summarizes a student's research paper on the effects of social media on communication. The student conducted a survey that found social media causes negative health effects and is harmful to well-being. Most participants visited social media multiple times daily and used it negatively, despite believing it damages communication skills. The research also found social media is ubiquitous in participants' lives. A literature review discussed studies finding social media preference over face-to-face interaction is linked to loneliness, social anxiety, and depression. Excessive internet use can negatively impact psychological well-being and communication beliefs.
The document discusses a study on the link between identity and content sharing online. Some key findings:
- Users primarily share content to strengthen their relational and personal identities rather than collective or superficial identities.
- The most common motivations for sharing are to entertain others and educate others, which have social effects.
- An article about funny autocorrects was most likely to be shared, followed by articles about shared experiences or that were entertaining with low personal relevance.
- Women valued identity aspects slightly more than men but men actually shared more content, focusing more on entertaining and educating others.
Social media has become deeply ingrained in the lives of teenagers and young adults. It allows constant comparisons to peers and celebrities through curated photos and profiles. This can be detrimental to mental health, especially for young women, by facilitating competition over physical appearance and setting unattainable standards of beauty. Research shows that social media disproportionately impacts women's body image satisfaction compared to men. While social media connects people, it also promotes artificial and edited representations of physical perfection that can negatively influence how people, especially teenage girls, view themselves.
Rashad decided to research the psychological effects of bullying to understand the long-term impacts and promote bullying prevention. His argument was that revealing these effects could demonstrate the value of preventing bullying. He cited a book on the impacts of bullying on school success, a website with detailed information on psychological effects, and an article linking bullying to common health problems. Rashad evaluated his sources based on their relevance to his position and the credibility of their authors. Kayla chose to research the long-term effects of bullying out of curiosity about self-esteem. Her argument was that the impacts of bullying persist beyond childhood and can hinder later life success. She discussed a book citing bullying as a learned behavior and the need for proactive
Rashad discussed the psychological effects of bullying in order to raise awareness of the problems that can result from bullying. He argued that revealing these effects can demonstrate the value of bullying prevention. He cited a book, website, and article that backed his position by detailing various psychological effects such as problems with school success, common health issues, and effects on self-esteem. Kayla explored the long-term effects of bullying and argued these effects can last well beyond childhood and hinder success later in life and in academic environments. She discussed sources including a book on bullying facts, a government website on effects, and a scholarly article on victims being bullied into college.
1) The study aims to investigate whether people who owned dogs as children have more empathy towards others as adults compared to those who did not own dogs as children.
2) Previous research on the relationship between pet ownership and empathy in children had mixed findings, with one study finding higher empathy in children with pets, and another finding differences only based on type of pet owned.
3) The proposed study would administer questionnaires to 1000 adults in Southwestern Ontario and conduct follow-up interviews to further examine the relationship between childhood dog ownership and adult empathy.
The document summarizes the key findings of a survey conducted by Vocus and Brian Solis on perceptions of what makes an online influencer. Some of the main findings include:
1) While most respondents saw a difference between influence and popularity, the distinction was not always clear. There was also a perceived correlation between reach and influence.
2) The top factors contributing to influence were the quality of one's network and the quality of content created, as well as the ability to drive measurable outcomes.
3) Creating compelling content was seen as the most important action for increasing influence, though there were varying views on how to effectively measure influence.
4) A majority of senior executives said they would be
The document analyzes the shift in media messages on the covers of Seventeen magazine from 1944-1954 compared to 2004-2014. It finds that the earliest decade focused on topics like political/current events and education, mentioning physical appearance zero times. However, the most recent decade focused almost exclusively on physical appearance, which was mentioned 30 times, and money, with no mentions of political topics. This dramatic shift suggests the magazine no longer aims to empower girls as role models, and instead focuses on their physical selves. The implications are that readers may develop unhealthy attitudes about body image and relationships based on the magazine's framing of topics.
This document is a Sociology Internal Assessment based on the high rate of unemployment in relation to youth groups. I also have uploaded a copy of my Entrepreneurship IA for your perusal if needed.
You can contact me at: erica5dacas@gmail.com
Bragging about accomplishments to coworkers or on social media often backfires, according to a new study. The study found that excessive self-promotion makes people view the self-promoter as less likeable and as a braggart. Recipients of self-promotion experience more negative emotions than the self-promoter realizes. The results suggest that people should avoid excessive self-promotion as it tends to have the opposite of the intended effect of increasing one's favorability with others.
1. Pew Research Center conducted a study administering the same survey to 9 online nonprobability samples from 8 vendors and their own probability-based online panel to assess accuracy.
2. There was substantial variation in accuracy across the online vendors, with the top performing sample averaging an estimated bias of 5.8 percentage points, nearly 1.5 points lower than the second best.
3. Estimates from some vendors exhibited widespread errors, particularly for blacks and Hispanics, with average estimated biases of over 10 points for both groups across most samples.
Rashad decided to research the psychological effects of bullying to raise awareness of the long-lasting impacts. His position is that bullying can cause stress and interfere with victims' ability to function. He discussed a book about the effects of bullying on school success and a website listing psychological effects as credible sources supporting his argument. Michelle researched cyberbullying and its effects, such as depression. Her sources included a government website on cyberbullying and a book by experts discussing its similarities to traditional bullying. Kayla's question was about long-term bullying effects. Her position is that bullying impacts job and academic success long after childhood. She discussed sources including a book citing bullying's learned nature and long-term effects, and a scholarly article
Adolescent and Young Adult Social Media Use: Using For a Purpose, but Resulti...samhauck
This document discusses adolescent and young adult social media use and its effects. While some argue that social media is turning youth into addicted narcissists, the author argues that most adolescents and young adults use social media for specific purposes like connecting with others and expressing identity. However, social media use still leads to unexpected negative side effects. The author aims to show that youth are not addicted to or becoming narcissists from social media, and that solutions exist to overcome negative side effects.
How obama won the social media battle in the 2012 presidential campaignAlyssa Louise Lozanes
Obama dominated social media in the 2012 US presidential election through an established social media presence and expertise on his campaign team. His team understood how social networks work and created engaging content that spread widely. This allowed Obama to have greater reach than Romney and tap into people's increasing sense of political empowerment through social media. Obama's campaign also utilized big data to target voters and coordinate effective communications. His social media strategy demonstrated how central social media has become to political campaigns.
The document summarizes the key findings of a survey conducted by Vocus and Brian Solis on perceptions of online influence. Some of the main findings include:
1) Respondents perceived a difference between influence and popularity, though the distinction is not always clear. There is seen to be a correlation between reach and influence on social networks.
2) Factors like the quality of one's network, quality of content, ability to drive outcomes, and relationship depth contribute most to perceptions of influence.
3) Creating compelling content is seen as important for increasing influence, but measuring influence effectively showed varying views.
4) Senior executives such as CEOs and CMOs were more willing to pay influencers
El documento describe los pasos para crear tablas y formularios en bases de datos: 1) crear una hoja y un formulario, 2) llenar la tabla con información necesaria para la tabla de datos o formulario, 3) los tipos de formularios incluyen clientes, empleados, inventario y productos.
The document discusses helping participants in Clemson University's Staff Development Program properly complete activity forms by reflecting on how their activities helped them meet their goals. It notes that participant notebooks from the pilot year did not adequately reflect this connection. To address this, a website was created with examples and guidance to help participants and mentors understand how to tie activities back to goals in their forms and notebooks going forward. The impact will be assessed by reviewing participants' mid-year notebooks.
This document contains a series of chess positions with instructions to find the checkmate in one move for the white player. It emphasizes checking the position for any possible defenses by the black king, such as fleeing, blocking, or capturing the checking piece, to ensure the announced checkmate is valid and cannot be escaped from by black.
1) El documento describe las 5 fases del modelo ADDIE para diseñar un curso de adiestramiento para maestros en preparación y maestros en ejercicio sobre estrategias efectivas de enseñanza.
2) En la fase de análisis, el curso se enfocará en estudiantes de bachillerato y maestros que utilizan métodos tradicionales.
3) En la fase de diseño, al finalizar el curso los estudiantes conocerán diferentes estrategias para llevar a cabo una enseñanza efectiva.
El documento describe los diferentes tipos de monitores y unidades de almacenamiento de una computadora. Explica que los monitores CRT y LCD usan diferentes tecnologías de visualización, mientras que las unidades de almacenamiento como discos duros, unidades USB y memorias RAM y ROM almacenan datos de forma permanente o temporal. También analiza las partes internas de un monitor y los diferentes tipos de memorias RAM.
1) El documento describe las 5 fases del modelo ADDIE para el diseño instruccional de un curso para maestros en preparación y maestros en ejercicio sobre estrategias efectivas de enseñanza.
2) En la fase de análisis, el curso se enfocará en estudiantes de bachillerato y maestros que usarán métodos tradicionales.
3) En la fase de diseño, al culminar el curso los estudiantes conocerán estrategias para una enseñanza efectiva y sabrán aplicarlas.
El documento define el marco curricular como el documento que establece los principios filosóficos, fundamentos, enfoques y currículo básico de cada programa de estudio. Explica que el marco curricular consta de 3 dimensiones: contenido, metodología de enseñanza y proceso de evaluación. Además, detalla que el propósito del marco curricular es fundamentar la misión y metas de los programas de estudio, guiar la evaluación del currículo y el rendimiento académico, orientar la preparación de maestros y
Kautilya was an Indian philosopher who served as the prime minister of the Mauryan emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara. He is credited with writing the ancient Indian treatise on statecraft and economic policy called the Arthashastra. The Arthashastra discusses political philosophy and strategy for a ruler or king to acquire and manage his kingdom. It covers topics like the duties and qualities of a king, bureaucratic systems, foreign relations, and intelligence gathering. Kautilya advocated for a strong centralized monarchy and bureaucracy to manage all aspects of state. He emphasized the importance of a large military force and intelligence network to protect and expand the kingdom.
Kautilya was an Indian teacher, philosopher, economist and royal advisor from ancient India. He is considered the pioneer of political science and economics in India. His book Arthashastra discusses in detail the political, social, economic and military organization of the Mauryan Empire. It covers topics like public finance, taxation, trade, agriculture, labour and welfare. Kautilya advocated for a strong role of the state in the economy through industries, trade, agriculture and providing welfare. He emphasized wealth creation and its equitable distribution through a just system of taxation and wages.
Although recent developments are promising, SMEs' still don't perceive their relationship with banks as ideal. Refocusing the strategy, understanding their clients and offering them what they strive for... What should banks do differently?
This document discusses the anatomy and function of the olfactory system. It notes that perception of odors depends on the state of the nasal epithelium and nervous system. It describes how odorant substances reach the olfactory cleft through diffusion or airflow in the nose. It outlines the structures involved in olfaction like the olfactory epithelium, receptor cells, and pathways in the brain. It also discusses clinical conditions that can affect smell and various diseases and medications that can impact the olfactory system.
Cartel de contenidos religión-sec y primSANTOS CUEVA
Este documento presenta los planes de estudio de Educación Religiosa para los niveles de secundaria y primaria (5° y 6°). En cada nivel, se dividen los temas entre "Formación de la Conciencia Moral Cristiana" y "Testimonio de Vida". Los temas de Formación de la Conciencia Moral Cristiana incluyen doctrinas como la Revelación, Jesús, la Iglesia, y los Sacramentos. Los temas de Testimonio de Vida se enfocan en vivir de acuerdo con los principios cristianos y
Este documento presenta una tabla con las capacidades esperadas para cada área y grado de educación primaria. En la tabla se enumeran las capacidades específicas de comprensión lectora, producción de textos, inglés, matemáticas, ciencias, historia, formación cívica, educación física, arte, religión y educación para el trabajo. La tabla describe las capacidades que los estudiantes deberían desarrollar año tras año para cada área, con el objetivo de ofrecer una guía sobre las expectativas de aprendiz
Social Comparison, Social Media, and Self-EsteemErin A. Vo.docxjensgosney
Social Comparison, Social Media, and Self-Esteem
Erin A. Vogel, Jason P. Rose, Lindsay R. Roberts, and Katheryn Eckles
University of Toledo
Social networking sites (SNSs), such as Facebook, provide abundant social comparison
opportunities. Given the widespread use of SNSs, the purpose of the present set of
studies was to examine the impact of chronic and temporary exposure to social
media-based social comparison information on self-esteem. Using a correlational
approach, Study 1 examined whether frequent Facebook use is associated with lower
trait self-esteem. Indeed, the results showed that participants who used Facebook most
often had poorer trait self-esteem, and this was mediated by greater exposure to upward
social comparisons on social media. Using an experimental approach, Study 2 exam-
ined the impact of temporary exposure to social media profiles on state self-esteem and
relative self-evaluations. The results revealed that participants’ state self-esteem and
relative self-evaluations were lower when the target person’s profile contained upward
comparison information (e.g., a high activity social network, healthy habits) than when
the target person’s profile contained downward comparison information (e.g., a low
activity social network, unhealthy habits). Results are discussed in terms of extant
research and their implications for the role of social media in well-being.
Keywords: social comparison, self-esteem, social media, Internet, social networks
Social media is pervasive, especially popular
social networking sites (SNSs) like Facebook,
which has over a billion users around the world
(Facebook, 2012). SNSs allow users to con-
struct electronic profiles for themselves, provide
details about their lives and experiences, post
pictures, maintain relationships, plan social
events, meet new people, make observations of
others’ lives, fulfill belongingness needs, and
express their beliefs, preferences, and emotions
(Boyd & Ellison, 2007; Ivcevic & Ambady,
2012; Nadkarni & Hofmann, 2012; Tosun,
2012). Given the relevance of SNSs to a variety
of social functions, we suggest that people also
use SNSs (either consciously or unconsciously;
Haferkamp & Kramer, 2011) as a basis for
social comparative functions, such as self-
evaluation (Festinger, 1954) or self-enhance-
ment (Gruder, 1971; Wills, 1981). Because
SNSs offer abundant opportunities for social
comparison using detailed information about
others, the current research examined whether
exposure to social media is associated with
changes in self-evaluation (e.g., self-esteem),
and whether this might be due to social com-
parison processes.
Social Comparison and Social Media
Humans are thought to possess a fundamental
drive to compare themselves with others, which
serves a variety of functions, such as fulfilling
affiliation needs (Schachter, 1959), evaluating
the self (Festinger, 1954), making decisions
(Camerer & Lovallo, 1999), being inspired
(Lockwood & Kunda, 1997), and regula.
The document discusses a study on the impact of social media usage on students' self-satisfaction at higher education levels. It outlines the introduction, problem statement, objectives, research questions, significance, methodology and references for the study. The objectives are to analyze the positive and negative impacts of social media on self-satisfaction, identify factors creating negative impacts, and provide suggestions to minimize these effects. A survey method using questionnaires and interviews will be used to collect data from students and teachers, which will then be analyzed using SPSS.
The document summarizes a study on the effects of social media on relationships. It discusses previous research that has shown both negative and positive impacts of social media usage. The current study involved surveying 40 participants (half male, half female) who were randomly assigned to read one of two scenarios involving social media use in a relationship. They then answered questions to assess their views on cheating and the relationship. The study hypothesized that responses would differ based on the gender of the participant and scenario. While the results were not statistically significant, they trended in the predicted directions, providing some evidence that social media negatively impacts relationships. The study aimed to further understanding of this issue.
The document summarizes a report on self-esteem, ideal self, and social comparison. It discusses literature on social comparison theory and how people evaluate themselves by comparing to others. It describes a study of 20 adolescents that found body image and peers influence self-perception. The study showed "fat talk" lowers self-esteem and boys compare looks to avoid bullying. Social media allows carefully crafted presentations of ideal selves but comparisons to others on platforms can decrease life satisfaction and increase feelings of inadequacy.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated how receiving positive or negative comments about one's appearance prior to taking a selfie affects self-esteem. 300 participants were randomly assigned to receive no comment, a positive comment, or a negative comment from the experimenter before taking a selfie. Self-esteem was measured before and after via a questionnaire. Results showed those who received a negative comment displayed the largest decrease in self-esteem, followed by no comment, while the positive comment group increased in self-esteem. This supported the hypothesis that negative external perceptions lower self-esteem the most when taking and posting selfies.
Social Comparison or Association? Effects of Facebook Friend Profile Viewing ...Holly Slang
This study examined the effects of viewing other people's Facebook profiles on self-esteem. In experiment 1, 242 participants viewed either their own profile or a profile of someone with fewer, equal, or more friends. Viewing another's profile increased reported happiness but decreased self-esteem compared to viewing one's own profile. Those who viewed a more popular profile reported lower self-esteem and higher intentions to show off. In experiment 2, 285 participants were primed with either associative or comparative contexts before viewing profiles. Results showed gender differences in responses, with men feeling higher self-esteem viewing less popular profiles and women feeling lower self-esteem viewing equally popular profiles in associative contexts. The study found social networking
This report is a study of the identity negotiations of young active Facebook users through their online significant others. The following research investigates the identity negotiations in the life of a Facebook user.
Week 4 Mini LectureThis week, you will be studying about the pot.docxcockekeshia
Week 4 Mini Lecture
This week, you will be studying about the potential psychological impact of social media. Specifically, you will be learning about persuasion and influence through advertisements and acts of violence on social media. The article below speaks, in a very “real world” way to the psychological impact of social media. I hope you enjoy it.
Enjoy this article by Hannah Schacter on Psychology in Action – Retrieved from https://www.psychologyinaction.org/psychology-in-action-1/2015/09/07/me-myselfie-and-i-the-psychological-impact-of-social-media-activity
Me, Myselfie, and I: The Psychological Impact of Social Media Activity
Not too long ago, I relentlessly teased my 21-year-old sister when she revealed her strategies for achieving maximal positive feedback on Facebook photos. There were timing basics—don’t post on Friday or Saturday nights because no one is checking. She also recommended sensitivity to time zones so as to avoid an entire coast being asleep when your picture is posted. There was even attention to Facebook’s sharing algorithms. Rather than posting and tagging other people in the photo simultaneously, it was wise to wait on the tagging. That way, once several hours had passed and the photo filtered into the depths of everyone’s news feeds, a new tag would prompt it to resurface front and center, in turn receiving a fresh wave of "likes". And wait, there's more--after almost 10 years on the site, she could even report back to me her most liked Facebook post ever. It all sounded…ridiculous. I chalked it all up to our (whopping) three-year age difference—kids these days and their all-consuming social media obsessions. Back when I was in college…
And then several months later I sent my sister the most shameful text message of all time (for the record, I was only allowed to publish Emily Schacter’s Facebook Strategy Tell-All under the condition that I owned up to my own social media low-point). One morning last month, I posted what I thought to be quite an entertaining picture on Facebook. But, to my surprise, twenty minutes passed by and I had zero likes on the photo. Forty minutes, still nothing. Maybe I accidentally posted it with extra privacy restrictions? Nope. An hour. And still, even my two most loyal Facebook like-ers (I’m looking at you, Mom and Dad) hadn’t given my picture some love. Desperation took over.
I had cracked, and in doing so I lost my privileges to ever mock Emily for her Facebook posting habits again. Why in the world did I care so much about an un-liked photo? Was it really a lack of likes, rather than the four hours a week I dedicate to watching Bachelor in Paradise, that I was concerned made me look like a loser? When and how did Facebook likes become such a valuable social currency? For better or for worse, I am hardly alone in my experience. Recent research has documented how technology, and social networking sites (SNS; e.g., Facebook, Instagram) in particular, have given rise to a grow.
Let's look at interesting research about facebook social media results
Facebook Psychology: Popular Questions Answered by Research
go deep in what is impact of use social media networks in our real life
This document summarizes a study that explored the level of social interaction among instructors at an online university in Pakistan, what factors influence it, and how it impacts workplace motivation and efficiency. The study found that social interaction was generally lower than at traditional universities due to large workloads, seating arrangements that discouraged interaction, and the attitudes of some managers. Instructors reported spending most free time on their computers rather than socially interacting. They believed increased opportunities for social activities like trips, conferences, and sports would improve motivation, work quality, and job satisfaction. The study provided insight into how online work cultures and extensive computer use can reduce socializing, and suggested ways to enhance interaction.
Welcome-to-Facebook-How-Facebook-influences-Parent-child-relationshipHazel Lee Weiyi
The document summarizes a study that examined how the use of Facebook influences the intimacy level in parent-child relationships. 17 parent-child pairs were interviewed separately. The study found that Facebook increased intimacy through mutual trust, reduced intergenerational gaps, equality in the relationship, and less policing by parents. Facebook allows for affectionate communication while reducing awkwardness. It also equalizes relationships by filtering out social status cues, allowing parents and children to interact as equals. Overall, the findings suggest that the Internet and Facebook can provide a positive means of communication between parents and children.
Guided Response Read the arguments presented by your classmates.docxaidaclewer
Guided Response
: Read the arguments presented by your classmates, and analyze the reasoning that they have presented. Whether you agree with their position or not, see if you can help them to improve their arguments. In particular, point out any respect in which a reasonable person might disagree with the truth of their premises or with the strength of their reasoning. Consider addressing the following questions: Did your classmate present a convincing argument? Why, or why not? Which part of the argument might someone dispute (e.g., premise, conclusion, structure, etc.)? How might the argument be strengthened? Make sure that your posts for the week include at least two substantive responses to classmates.
·
Demetria Parnell
Go To Topic
Does social media enhance or hinder interpersonal relationships?
Premise 1: Social media enhances interpersonal relationships.
Premise 2: Social media hinders interpersonal relationships.
Conclusion: Social media can
enhanced
and hinder interpersonal relationships.
Social media enhances interpersonal relationships by promoting increased interaction with family and friends. It has been reported that social media allows people to feel more connected to information about their friends’ lives. Social networking provides an outlet for communication for those who are timid. Social media provides the confidence that people need to form strong interpersonal relationships. People can express themselves in ways that are appropriate with communicating with others.
Everyday
people are using social media to promote their businesses or build relationships with others. Teachers are able to use social media to collaborate with students building a stronger relationship outside the classroom. Social media serves as a platform of empowering people to support one another and connect with those who share the same interest.
Social media hinders interpersonal relationships by allowing people to post inappropriate statuses or photos that can be very discouraging. Cyber-bullying is a great example of how social media hinders interpersonal relationships. The television show Catfish is also another example of social media hindering interpersonal relationships. Social media allows people to create fake names and lives and trick people into thinking they are someone they are not. Through social media, people are not able to display verbal communication and they lack listening skills. While using social media it can be easy to interpret a situation wrongly. Communicating online hinders the development of conflict management skills and awareness of interpersonal cues.
·
Sheryl Gobert
Go To Topic
Does social media enhance or hinder interpersonal relationships?
o
Premise 1 – Social media enhances interpersonal relationships
o
Premise 2 - Social media causes
hinders
interpersonal relationships
o
Conclusion – Social media conflicts hinder interpersonal relationships
Social media could be the tool that enhances inte ...
This document summarizes research on the relationships between Facebook use, social capital, and self-esteem in young adults. The study found that greater Facebook use was associated with increased bridging social capital over time. Additionally, those with lower self-esteem benefited more from Facebook use in building social capital and relationships compared to those with higher self-esteem. While Facebook may provide psychological benefits, more research is still needed on its impacts across different groups and cultures.
The document discusses the effects of social media on the academic performance of selected grade 9 students. It finds that students use social media mostly to keep in touch with people and to socialize. While social media helps with schoolwork like homework and projects, students who spend more than 3 hours on social media daily had lower academic performance. Facebook was the most visited site and students mostly used it for chatting and seeking information. While social media can positively impact schoolwork, excessive unrelated use is linked to lower grades. Managing social media use and prioritizing academics is recommended.
- Researchers investigated the relationship between Facebook usage and social skills, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, extraversion, and emotional stability in undergraduate students.
- They found that increased Facebook usage was correlated with impaired social skills and higher depressive symptoms, as well as lower self-esteem.
- Increased Facebook usage was also related to higher extraversion and lower emotional stability.
- The results suggest that excessive Facebook use could have negative impacts on well-being, and modifications to the platform may help reduce these effects, especially in younger people. Further research on other social media is warranted.
This document summarizes research on the relationships between Facebook use, social capital, and self-esteem in young adults. The study found that greater Facebook use was associated with increases in bridging social capital over time. Additionally, students with lower self-esteem benefited more from Facebook use in building social capital than those with higher self-esteem, who may face fewer challenges in forming casual relationships. However, more research is needed to understand social capital gains across different cultures and age groups.
This document outlines a workshop series aimed at educating college students on protecting their cyber reputation by discovering, creating, and maintaining a positive online presence through proper use of social media and awareness of the long term effects their digital footprint can have on academic and professional pursuits. The workshops cover finding one's online information, privacy settings on Facebook, creating a LinkedIn profile, and removing unwanted cyber content to help students understand and manage their cyber reputation.
Dependency on social media and its effects on users (literature review) - Pre...Dr. Fiza Zia Ul Hannan
< Justification of studying social media >
As a whole, media has become an essential element in modern life. In days to come, its role will expand with the expansion of technology. This is an age of advanced digital communication (Abid Hussain, 2019).
Post-modernism has given rise to non-face-to-face interaction, i.e. online engagement. With incorporation of social media in our lifestyles, we are heading towards another era beyond Post-modernism (especially since an outburst of COVID-19).
Mainstream media, i.e. television, newspaper, its utilization and effects on consumers have been a point of focus for researchers in their scholarly debates and are well documented since half century. New media, particularly social networking sites (SNS), is relatively a new discipline and is being explored through various dimensions since its emergence.
Dependency on social media and its effects on users (literature review) - Pre...
BrittanyFranz_ThesisProposal
1. Running head: FACEBOOK AND SOCIAL COMPARISON
What you don’t know can hurt you: Social comparison on Facebook
Research Thesis
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for graduation
with research distinction in Psychology in the undergraduate
colleges of The Ohio State University
by
Brittany C. Franz
The Ohio State University
April 2014
Project Advisor: Dr. Bradley M. Okdie, Department of Psychology
2. Facebook and Social Comparison
Abstract
Research indicates that people can be negatively affected by upward social comparisons. An
upward social comparison involves comparing oneself to the positive evaluation of an external
stimuli, that one perceives to be better in particular domains, and adjusting ones self-evaluation
based on that comparison (Kenrick, Neuberg, & Cialdini, 2010). Upward social comparisons
made online may exacerbate this effect owing to the increased avenues for selective self-
presentation that most online communication offers. That is, most online venues such as
Facebook allow people more opportunities to show the best side of themselves-flattering pictures
or positive status updates-than the opportunities available in face-to-face interactions. The
current study investigated whether an awareness of other’s ability to self-present online can
attenuate the negative effects of upward social comparisons made on Facebook. The current
study employed a 3 (Instruction type: Accurate vs. Inflated vs. Control) × 2 (Social Comparison:
Upward vs. Downward) between-participants design. Participants in the Inflated Instruction
condition, were informed that people self-present on Facebook while those in the Accurate
Instruction condition were informed that self-presentation on Facebook is unlikely. An additional
control condition did not include self-presentation information. Participants then rated a fictitious
Facebook profile intended to induce either an upward or downward social comparison. Personal
information—social relationships, monetary potential and intelligence—in the Facebook profiles
was manipulated to emphasize a positive or neutral profile to induce the intended social
comparison. After viewing the profile, all dependent measures including: state self-esteem,
perceived fairness of life, and evaluations of the target and the subject were assessed. We
hypothesized that participants aware that others are likely to self-present online will report
greater positivity about themselves on all dependent measures than participants who are
3. Facebook and Social Comparison
informed that self-presentation online is unlikely or who are given no information about online
self-presentation. We do not expect to find a significant difference between participants who
were informed that self-presentation is unlikely online and participants not given any self-
presentation information. Making an upward social comparison on Facebook can lead to
negative self-views in several domains including intelligence. The current study is one of the
first studies to experimentally manipulate social comparison processes on Facebook and
therefore shed light on how social comparison processes operate in online environments.
4. Facebook and Social Comparison
What you don’t know can hurt you: Social comparison on Facebook
Communicating with peers online has become increasingly prevalent. Over fifty percent
of people communicate with others online more often than face-to-face (Battishill, 2011) and the
majority of this communication occurs on social networking web sites, such as Facebook
(Lenhart, Purcell, Smith, & Zickuhr, 2010; Madden, 2010). Facebook, one of the largest social
networking sites, has over 720 million users—over ten percent of the global population
(Facebook, 2012)—that spend almost 60 minutes on Facebook per day (Facebook, 2010;
Hepburn, 2010). Given the rise in online communication, understanding how social comparison
processes online may differ from traditional face-to-face communication is paramount.
Research indicates that comparing the self to others can affect one’s self-esteem and
mood (Alicke & Zell, 2010; Gilbert, Giesler & Morris, 1995; Klien, 1997; Mussweiler, Ruter, &
Epstude, 2004). However, little research has experimentally investigated how this comparison
process may operate in online venues, such as Facebook, where opportunities for self-
presentation are increased. Due to the large number of users, extended amount of time each user
spends on Facebook, and the increased self-presentation options, social comparisons taking place
on these new media venues may operate differently compared to those occurring face-to-face.
New technologies, such as Facebook, may be particularly well suited for self-presentation as
they increase peoples’ ability to selectively self-present across multiple media modalities.
Selective self-presentation is the idea that people choose to show only positive qualities of their
lives. This can be done on Facebook through pictures, writing, and displayed preferences. As a
consequence of this selective self-presentation, Facebook users may have a greater likelihood to
5. Facebook and Social Comparison
make inaccurate evaluations about others, potentially causing inappropriate upward social
comparisons. The current study investigated whether an awareness of other’s opportunities for
self-presentation on Facebook attenuates the negative effects of upward social comparisons.
Social Comparison
People learn about themselves in a variety of ways, one way is for them to socially
compare themselves to others. This social comparison process can happen very quickly and often
subconsciously. Research has shown that a person’s self-esteem and perceived fairness of life is
affected when they make social comparisons (Alicke & Zell, 2010; Chou, 2012; Gilbert, Giesler
& Morris, 1995; Klien, 1997; Mussweiler, Ruter, & Epstude, 2004). A person’s self-evaluation
in certain domains is affected when they socially compare themselves to others (e.g., their
intelligence, monetary earnings and social relationships). Social comparisons involve comparing
oneself to the evaluation of an external stimuli and adjusting ones self-evaluation based on that
comparison (Kenrick, Neuberg, & Cialdini, 2010). People learn about themselves through social
comparison by comparing their talents, thoughts, actions, and beliefs with others (Kenrick et al.,
2010). People socially compare themselves to others with little cognitive effort or awareness.
Research has found that a social comparison can occur even when people recognize the
comparison is reasonably inaccurate (e.g. comparing a skill set that you have not been trained on
with someone who has been trained in the particular skill set); however, this inaccurate social
comparison was only found in people who were made cognitively busy (Gilbert, Giesler &
Morris, 1995). Due to the spontaneity and effortless nature of the social comparison process,
both upward and downward social comparisons often develop unnoticed (Gilbert et al., 1995).
An upward social comparison occurs when people compare themselves to others that they
perceive as better in particular comparison domains—often leading to negative feelings. A
6. Facebook and Social Comparison
downward social comparison occurs when people compare themselves to others that they
perceive as worse in particular comparison domains—often leading to positive feelings.
Downward social comparisons may occur as a form of self-enhancement leading to reductions in
stress and increases in self-esteem (Kenrick et al., 2010). The current study evaluated the extent
that a person’s self-esteem was affected by both an upward and a downward social comparison.
The social comparison effects can be more or less likely to occur depending on certain
qualities of the target and the subject. Researchers have found that the amount of similarities and
differences a person and a target share alters the social comparison process. For example, if a
person is made to focus on the similarities between themselves and the target, an assimilative
social comparison is more likely to occur. An assimilative social comparison involves evaluating
the external stimuli as being similar to oneself and basing the comparison and new evaluation of
the self on that similarity. Conversely, if a person is made to focus on the differences between
themselves and the target, a contrast social comparison is more likely to occur. A contrast social
comparison involves evaluating an external stimuli to be different than oneself and basing the
comparison and the new evaluation of the self based on those differences (Mussweiller, Ruter, &
Epstude, 2004). Researchers found that people prefer to compare their opinions and abilities with
people they find to be similar to themselves rather than dissimilar (Kenrick et al., 2010).
Therefore, women are more likely to compare themselves to other women then to other men. The
current study involved gender specific profiles to increase similarities and decrease differences
between the target and the subject to further aid the development of a social comparison.
The environment a person is in also affects the social comparison process. Researchers
found that high performing students at academically inferior schools evaluate themselves more
favorable than low performing students at academically superior schools (the frog-pond effect;
7. Facebook and Social Comparison
Alicke & Zell, 2010). Although the students may be doing the same work in each school, their
comparison group dictates how they view themselves and their work. While we have learned a
great deal from research examining social comparisons that occur face-to-face, relatively little
research has examined how these processes might operate online.
Online Communication
Prior research indicates that online communication can significantly affect evaluations by
peers (Donn & Sherman, 2002). For example, individuals report increased effort is necessary to
be fully understood by others online compared face-to-face interactions. It has been suggested
that the increased difficulty in being understood online compared to face-to-face is due to the
absence of nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, body language and, gestures. Without
nonverbal cues, the user has more difficulty communicating the mood of a message, getting
across an idea of individuality, of dominance or charisma (Donn et al., 2002). People who
communicate online sometimes report their interaction partner as more self-centered than those
who communicate face-to-face (Okdie, Guadagno, Bernieri, Geers & Mclarney-Vesotski, 2011).
Additionally, people may underestimate their overall contribution during online conversations.
However, in face-to-face interactions, where nonverbal cues are significantly more prevalent, the
person has more communication channels with which to express emotion. Thus, people report
increased oneness and liking for those with whom they communicate face-to-face compared to
online (Okdie et al, 2011). However, people reported having greater difficulty finding and
sustaining topics to discuss in face-to-face interactions than in online communication (Okdie et
al, 2011). Due to the lack of nonverbal cues, there is an increased level of control over the
information shared in online environments. Therefore, people may tend to share information that
presents them in a more flattering light than if those nonverbal cues were available. They may
8. Facebook and Social Comparison
choose to present only positive information about themselves or include only pictures of
themselves looking their best. This filtering of information may affect the way a person is
evaluated by forcing comparisons to be made using only the available information selected by
the interactants leading to potentially inaccurate social comparisons.
Online Social Comparison
The limited available research examining online social comparison suggests that it
operates similarly to face-to-face comparisons (Hafercamp, 2011; Klein, 1997; Gilbert et al.,
2011); however, there are some significant differences. One difference between online and
face-to-face social comparisons is the information on which people base their comparisons.
When engaging in a face-to-face social comparison, people utilize perceived information such as
facial expressions, body language, or environment. However, in the majority of online contexts
(i.e., text-based) the observer must rely on the limited information that is received from the
target. For example, when a person is viewing the online profile of someone they have never
met, they are only able to see the information selectively disclosed by the profile’s owner, such
as positive status updates and flattering pictures. In many cases, the observer must base their
social comparison on this limited set of information.
Past research indicates that when people socially compare themselves to others on
Facebook depressive symptoms can arise, but only when the person ruminates about the online
social comparison (Feinstein et al., 2013). The negative emotions resulting from upward social
comparisons can be attenuated when the comparison domain is deemed nondiagnostic (Gilbert,
Giesler & Morris 1995). Thus, although upward social comparisons can result in negative
emotions, the process can be undone and the emotions can dissipate. Seeing that it is possible to
undo the negative effects of social comparison, it is important to determine what type of situation
9. Facebook and Social Comparison
can cause the participant to regard the comparison as irrelevant. This depends on how the subject
regards the target and the information they are using to make the comparison. Due to the fact that
the current study used Facebook to induce upward and downward social comparisons, it is also
important to examine the different effects online social comparisons can have on people, how it
can potentially make them feel, and the possible repercussions of inducing inaccurate social
comparisons.
Self-presentation
Self-presentation is the process by which a person attempts to display a desired self
image to an observer (Kenrick, Neuberg & Cialdini, 2010). Self-presentation occurs daily owing
to its ease and is typically done in attempt to show the best aspects of one’s life; it is rarely done
in a malicious or deceitful manner (Kenrick et al., 2010).A person might engage in self-
presentation to obtain desired goals from another person (Kenrick et al., 2010). For example,
when interviewing for a desired job, the interviewee will spend much of the interview self-
presenting in an attempt to convince the interviewer that they deserve the position. This same
level of self-presentation is less likely to occur when a person meets an old friend for lunch.
Therefore, the social context may dictate the extent to which self-presentation occurs. Prior
research suggests that when people feel the need to engage in self-presentation, in order to obtain
a desired goal, they experience higher levels of anxiety than people driven by motivation-the
desire to perform well and receive the promised incentive (Geukes, Mesagno, Hanrahan, &
Kellmann, 2013). That is, people whose performance was evaluated based on self-presentation
abilities experienced more anxiety than those whose performance was based on the desire to
perform well. Furthermore, performance was significantly more negatively affected in people
who had a greater fear of negative evaluation (Geukes et al., 2013).
10. Facebook and Social Comparison
Self-esteem also plays a role in self-presentation tendencies. Researchers suggest that
people of all self-esteem levels participate in decisive self-presentation if attempting to
compensate for a negative self-image (Hermann & Arkin, 2013). However, people with low or
moderate self-esteem tend to exhibit self-protection in order to compensate for this negative self-
image; whereas, people with high self-esteem exhibit self-enhancement in order to compensate
for a negative self-image (Hermann et al., 2013).
There could be several variables that moderate effects of self-presentation and
comparison online, including gender, and amount of time spent on Facebook. For example, men
may self-present to appear dominant, resourceful and kind; whereas, women may self-present to
appear physically appealing (Guadagno, Okdie & Kruse, 2011). Moreover, men are more willing
than women to be deceptive in their self-presentation when they anticipate a romantic interaction
(Guadagno et al., 2011). The tendency to deceptively self-present is more likely to increase in
online contexts than in face-to-face interactions (Guadagno et al., 2011). Some online venues,
such as Facebook, create an environment highly conducive for self-presentation by affording
people the opportunity to control what aspects of their lives they share through a variety of media
modalities such as pictures, posts, pages liked, and locations visited. This selective self-
presentation can affect social comparison processes by potentially resulting in an inaccurate
evaluation of another’s life which can induce an unnecessary upward social comparison and
therefore potentially create unwarranted negative thoughts or feelings. Past research indicates
that chronic Facebook use may lead to feelings that life is unfair and that others are happier
(Chou & Edge, 2012). The current study could potential explain this finding and provide a way
to negate these negative emotions.
Current Study
11. Facebook and Social Comparison
Little research examined the affect online self-presentation has on the social comparison
process. The current study investigated if the awareness of others self-presentation opportunities
affects how people evaluate and compare themselves to others. We anticipate that participants
aware of others ability to self-present on Facebook (Inflated Instruction condition) will be
significantly less affected by the induced social comparison than the participants given no
information of the self-presentation tendencies of others (No Instruction condition). Moreover,
we expect that participants viewing a Facebook profile designed to induce an upward social
comparison will report more negativity on the dependent measures compared to participants in
the downward social comparison condition. Finally, we anticipate that participants who are told
that individuals are unlikely to self-present on Facebook (Accurate Instruction condition) who
made upward social comparisons will report significantly more negativity on the dependent
measures compared to participants in the Inflated and No Instruction conditions who made
upward social comparisons (See Figure 1). We do not expect to find a significant difference
between genders in the social comparison process. Research indicated that both genders
participate in social comparison in similar ways. We chose to include gender specific profiles to
increase similarity between the participant and the target making social comparison more likely
to occur.
Figure 1. Predicted Results by Condition
12. Facebook and Social Comparison
Figure 1.
Method
Participants
Two hundred and fifty-one students (108 males and 143 females) from Ohio State
University Newark campus enrolled in Psychology 1100 participated for partial course credit.
Participants’ age ranged from 18-45, with a mean age of 19 (SD = 3.33). Participant’s ethnicity
was self-reported: 100 were Caucasian, 10 were African American, and 15 identified as Other.
Participants were removed from the analyses if they stated information that was not consistent
with the study, indicating the participant did not understand the study.
Design
This study employed a 2 (Social Comparison: upward vs. downward) ×3 (Instruction
Type: inflated vs. accurate vs. control) between-participants design.
Procedure
Upon arrival into the lab participants were presented with a series of questionnaires that
measured how frequently and intensely they view Facebook, how similar their online and offline
selves are, the amount they compare themselves to others and the extent to which they use
Facebook to make these comparisons. For example, to what extent do you agree with the
13. Facebook and Social Comparison
following statements: “I always pay a lot of attention to how I do things compared to how others
do things,” “I have tried to cut down on the use of Facebook without success,” “Facebook is part
of my everyday activity” and “I use Facebook to determine whether I am different than others.”
In order to hide the true intentions of the study from the participants, we employed a
cover story. Our cover story informed participants that they would review and rate a Facebook
profile, and that their ratings would be compared with the target’s friend’s ratings to determine if
strangers are able to obtain accurate evaluations of a person’s personality and quality of life
through Facebook. Moreover, participants were informed that people with certain characteristics
are more accurate judges of personality than others. This was done to provide a reason for why
participants were asked to report their personality characteristics and to ensure participants
reviewed the profile in detail.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three instruction conditions: Inflated,
Accurate, and Control. Each instruction condition informed the participant about self-
presentation tendencies online. In the Inflated Instruction condition, participants were informed
that people self-present online and that Facebook is an inaccurate measure of someone’s life. In
the Accurate Instruction condition, participants were informed people do not self-present online
and that Facebook is an accurate measure of someone’s life. Participants in the control condition
were given no information on self-presentation (See Appendix A for full instructions).
Participants were randomly assigned to view one of four gender congruent fictitious
Facebook profiles designed to induce an upward or downward social comparison. Each profile
varied on how successful the target of the profile was on three domains: social relationships,
intelligence and monetary potential. These three domains were manipulated in the “about me”
section only of the fictitious Facebook profile to limit the introduction of confounds and error
14. Facebook and Social Comparison
variance. Those in the Upward Social Comparison condition viewed a profile in which the
target was in committed relationship for an extended period of time and showed a listing of
multiple successful relationships with family members (i.e., successful relationships).
Additionally, the target was an engineering major, attending Harvard University and interning
with an efficient engineering company in Massachusetts (i.e., high intelligence and high
monetary potential). The target also had quotes from a variety of scholarly authors and expressed
great interest in each author (i.e., high intelligence).
Those in the Downward Social Comparison condition viewed a Facebook profile with a
target that had been single for an extended period of time and showed no listings of successful
relationships with family members (i.e., unsuccessful relationships). The profile indicated that
the target was majoring in Hotel and Restaurant Management, attending Penn State and working
at McDonalds (i.e., low intelligence and low earning potential). The target also had a variety of
popular culture quotes listed (i.e., low intelligence).
After viewing the assigned Facebook profiles, participants completed a series of
questionnaires designed to assess the extent to which the induced social comparison affected
participants in the various domains of interest. .
Measures
Self and target evaluations. This author-generated questionnaire assessed the extent to
which the participants felt regarding the domains manipulated in the Facebook profiles in
reference to themselves and the target. The questionnaire included objective and subjective
questions with both scale and open-ended responses. In regards to success in social relationships,
we asked participants about their success in maintaining committed relationships, now and in the
future, and the amount of dates they have been on in the past five years. A sample item reads,
15. Facebook and Social Comparison
“How successful have you been in maintaining friendships in the past?” Regarding monetary
potential, we asked participants the number of people employed after graduation in their chosen
field, starting and peak salary in their chosen field, the amount of money participant’s currently
make and how much they think they will make once they graduate. A sample item reads, “How
much money do you think that you will earn once you graduate from college?” Regarding
intelligence, we asked participants about their performance in school now and in the future,
received number of A’s and how intelligent they found themselves to be.
State self-esteem scale (Heatherton, 1991). The state self-esteem questionnaire was
designed to assess state self-esteem, α = .41. A sample item reads, “I feel confident about my
abilities.” Further questions were asked referencing performance, social and appearance self-
esteem. The scale contains 20 items on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5
(extremely). Higher scores on this scale indicate higher state self-esteem.
Perceived fairness of life (Chou et al. 2012). This questionnaire contained questions
regarding the perceived fairness of the participant’s life and the lives of his/her peers, α=.45. A
sample item reads, “Many of my friends are happier than me.” Further questions were asked
regarding how fair the participant felt their life was and the extent to which their friends had
better lives than they did. The scale contains 3 items rated on a 10-point scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree).
Results
Data was analyzed using a series of 2 (Social Comparison: upward vs. downward) × 3
(Instruction Type: accurate vs. inflated vs. control) between subjects factorial ANOVAs.
Self-esteem
16. Facebook and Social Comparison
The ANOVA revealed a main effect of comparison type on self-esteem F(1,269) = 3.26,
p = .07, ηp
2
= .01. Specifically, participants in the Upward Social Comparison condition reported
significantly lower self-esteem (M = 17.75, SD = 2.21) than those in the Downward Social
Comparison condition (M = 18.25, SD = 18.252.38). No other significant effects emerged, p’s
> .05.
Additionally, a main effect was found regarding the participant’s perceived fairness of
life F(1,269) = 5.01, p = .02, ηp
2
= .01. That is, participants in the Upward Social Comparison
condition (M = 4.85, SD = 2.43) reported that their friends were happier than them compared to
those in the Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 4.21, SD = 2.26). No other significant
effects emerged, p’s > .05.
Intelligence
An ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of comparison type for reported
intelligence F(1,269) = 17.75, p < .001, ηp
2
= .06. Those in the Upward Social Comparison
condition reported lower levels of intelligence (M = 4.43, SD = 1.54) than participants in the
Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 5.10, SD = 1.03). No other significant effects
emerged, p’s > .05.
I found a main effect of comparison type on academic performance, F(1,269) = 29.05, p
< .001, η2 = .09. Specifically, participants in the Upward Social Comparison condition reported
lower levels of school performance (M = 4.38, SD = 1.33) than participants in the Downward
Social Comparison condition (M = 5.20, SD = 1.17). Regarding the amount of A’s received –
grades between 100% and 90%- at end of term report by participants, there was a significant
main effect of comparison type F(1,245) = 26.81, p < .001, η2 = .09. Specifically, participants in
the Upward Social Comparison condition (M = 3.84, SD = 1.44) reported receiving less A’s than
17. Facebook and Social Comparison
those in the Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 4.66, SD = 1.48). We also found a
main effect of comparison type when participants were asked about future performance in school
F(1,269) = 27.27 p < .001, η2 = .09. Specifically, participants in the Upward Social Comparison
condition reported worse future academic performance (M = 4.78, SD = 1.40) than people in the
Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 5.56, SD = 1.15).
Monetary Potential
An ANOVA revealed a main effect of comparison type when participants were asked
about monetary earnings after college graduation F(1,269) = 35.70, p < .001, η2 = .11.
Specifically, participants in the Upward Social Comparison condition (M = 4.54, SD = 1.39) felt
they would make less money once completing college than those in the Downward Social
Comparison condition (M = 5.46, SD = 1.12). Regarding current monetary earnings, we also
found a main effect of social comparison, F(1,269) = 12.80, p < .001, η2 = .04. That is,
participants in the Upward Social Comparison condition reported lower current earnings (M =
2.97, SD = 1.62) than people in the Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 3.71, SD =
1.80). Regarding future peak salary, we found a main effect of social comparison F(1,269) =
31.29, p < .001, η2 = .10. This suggests that participants in the Upward Social Comparison
condition reported lower peak salaries after graduation condition (M = 4.69, SD = 1.40) than
those in the Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 5.59, SD = 1.22).
Social Relationships
The ANOVA revealed a main effect of comparison type when participants were asked
about the success of their committed relationships, F(1,269) = 6.92, p = .009, η2 = .02.
Participants in the Upward Social Comparison condition (M = 4.49, SD = 1.74) reported less
success in past committed relationships than those in the Downward Social Comparison
18. Facebook and Social Comparison
condition (M= 5.03, SD = 1.68). When participants were asked about success at maintaining past
committed relationships, we found a main effect of comparison type F(1,269) = 9.79, p = .002,
η2 = .03. This suggests that participants in the Upward Social Comparison condition reported
lower success at maintaining committed relationships (M = 5.11., SD = 5.12) than participants in
the Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 5.63, SD = 5.64). When questioned about the
amount of dates the participant had been on in the past, we found a main effect of comparison
type F(1,269) = 4.00, p = .04, η2 = .01. This finding suggests that participants in the Upward
Social Comparison condition reported having been on less dates (M = 3.58, SD = 1.86) than
those in the Downward Social Comparison condition (M = 4.04, SD = 1.92).
Discussion
We had hoped to find that people making an Upward Social Comparison would feel
significantly worse than people making a Downward Social Comparison when viewing the
fictitious profiles. We also hoped to find that participants told that people do not self-present on
Facebook would be significantly less affected by the induced social comparison than people not
given any information regarding self-presentation tendencies online. Finally, we hoped to find
that people told that self-presentation does not occur on Facebook and were viewing the profile
designed to induce an Upward Social Comparison would report feeling significantly worse about
their lives than people told self-presentation does occur online or participants not given any
information regarding self-presentation tendencies online and who viewed the profile designed to
induce an Upward Social Comparison.
Our hypotheses were partially supported. We found that people do socially compare
themselves to others online similarly to face-to-face interactions. Our results suggest that simply
looking at a Facebook profile for a short period of time can lead to negative perceptions in
19. Facebook and Social Comparison
domains of educational, employment, and relationship success. Our participants spent very little
time evaluating our fictitious profiles and the domains that we manipulated. However, even with
such limited exposure, we found significant negative effects regarding their perceived
intelligence, future and current monetary potential and relationship success. Since all of our
participants were randomly assigned into our conditions, this suggests that this effect was due to
the induced social comparison. The items we view on Facebook could negatively alter the way
we view ourselves and negatively affect our future actions.
Implications
These results may have negative impacts on people using social networking sites like
Facebook. For example, if the viewer observes the profile before an important life event (e.g.,
job interview or examination) and an upward social comparison is made during this short
observation, the viewer may feel less competent in certain domains and may therefore result in a
negative performance in the job interview or examination. This could potentially occur in a
similar way if the person views a Facebook profile and a downward social comparison is made.
The viewer may feel more competent in certain domains and perform better in the job interview
or examination.
This study was could shed light on the notion that high Facebook users tend to feel worse
about their lives than low Facebook users. If people are spending extended amounts of time on
Facebook and continuously making Upward Social Comparisons, the more time a person spent
on Facebook making these Upward Social Comparisons the worse they would feel about their
lives. This study was also one of the first studies to include online social comparison
manipulation.
20. Facebook and Social Comparison
Our results suggest that awareness of others self-presentation tendencies online does not
attenuate online social comparison effects. There are several potential reasons why our self-
presentation manipulation instructions did not have the desired effect. One possible reason is that
our instructions were not convincing enough for our participants, and so they felt no adjustment
was necessary. Another possible reason could be that our participants could not make the
appropriate adjustment because of the strength of the comparison manipulation (upward versus
downward). It could be that participants were paying more attention to the social comparison and
less attention to the self-presentation tendencies of others. The areas we manipulated in the
Facebook profile were highly prevalent to most college students; perhaps we made the social
comparison manipulation too prevalent and the self-presentation tendencies not prevalent
enough. A third possible reason could be that there was too much emphasis placed on the cover
story that our participants viewed before our instructions. Our cover story emphasized the
importance of looking over the Facebook profile in detail; it told participants that questions at the
end would refer back to the profile and require them to recall different facts from the profile
itself. It is possible we put too much emphasis on the cover story and making sure that they
viewed the Facebook profile in depth. Participants may have been more concerned with
remembering different aspects of the Facebook profile that they did not keep in mind the self-
presentation information while they filled out the questionnaires. They may have been more
focused on the cover story information and deemed the self-presentation information as less
important.
Limitations and Future Research
The current study had some limitations. Like most psychological research, our
participants were limited to undergraduate psychology students limiting generalizability. That
21. Facebook and Social Comparison
said, individuals of these age ranges are likely to be some of the most active users of
technologies like Facebook. Additionally, the study may have lacked ecological validity in that
participants did not actually go on Facebook and interact with real profiles. Instead participants
viewed a static profile. Another limitation to consider is our control condition. Participants in
both the Inflated Instruction condition and the Accurate Instruction condition read a paragraph
discussing the self-presentation tendencies of others online; however, our control condition did
not receive any self-presentation information, causing our control condition to be fundamentally
different that our other conditions. This lack of consistency across all conditions may have
affected the outcome of our results.
Due to the limitations of this study, future studies could examine ecological validity, our
moderator variables, control condition or gender differences. Future research should involve
participants actually interacting with live Facebook pages that are owned by real individuals.
Participants could then make comparisons throughout the entire profile (e.g., pictures, posts)
rather than solely focusing on the about me section. Moreover, future studies could further
investigate our moderator variables. One could examine the effects Facebook intensity and
Facebook addiction may have on a person and how it affects their social comparison process and
understanding of self-presentation. For example, the extent to which a person is likely to socially
compare themselves to others may impact the magnitude of social comparison effects. One could
also consider creating a control condition where participants read information regarding a neutral
view on self-presentation tendencies online, as to keep all conditions consistent in amount of
information received and read. Additionally, future research should investigate the role of gender
in online social comparison. Men and women may engage in online social comparison in
different ways.
22. Facebook and Social Comparison
Conclusion
The results from this study add to research indicating that high Facebook users feel
worse about their lives than low Facebook users, because they are using the availability heuristic;
this heuristic states that high level Facebook users are basing judgments on examples most easily
recalled to them (Chou et al.,2012). People that are on Facebook extensively are likely to recall
information they view on Facebook more readily than those who do not use Facebook as much.
If this information is an inaccurate measure of the person’s life, it could create inaccurate
judgments of others. The current study would also further explain the idea of correspondence
bias. This idea states that Facebook users tend to connect positive information found on
Facebook to the target’s personality instead of to situational factors (Chou et al., 2012). Since
people are associating these positive life events to the target’s personality, and not to
coincidental situational factors, an upward social comparison is more likely to be made, and, in
turn, result in negative emotions. If these positive life events are a result of self-presentation,
attaching them to the target’s personality is inappropriate, causing the social comparison and
following negative emotions to be inappropriate, as well. If a person uses Facebook highly
intensely, these negative emotions could arise extremely frequently and affect the user’s life
negatively on a regular basis. It could negatively change the way they view themselves on
Facebook, the way they view the real world and their role in it.
23. Social Comparison on Facebook
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26. Social Comparison on Facebook
Appendix A
The Inflated instructions (115 words): Despite what you may have heard, recent studies have
indicated that social networking profiles such as Facebook are not accurate representations of
individuals. That is, you are unlikely to get an accurate sense of who an individual is by
examining the information presented on their Facebook profile. Dr. Greene and his colleagues
(2013) conducted a research study that examined whether or not the profiles of random Facebook
users could be used to accurately identify the personality characteristics of their owners and
represent a true sense of the quality of their life. Results confirmed that Facebook profiles are an
inaccurate measure of someone’s personality and are a poor measure of the quality of life
individuals lead.
The Accurate Instructions (112 words): Despite what you may have heard, recent studies have
indicated that social networking profiles such as Facebook are accurate representations of
individuals. That is, you can get an accurate sense of who an individual is by examining the
information presented on their Facebook profile. Dr. Green and his colleagues (2013) conducted
a research study that examined whether or not the profiles of random Facebook users could be
used to accurately identify the personality characteristics of their owners and represent a true
sense of the quality of their life. Results confirmed that Facebook profiles are an accurate
measure of someone’s personality and are a good measure of the quality of life individuals lead
The two instructions describing self-presentation tendencies were kept as similar as possible,
with only changing a few minor words. This was done to keep consistency across the two
conditions, in hopes that if significance was found it would be due to participants making
adjustments for the Facebook profiles and not due to the persuasion of one instruction condition
over the other.